市场营销策略论文中英文资料对照外文翻译
企业市场营销外文文献——中文译文
Science and technology enterprises Marketing StrategyABSTRACTWith the coming of knowledge—based economy,higll＆new-tech enterprises play an increasingly strategic role in national economy，and also make great contribute to providing advanced products and services，promoting technical progress，enlarging employment and developing the national economic competitive power．But while they make a SUCCESS upon advanced technology and hi-tech products，they usually put too much emphasis oll technology advantages,accordingly neglect the research and applications of marketing strategy and management，and then caused the Marketing Myopia resulting in passiveness evefl defeat to the management．So how to exercise modem marketing theories,research and constitute marketing strategy and policy of lIigh&new-tech enterprises，and provide necessary theory base and suppoaing to the marketing problems of hiigh＆new—tech enterprises，has some reality significance and generalize application value to promote continuance,healthy and rapidly development ofhigh&new—tech enterprises．KEYWORDS：high＆new-tech enterprise，marketing strategy,technical marketing，innovation ofmarketing theoriesFirst, the science and technology enterprise marketing strategyMarketing strategy is the enterprise under the guidance of the marketing concept ，the application of modern management methods , for a period of time , the development of the overall business marketing ideas and planning。
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译Marketing StrategyMarket Segmentation and Target StrategyA market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets.Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-marketstrategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency.The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiplesegment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, acompany still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entailsselecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment.Positioning the ProductManagement's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products.Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:1.Positioning in Relation to a competitorFor some products,the best position is directly against the competition.This strategy is especially suitable for a firm that already has a solid differential advantage or is trying to solidify such an advantage.To fend off rival markers of microprocessors,Intelunched a campaign to convince buyers that its product is superior to competitors.The company even paid computer makers to include the slogan,"Intel Inside" in their ads.As the market leader,Coca-Cola introduces new products and executes its marketing strategies.At the same time,it keeps an eye on Pepsi-Cola,being sure to match anyclever,effective marketing moves made by its primary competitor.2.Positioning in Relation to a Product Class or AttributeSometimes a company's positioning strategy entails associating its product with or distancing it from a product class or attributes.Some companies try to place their products in a desirable class,such as"Madein the USA."In the words of one consultant,"There is a strong emotional appeal when you say,'Made in the USA'".Thus a small sportswear manufacturer,Boston Preparatory Co.is using this positioning strategy to seek an edge over large competitors such as Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger,which don't produce all of their products in the U.S..3.Positioning by Price and QualityCertain producer and retailers are known for their high-quality products and high prices.In the retailing field,Sake Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus are positioned at one end of the price-qualitycontinuum.Discount stores such as Target and Kmart are at theother.We're not saying,however,that discounters ignore quality;rather, they stress low prices.Penney's tired―and for the most part succeeded in―repositioning its stores on the price-quality continuum by upgrading apparel lines and stressing designer names.The word brands is comprehensive;it encompasses other narrowerterms.A brand is a name and/or mark intended to identify the product of one seller or group of sellers and differentiate the product from competing products.A brand name consists of words,letters,and/or numbers that can be vocalized.A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of a symbol, design,or distinctive color or lettering.A brand mark isrecognized buy sight bu cannot be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.Crest,Coors,and rider for Ralph Lauren's Polo Brand.Green Giant canned and frozen vegetable products and Arm&Hammer baking soda are both brand names and brand marks.A trademark is a brand that has been adopted by a seller and given legal protection.A trademark includes not just the brand mark,as many people believe,but also the brand name.The Lanham Act of 1946 permits firms to register trademarks with the federal government to protect them from use or misuse by other companies.The Trademark Law RevisionAct,which took effect in 1989,is tended to strengthen the the registration system to the benefit of U.S. Firms.For sellers,brands can be promoted.They are easily recognized when displayed in a store or included in advertising.Branding reduces price comparisons.Because brands are another factor that needs to be considered in comparing different products,branding reduces the likelihood of purchase decision based solely on price.The reputation of a brand alsoinfluences customer loyalty among buyers of services as well as customer goods.Finally,branding can differentiate commodities Sunkist oranges,Morton salt,and Domino sugar,for example .PricingPricing is a dynamic process,Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their products.They change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different customers and situations.Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes through itslife cycle.Marketers face important choice when they select new product pricing strategies.The company can decide on one of several price-quality strategies for introducing an imitative product.In pricing innovative products,it can practice market-skimming pricing by initially setting high prices to"skim"the imum amount of revenue from various segments of the market.Or it can use market penetration pricing by setting a low initial price to win a large market share.Companies apply a variety of price-adjustment strategies to account for differences in consumer segments and situations.One is discount and allowance pricing,whereby the company decides on quantity,functional,or seasonal discounts,or varying types of allowances. A second strategy is segmented pricing, where the company sellers a product at two or more prices to allow for differences in customers, products, or locations. Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisions,and use psychological pricing to communicate about the product's quality or value.In promotional pricing,companies temporarily sell their product bellow list price as a special-event to draw more customers,sometimes even selling below cost.With value pricing, the company offers just the night combination of quality and good service at a fair price. Another approach is geographical pricing, whereby the company decides how to price distant customers, choosing fromalternative as FOB pricing,uniform delivered pricing, zone pricing, basing-point pricing, and freight-absorption pricing. Finally,international pricing means that the company adjusts its price to meet different world markets.Distribution ChannelsMost producers use intermediaries to bring their products to market.They try to forge a distribution channel―a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of marking a product or service available for use or consumption by the consumers or business user.Why do producers give some of the selling job tointermediaries?After all,doing so means giving up some control over how and to whom the products are sold.The use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in marking goods available to targetmarkets.Through their contacts, experience, specialization, and scales of operation,intermediaries usually offer the firm move value than it can achieve on its own efforts.A distribution channel moves goods from producers to customers.Itovercomes the major time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who would use them. Members of the marketing channel perform many functions. Some help to complete transactions:rmation.2.Promotion.3.Contact:finding and communicating with prospective buyers.4.Matching:fitting the offer to the buyer's needs, including such activities as manufacturing and packaging.5.Negotiation:reaching an agreement on price and other terms of the offer so that ownership or possession can be transferred.Other help to fulfill the completed transferred.1.Transporting and storing goods.2.Financing.3.Risk taking:assuming the risk of carrying out the channel work.The question is not whether these functions need to be performed, but rather who is to perform them. All the functions have three things in common:They use up scarce resource, they often can be performed better through specialization, and they can be shifted among channel members.To the extent that the manufacturer performs these functions, its costs go up and its prices have to be higher. At the same time, when some of these functions are shifted to intermediaries, the producer's costs and prices may be lower, but the intermediaries must charge more to cover the costsof their work. In dividing the work of the channel, the various functions should be assigned to the channel members who can perform them most efficiently and effectively to provide satisfactory assortments of goods to target consumers.Distribution channels can be described by the number of channellevels involved. Each layer of marketing intermediaries that performs some work in brining the product and its ownership closer to the final buyer is a channel level. Because the producer and the final consumer both perform some work, they are part of every channel.When selecting intermediaries, the company should determine what characteristics distinguish the better ones. It will want to evaluate the the channel member's years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit record, co-operativeness, and reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, the company will want to evaluate the number and character of the other lines carried, and the size andquality of the sales force. If the intermediary is a retail store that wants exclusive or selective distribution, the company will want to evaluate the store's customers, location, and future growth potential.Understanding the nature of distribution channels is important, as choosing among distribution channels is one of the most challenging decisions facing the firm. Marketing intermediaries are used because they provide greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets.The key distribution channel function is moving goods from producers to consumers by helping to complete transactions and fulfill the completed transaction. Distribution channels can be described by the number of channel levels, which can include no intermediaries in adirect channel, or one to several intermediaries in indirect channels.PromotionPromotion is one of the four major elements of the company's marketing mix. The main promotion tools――advertising, sales promotion, public relations, and personal selling――work together to achieve the company'scommunications objectives.People at all levels of the organization must be aware of the many legal and ethical issues surrounding marketing communications. Much work is required to produce socially responsible marketing communicating in advertising, personal selling, and direct selling. Companies must work hard and proactively at communicating openly, honestly, and agreeably with their customers and resellers.市场营销策略一、市场细分和目标市场策略具有需求，具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。
毕业论文市场营销外文文献翻译
Relatiｏｎship marketing and serｖice ｍarketing: ｃonverｇeｎc ｅpoint of Ｃultｕre Ｄｅｐaｒtmeｎｔoｆvalue creatｉｏｎAＢSTRACTUsiｎg the rｅｌatioｎshiｐparadiｇm aｓａtheoretｉｃal framｅｗｏrｋ， a m ａｎageｍent ｍｏdel for cｕltｕraｌserviｃes (reｌationship markeｔing of ｃuｌtｕral oｒｇanizatｉoｎs)ｉs ｐｒoposed,whａt is aｎuｎprecedeｎteｄcontｒｉbｕtion in ｔhe marｋeting fiｅｌd. Ｂy ｃｏｍbinｉngｔｗo cｏnvergent peｒspectives–aｓrelatｉoｎshiｐmarｋeting anｄｓeｒｖices marketiｎg–,the mod ｅｌiｓstrucｔureｄoｎthe basis of ｔｗo ｌaｒgｅtyｐeｓof relａtionshiｐs in the maｎagemeｎt of a cｕltｕｒａｌｏｒganｉzatiｏn：ｉｎstruｍenｔal relation ｓhips and grｏup reｌatｉonshipｓ．The papｅr is aｎｉn－depｔhｓｔuｄy of re ｌationships regａｒdiｎg ｐｅrformｉng artsａｕｄiｅnｃｅ. A theoretical/eｍpirica ｌａpｐｒoach ｗaｓapplｉed, inclｕding face to facｅintervｉews tｏ100５pｅrforｍiｎg arts coｎsｕｍers anｄteｌephone intｅｒvｉｅwｓtoａsamｐle of 2005 ｉndividｕａｌs ｉn Spaｉｎ.Keywords: Ｃultural marketinｇerfｏrmiｎg ａrts ｓerviｃes relationship ｍa ｒketing1. ＩNTRＯDUCＴION:The moｓｔreｃeｎｔliｔeｒａturｅon marketinｇmａｎagemｅnt ｉｓdeｍonｓtratiｎg ａｒevoｌutioｎａｒy change ｉｎｂｏtｈform ａｎd ｃｏｎtent，which, undｏubteｄly，will resｕｌｔiｎsevｅral rｅsｅarｃh prｏjecｔs in th ｅｓhoｒt ｔerｍaｉmed at sheddiｎg ｓｏｍｅｌight on this dilemma．Tradit ｉoｎaｌmａnａgemeｎtｍodels and parａdｉｇms do ｎｏｔadapt to tｈe reｑuiｒeｍentｓｏf nｅｗproducts, aｓtｈere aｒeｍｏre ａnd morｅexｃepｔｉons ａnd questioｎs ｏｎｔｈｅmｏdels ｄｅveｌｏped ｓｏfar (Ｌｏｖｅlｏck and Gumｍessｏn, ２0０４; VarｇｏanｄＬuｓh, 2０0４）. Inｔhis coｍpｌexcontexｔ，tｈis ｐapeｒaimｓｔo ｍａke an ｉn-dｅpth study of thｅｆield oｆcｕlｔurａl serviｃes managemenｔby uｓing ｔｗo ｃｏｎcurrｅnt ｐerspecｔiｖe ｓ–rｅｌａtｉoｎship markｅtｉｎｇand seｒｖiｃes mａrｋeting–,iｎorder to ｃｏntribute ｔo the develoｐmeｎｔoｆthe neｗmarketing ｄｏｍain：cultuｒal markｅｔing （Kotｌeｒ, 200５). Tｈis iｓa field sｔill in iｔs deｖｅloｐment phaｓe,but hａs probabｌy ｆoｕnｄ, wｉth theseｎeｗｔｒenｄs, the riｇht mｏment to grow aｎd develoｐmaｎaｇemeｎt stｒuｃｔureｓanｄmodelｓｔhaｔmeet iｔsｐarticuｌaｒrｅquirements.Fｒｏｍthe veｒy bｅginniｎg, cｏntrｉbuｔｉons mａde tｏthe cuｌｔｕral ｓector bｙｔｈe marketing discｉpｌine hａｖｅbeeｎvｅry dｉverｓｅ. Hｏｗever，althoｕgh theｙseｅm toｈａve come tｏa ｃoｎsｅnｓus in ｔhe scientific worlｄabｏut thｅｉｄeａtｈat thｅｍanagｅmenｔoｆcuｌtural identiｔies pｒｅｓents sｕch special chａｒａctｅristｉcs that ｍａke itｃonsｉderａblyｄifferent (V osｓand Vｏss, 200０；Colbeｒｔ，2０01; Johnson and Ｇａrbａrino, 2０01; Arts Ｃounｃil of Eｎgland, ２０03; Ｋｏtler and Scｈeff, 199７). Conｔrｉbutiｏns from the ｍａrkｅｔｉng mａnagｅment area ｓtill dｏnot suffice tｏｃonｓtrucｔａknowlｅdge basｅthａｔiｓｓolid enougｈto creaｔe a tｈeoｒeｔｉcal maｎａgement frａmework simiｌarｔo thｅoｎｅother diｓciplines with morｅｔra ｄitｉon in ｍａrketinｇrｅsearch have.Ｉn tｈis cｏｎtext,ｉｔis stａted thａt ｔhe ｒelationshｉp marｋetｉｎg pａradｉgm offeｒs a sｕitａbｌeｆramewoｒk foｒtｈe implemeｎtation oｆculturaｌｍａnａgeｍent anｄthiｓresｅarch stuｄｙhａs ｆｏcｕsed on the performing aｒts services sectｏｒ, ａｓcｏｎsｉdering tｈat iｔｉｓonｅof ｔhe mosｔforgotteｎsectoｒｓby scｉｅntific ｒeseａｒｃｈｅrs oｆｍanagemeｎｔ．Fｕrtｈｅrｍore, the decｒeasiｎg consumption of thｉs ａrt forｍｉn Eurｏpｅgoeｓａｇaｉnsｔthｅtrｅnd if ｔaking inｔo acｃount tｈat tiｍe and mｏney iｎｖesteｄin ｌeiｓuｒe acｔivitiｅs hａs not stoｐpｅd ｇｒoｗiｎg ｗith cｏuｎtriｅs’ecoｎoｍic development. In view ofｔｈiｓsｉtuation, qｕestions ａs ｆｏllowing ａｒe rｅｑuirｅd: whaｔiｓｔｈｅreasｏn foｒthiｓlosｓof compｅtitｉve advantaｇe?, what is beinｇdone wrｏng to be lｏsing impact ｉn ａｍaｒkｅｔ,ｗhicｈ，in ｔheory, ｉs becoｍing more ａnd morｅｉｎclｉｎed to coｎsumｅlｅisuｒe ａctivｉtiｅｓ, ｓuch as tｈｅpｅrｆorming aｒts?,ｗhich ａgｅntｓaｒe ｒｅspｏnsible for thｅreｓuｌts?, which ａｇeｎts ａre afｆected by tｈe resuｌｔs?，what can bｅdonｅto improve this? These quｅstions are the basis forｃaｒrｙinｇoｕｔthis reseａrｃh studｙ.2.RELAＴIＯＮSHＩP MARKＥTIＮＧ，SERVICES MＡＲKＥTINＧANＤCUＬＴURＡL MARKETING AＳTＨＲEE ＣONVERGEＮＴＰERSPＥCＴIVE Ｓ：Reｌａtionｓhipｍarｋetinｇhas bｅcｏme oｎｅof the moｓt important cｏntributions in thｅdevelｏpｍeｎt ofｍoderｎmａｒｋetｉnｇscienｃｅ(Payne anｄHolt, 2001),anｄit has geｎeｒateｄ a reｃoｇniｓed intｅrest ｉn thｅfielｄｏf ｓcｉeｎtific researｃｈ．What is mｏre, iｎｔhｅｏｐｉnion of nuｍｅrｏｕｓaｕｔhors，iｔhａs eveｎbeeｎｓeｅn aｓa neｗparaｄigｍ(G ｕmmｅsｓｏn, 1９99；Peｃｋet al.，1999;Websｔer, 19９２;Sheth aｎd Ｐarvatｉyａｒ, 20０0; Kｏthandaｒaman ａｎd Wｉｌson, 200０).Wｉth ｔhe ｃｏnｃｅpｔby Gummesson (200２)on “relatioｎsｈｉp marketi ｎg is interactioｎｓinｎetworks of reｌatioｎshｉpｓ”ａs ａstａrting pｏiｎt,ｔｈe ｍaｎaｇement oｆ a ｃulｔuｒaｌorgａnizaｔion is undeｒsｔｏod as beiｎg ｎecessａriｌy detｅrmined by ａｍultｉtudｅｏfａgeｎts in ｔｈe mａrkeｔ，be inclｕdｅd in thｅorganiｚatiｏｎ’s ｐlanninｇprocess,since ｔhe valｕe of ｔhe fiｎaｌprodｕcｔｉs goinｇｔo depend on them ｔo a ｌargeｅxtｅnt.T ｈe role of ｔheｉntｅreｓt ｇrｏups in theｐlannｉnｇｐrocｅss of tｈｅｏrganizations is ｏne of the least ｃultｉvａteｄareａs ｏｆreｌatｉｏｎｓｈiｐｍarkｅtinｇ(Henniｎg－Thurau aｎｄHａｎsen, 2000). Paｙnｅand Hｏlt (２001）ｅｘplicitlyｒefｅr to thｉs ｄｅｆｉcｉencｙ: “ｕｎｄｅrｓtanｄing ｌｏng－tｅrm ｒelａtionｓhipｓwith both ｃuｓtomerｓaｎd otｈer stａｋehｏlder gｒoups hasｂeen negｌectedｉn ｔhｅmainｓｔrｅam ｍarｋｅtiｎg ｌiteｒatｕre；ｍaｎaｇing the ｏrganization’ｓinｔｅrｎａl and exｔeｒnal ｒeｌationsｈｉｐｓｎeeds ｔo becｏmｅ a ceｎｔraｌacｔivitｙ; tｈis ｃentｒaｌacｔｉvity is relaｔiｏnshｉp markeｔｉnｇ”. We arｅｆａced, thｅreｆore，with a nｅｗｓｃenariｏinｗｈich onｅ-to-oｎｅmarｋetｉnｇhａsｇiven way to mａny－to-many ｍａrketinｇ（Gumｍesson,２００４);in other wｏrdｓ, plannｉng reｌａｔionsｈiｐs with ｉnｄiviｄｕａls has evolｖｅd to plaｎnｉng ｒelaｔｉｏnshipｓwｉth ｃｏllective ｓ,witｈiｎteracｔion netｗorｋs.On the ｏｔher ｈanｄ, either when contrｉｂutｉｏns in the fiｅld of cultural m ａｒketiｎg ｄｏnot record enｏugｈstaｎdaｒdｉzａtionｏr voluｍe to be ｇroｕpeｄin treｎds or schoolｓ,tｈｅyｄo shａrｅ a value：ｔhe impｏrtaｎｃe of ｒeｌationｓｈips in theirｍanaｇement. Coｎtｒibｕｔionｓmaｄeｉn this area aｒe very diverｓe, in most ｃases focusiｎg oｎrelaｔioｎships ｗith cusｔｏmers (ｒela ｔiｏnshiｐｓwith tｈe ｐeｒfｏrmｉnｇａrts audiencｅ)．Garbariｎo and Johｎsｏn (1999) ｕｓeｔhe stage ｏf ａn off-Bｒoadway theatre in New Yｏrk ｔｏexplｏｒｅthｅtrａnsaction/rｅlationｓｈｉp contｉｎuum proｐoｓed by Gｒonroos (1995) t ｏcｏnclｕde that thｅｐｅrforminｇａrtsａudience ｈas differｅｎt beｈaｖｉoural proｆｉｌeｓdeｐｅnding on the reｌatｉｏnshｉps deｖeloｐed ｗith thｅｏrganｉzatiｏn or，specifｉcally, “in a consuｍer ｅnｖiｒonment ｉｎwhich custome ｒs recｅivｅｈighｌy ｓｉmｉlar sｅｒvices [..．]tｈere are systｅｍaｔiｃｄｉｆfereｎceｓinｔhe relationalism oｆｄifferent custoｍer groups”．Reｎｔｓcｈle ｒet al. (2001)alｓｏcoｎsideｒｅd an empｉｒical apｐroach tｏrelatioｎship ｓwith ｔhe audienｃe ｏf performing arｔｓoｒganiｚａtionｓin Ausｔralia: “ｗha ｔaｒts organｉzations neｅd ｔo consider iｓｗhether tｈe ｅxpense of ｈaving hi ｇh siｎｇｌe－tiｃket sales is ｓustaiｎableａnd,if not，ｗhaｔｔo do ａboｕt it”.3．THＥPＲODUCT ANＤRＥＬATIOＮSHIPS WＩTＨCUＳＴOMER’S SＵGGEＳTIONSＯＮ A MODEＬFOR THE RELＡTIＯNＳＨIＰMANAＧEMENＴOＦCULＴＵRAL SERVIＣEＳ:Rｅlatioｎshiｐs wｉtｈｔｈe audｉence are the cｅntral componｅnt iｎｔｈe configuratiｏn ｏｆｔheｒelａtionshiｐmａｒketing mａｎagｅment model f ｏr cuｌtuｒal oｒganizａtioｎｓ. Tｈis cenｔｒal place ｉsｓhａｒｅd witｈthe ｃｕｌtural pｒｏｄucｔ, ｗhose ｇenｅrａl ｍａrｋeｔing moｄeｌpreseｎts sｐecial cｈaraｃteｒｉsｔicsｔhat diffｅrentiatｅｉｔfrom the claｓsｉc struｃture of maｒｋeting,as:1. Marｋetｉng ｐrocess stａｒts in tｈe prｏduｃｅｒoｒgａnization,and fro ｍｔhisｏｒiｇｉｎ(tｈe cultuｒａl pｒodｕct)a decisioｎhａs ｔｏbｅmade cｏncerning theｐart of the marｋｅt thａｔｍay bｅinteresteｄｉn cｏnsｕming iｔ.２. Oncｅｐoｔentiaｌcｏnｓumeｒs have beeｎｉｄｅntifｉｅd, tｈｅcompany willｄｅcidｅon the ｒeｍａining rｅlａtiｏnship poliｃies （iｎstruｍｅｎtal anｄgrouｐ, which we wｉll covｅr belｏw）.Therｅfｏre，wｅａｒe faced ｗithａkｉnｄｏfｍarｋet ｗhｏse ma ｒkeｔｉng prｏｃess shows a “product-ｔo-client” tｙpe ｓtrｕcｔuｒe.Thｅaｔｙｐical stｒuctｕre transformｓｔhｅrelａtiｏnｓhｉp ｐolicy ｗｉth the cｕltuｒaｌcustoｍer, ａｓit conｓideｒs thaｔthe corｅoｆthe producｔis unalｔeｒabl ｅ（Colｂｅrt, 2０01).Thiｓstrｕｃture involｖes ｔhe ｄｅvelｏpmenｔｏf aｗidｅvarｉｅｔy oｆｒｅlatiｏnsｈｉpｓ,wｈich have to be ｉｎcｌudeｄin the ｖaluｅcrｅａtioｎｐroｃｅss foｒｍｉng the ｍａrketing of a cuｌtuｒal product. Ｔhe ｃultuｒａl offering oｆa ｃountry，a regｉon or ａdistｒict is a ｓoｕｒｃe of benｅfitｓｆｏr a lａｒge nｕmｂeｒｏf soｃial sｅctors. Iｔis ｎoｔfoｒnothｉnｇthaｔｔｈe recogｎitｉon of the “need fｏrｃulｔure” is wｅll-ｋnｏwn in ｖirtually ａl ｌdevelopｅd countries （Councｉl of ｔheＥurｏpeａｎUnion，2004）, and p ｕｂlｉc ｏｒｇaｎizａｔiｏnｓ，as well as ｐｒiｖaｔｅentities, ａre involved in ｓａtiｓｆying thisｄeｍaｎd．Ｂａｓed oｎthiｓsituａtioｎ，iｔiｓloｇiｃａl to ａｓsumｅtｈaｔeach ａnｄｅｖery one of thｅｓe cｏllectｉvｅs has to ｂe inｃluded in ｔhe organiｚatｉon’s pｌannｉng anｄ a “win-wiｎrelationsｈip”ｎeedｓtｏbe implemenｔeｄin connectｉｏｎwｉth thｅm.Perfｏrming arts organizａｔｉons wilｌhave tｏmaｎagｅa multｉtｕdｅof ｒｅlａｔiｏnｓhipｓto achieｖe ｔheir objｅctivｅs. These rｅlationｓhips weｒe formeｒlｙclassiｆｉeｄｉnto twｏｌarge catｅgｏries （Quｅｒｏ, 20０３): a．Instrumeｎtaｌｒelａtionshipｓ: this ｆirst category grｏups ｔhe maｒketiｎg ｍｉx inｓｔrｕmentｓａnd incorｐorates a relaｔionshiｐfoｃuｓ(ｉ.e．, product，ｐrice, distｒibution anｄcommｕnicatｉｏn rｅｌaｔionshｉps).Ｔhe diffeｒeｎｔiatioｎfactｏr cｈaｒacｔｅrｉzｉng ｔｈｅｄesign of these pｏlicies iｓthaｔthｅｙhave toｂe pｌaｎneｄtakiｎg aｓa ｒeference the creaｔionｏｆvａｌｕe ｆor cusｔomｅrｓand ｆor ｅvery onｅｏf the aｇenｔs inｖolveｄin ｔhe prｏｄuｃtiｏn prｏcess of the cultｕrａｌsｅｒｖｉｃes．b. Ｇroup relationshiｐs:tｈｅseｃond oｆthe cateｇｏrｉeｓis relａｔeｄｔｏthｅiｄeｎtiｆicatｉon and planning proceｓｓof relationｓhｉps wiｔｈcollectives ｏr agents of inteｒeｓt, as ｔhe ｐeｒforｍing ａrts ａuｄience，ｅｄucatioｎaｌcｅｎｔｒes，puｂlｉc oｒｇanｉzaｔionｓ, cｏmｐetition，sｕpplｉers，noｎ-pｕblic orｇanizatiｏnｓand inteｒnａl relaｔionｓhiｐs.Fｒｏm thisｐoint of viｅw, ｇrｏup relationships and instｒumeｎtａｌrelatioｎshipｓａｒe unｄerstoｏd as diffeｒent ｉｎnatｕｒe, bｕt theｙcｏｎｖeｒgｅｉn stｒategy;in othｅr ｗｏrｄs, whilst sｏmｅof tｈｅm ｒｅqｕire ｓkillｓconｎected with tｈe manaｇeｍent of rｅlationshｉps witｈcoｌｌectiveｓ, ｏthersｒｅｑuirｅa differenｔkind of skills, more ｖiｓiblｅfor tｈe ｃustomer aｎd connec ｔeｄｗiｔh deｃｉｓion-ｍａkinｇin speｃific aspｅcts, such as programme dｅｓｉgning (proｄucｔ),ticket sales (ｄisｔｒiｂution),sｈoｗvaｌue (pricｅ）or ｃonｖｅyｉng the iｎｆormａｔiｏn toｔhe maｒkｅt (cｏmmuｎication)．Hｏｗever, tｈeｍanagemｅnt ｏf bｏth grｏuｐs haｓtｏcｏnvｅrge in obt ａined resｕlｔs ａt tｈe end. In other worｄｓ，thaｔis to saｙthａｔeveｒy one of ｔhe coｌlectiｖes has to haｖe iｔs eｘpecｔaｔｉons ｍet in tｈesｅdｅcisiｏｎs.４. CONCLＵSＩONＳ:The aiｍof tｈiｓｓtudｙｗａs tｏｃoｎｔｒｉｂｕtｅtｏthe ｄｅｖｅloｐmｅnt and impleｍｅntａtion of relaｔionship ｍarkｅting, seｒvｉcｅs markｅtiｎg anｄcultural ｍaｒｋｅtiｎｇｉn a sｐeｃific ａrea：ｔｈe pｅrfｏrmｉｎg aｒts seｃｔoｒ.The prｏcｅsｓｏf seｌectiｎg aｎd plａnｎｉng ｔｈe ｒｅlatｉonｓhiｐs su ｇgesｔed ｂy thｅｒelatioｎsｈｉｐmarｋeting ｐａrａdigm ｈaｓenａｂled to dｅvｅｌop aｔｈｅoreｔiｃaｌmｏdel ｆｏｒorganizatioｎs of peｒformiｎg arｔｓservices, in wｈicｈtwo ｔyｐｅsｏｆreｌａｔiｏnship ｇroups aｒe ｉｄenｔified: instrumeｎtal ｒｅｌatｉｏｎｓhiｐs aｎｄgｒｏｕｐreｌatｉｏｎships. Ｉnｓtruｍｅｎtal relaｔｉoｎsｈiｐs ｉncluｄe ｐrｏｄuct, price, diｓtｒibuｔion and comｍunicatｉon ｒelatｉonshｉps in the moｄｅl, with the pａrtｉcｕｌaｒfeａtｕｒe ｏf the ｆact ｔhat theiｒｄesｉgn has tｏbe dependeｎt ｏn the analysis of thｅeffｅcｔs thｅy may haｖｅfoｒｅｖｅｒｙone of ｔｈe inｔｅrest groｕｐｓ. Ｗiｔh regard to gｒouｐrｅlaｔiｏnsｈips，sｅvｅn collectiｖes have been identified：ｐerforｍing artｓaudienｃe，eｄｕcaｔioｎａｌｃentreｓ, public organiｚaｔion ｓ, competiｔioｎ, sｕｐpliｅrs, other ｏrganｉzaｔions ａnｄiｎternaｌｒｅｌationsｈipｓ.Evｅry one of ｔｈem iｓcａpabｌｅof creatiｎg aｎd rｅcｅｉving v ａlue ｉn theiｒrelatioｎshiｐs and, therefore,ｔｈeｙhave tｏｂe iｎcluｄed in organizaｔiｏｎｓ’ plaｎnｉｎg procｅss, in order to impleｍｅnt ｗin-wｉｎstratｅｇiｅs.Iｎthe area ｏｆｒelationshipｍanagｅmｅnｔwitｈtheｐerfoｒming arts ａuｄiｅnce,ａclassｉｆicatioｎof the ａudｉence has ｂeeｎproposeｄon the bａsis ｏfｒelatioｎship crｉteｒia, whｉcｈhas enａｂled two importanｔphaｓes to be identifiｅd in the rｅｔention ｐrocｅss wｉtｈculｔurａl cusｔome ｒs,ｔｈe ａtｔrａction ｐｈase anｄthe retｅntion phaｓe, whｏse priｍary objeｃt ｉvｅiｓｔo fosｔer relaｔｉｏnsｗiｔh tｈe ｃｕstomeｒunｔiｌthｅｈｉghesｔｐossiblｅlevel of relatｉoｎshｉp with thｅorganizaｔiｏn is obｔained.The eｍpiｒicａｌcｏntribuｔｉon has seｒｖed ｔｏｃｏrrｏborate tｈｅthｅoreｔｉｃａｌcontｒｉbution ｂy implｅmentinｇa sｔudy oｎthe currenｔｐerｆorｍｉng artｓaudｉeｎｃe in Sｐaｉn and ｔhe gｅｎeral ｐubliｃ, which demoｎstratｅsｔhe iｍportａnceｏf manａgｉng relations beｔween the ｃｕｌtural organization ａnd iｔsｃustomers and thｅbenｅｆitsｏｆｉmpｌeｍeｎting ａn apｐｒｏｐriate rｅlaｔionsｈｉp ｍarkeｔｉnｇstraｔegy.This reseａｒｃｈｓtudｙｃould bｅａlso cｏnsｉdｅred ａs a siｇnｉf ｉcant contributiｏn to ｔｈe maｒketｉｎｇdiｓｃipｌinｅ, dｕｅto its iｍpoｒｔant tｈeoretｉｃａl ｉmｐlｉcａｔions:１. Relationship Marketiｎg iｓcoｎsｉdereｄas the iｎteｇratiｎg pａraｄiｇm, capable oｆaｄapｔｉng to the reｑuirements of cuｌｔurａｌsｅrvｉces，ｉｎgｅneｒal, ａｎd to peｒｆorminｇarts serｖices，ｉｎpartiｃulａｒ.２. Ｔhe mａrketing-ｍix paradiｇｍｉs incｌuded iｎtｏｔｈe maｎａgement mｏｄｅｌ, ｒｅｄeｆiniｎg its ｍainｉnｓtｒuｍｅnts ａs prｏducｔ, price, ｄｉstributｉｏｎａnd commuｎication reｌationsｈipｓ.It is alsｏan ｕnprecedenteｄcoｎtrｉｂutionｉn ｔｈe fｉｅｌd oｆcｕｌtural markeｔｉng，at leastｉn Spain, oｆfｅring a theoｒeｔicaｌｍodel ｆor thｅplanｎiｎg aｎd manａgeｍｅｎt of organｉｚaｔioｎｓｏｆｆｅｒｉng perfｏrｍin ｇarts servｉces.This stｕｄｙｐaｖesｔhe way for a ｍuｌtitude of future linｅs of research.Ｆｏr exａmｐle, the sｔudy of every one of the interesｔｇroupｓand ｔhｅir rolｅｉnｔhe prｏceｓs oｆcreating ｖaｌue, aｓwell as ｔhe way ｉn wｈiｃh instrumentａｌｒelationshipｓｈave to be impｌeｍenｔedｅｍeｒgeａs prioritｙactiｏnｓto ｂｅimplementｅｄin order ｔoｂuildｓome fouｎｄat ｉons in the aｒea ｏf ａrts mａrｋetｉng ｔhat are aｓsolid as thoｓe in ｏｔhｅr secｔoｒs.关系营销和服务营销：文化部门价值创造的会聚性观点摘要关系理论架构模式,文化服务管理模式(关系营销的文化组织),在销售领域做出了前所未有的贡献。
市场营销专业术语中英文对照标准翻译
市场营销专业术语中英文对照标准翻译本文为市场营销中经常用到的一些中文与英文互译的标准用语，希望对市场营销从业人员有所帮助。
《财富》杂志Fortune案头调研Desk Research奥美公司Ogilvy & Mather白色商品White Goods百乐门Parliament百威啤酒Budweiser包裹销售法Banded Pack宝洁公司Procter & Gamble宝丽来Polaroid宝马BMW边际成本Marginal Cost边际收益Marginal Benefit标准差，均差Standard Deviation别克Buick波立兹调查公司Alfred Politz Research, Inc波旁王朝Ancient Age Bourbon波特福洛分析Portefolio Analysis产品差异Product Differentiation产品生命周期Product Life Cycle产品系列Product Line产品组合Product Mix阐述Presentation超级市场Supermarket成对比较法Paired Comparisons成功的理想主义者Successful Idealist承诺型消费者Committed Buyer程度测试Tachistoscope橙色商品Orange Goods冲动购买Impulse Buying重叠率Duplication抽样Sampling传销Pyramid Selling传阅发行量Pass-on Circulation词语联想法Word Associaton刺激营销Incentive Marketing促销Promotion达彼思广告公司Ted Bates & Copany大卫·奥格威David Ogilvy戴比尔斯De Beers丹尼尔·斯塔奇公司Danile Starch & Staff 弹性Elasticity到达率Reach道奇Dodge第三者法Third-Person Technique第一提及Top of Mind电话访问Telephone Interview电通广告公司Dentsu电子售点数据EPOS Data定量研究Quantitative Research定位Positioning定性研究Qualitative Research动机研究Motivation Research读者Readers读者人数Readership独特销售主张Unique Selling Proposition杜邦公司Du Pont多方面衡量Multi-dimensional Scaling多品牌战略Multi-brand Strategy惰性销售Inertia Selling恩格尔曲线Engel Curves二手资料Secondary Data发行量Circulation发行量稽核组织ABC仿造Me Too访问Interview访问员Interviewer非处方药OTC菲力普·莫里斯公司Philip Morris Company 菲亚特FIAT肥皂剧Soap Opera分刊测试Split-run Test分销Distribution丰田TOYATA缝隙分析Gap Analysis浮动插播Floating Spot辅助回想Aided Recall付费发行量Paid Circulation复核Back Checking复核Validation富豪汽车VOLVO富可视Infocus富士胶卷FUJI FILM覆盖率Coverage盖凡尼克皮肤反应测试仪Galvanic Skin Response Meter盖洛普暨罗宾逊调查公司Gallup & Robinson,Inc概念测试Concept Testing高度介入产品High Invovement Procuct革新消费者Innovators葛瑞广告Grey Advertising公众调查公司Audience Research,Inc贡献Contrubution购买周期Buying Cycle孤独守巢人Empty Nesers鼓动销售Hard Sell故事板/分镜头表Storyboard故事完成法Story Completion观察调研法Obseravtion Study广告Advertising广告/销售比率Advertising/Sales Ratio广告比重Advertising Weight广告标准Advertising Standard广告调查基金会(美国) Advertising Research Foundation广告概要Advertising Brief广告口号Slogan广告目标即广告效果评测Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results 国际商用机器公司IBM过度杀伤Overkill过滤审查Screening哈佛商学院Harvard Business School红色商品Red Goods互补品Complements花旗集团Citigroup华尔街Wall Street黄金时段Prime Time辉瑞Pfizer混合调查Omnibus Research混和调研Omnibus Research基本读者Primary Reader稽核Audit吉芬商品Giffen Goods吉列Gillette集团购买Organizational Buying集中度Affinity集中市场细分Concentrated Segmentation计算机辅助的电话采访Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing记忆测试Recall Test记忆性Memorability佳能Canan家乐福Carrefour家庭(户) House Hold家庭稽核Home Audit家庭生活周期Family Life Cycle甲壳虫Bettle价格分析Values Analysis价格敏感Price Sensitive价格歧视Price Discrimination价格战Price War间接调研Off-the-research建议价格Recommended Price箭牌口香糖Wrigley讲究派头的诉求Snob Appeal交叉销售Cross-selling交替需求Alternate Demand焦点小组(讨论) Focus group (Discussion)角色扮演Role Playing阶式渗透Cascading结构化访问Structured Interview金佰利Kimberly-Clark浸透策略Penetration Strategy精工SEIKO句子完成法Sentence Completion决策群Decision Making Unit决定性调研Conclusive Research卡通测试Cartoon Tests开放题Open-ended Question开机率Homes Using TV柯达Kodak壳牌Shell可变价格Variable Pricing可口可乐Coca-Cola可丽舒Kleenex可信度Believability克莱斯勒Chrysler克劳德·霍普金斯Claude Hopkins客观看法Outside View肯德基炸鸡Kentucky Fried Chicken口碑广告Word-of-mouth Advertising快流量消费品Fast-moving Consumer Goods 拉力Pulling Power拦截访问Intercept Interview乐观奔命者Optimistic Striver离差Deviation李奥·贝纳Leo Burnett李佛兄弟公司Lever Brothers力士Lux连带外部效应Network Externality联合调研/辛迪加Syndicated Research联合分析Conjoint Analysis联合利华公司Unilever联想Association Techniques练习性预演Dry Run两步收费Two-part Tariff量表Scale劣等商品Inferior Goods零售周期Wheel of Retailing零头定价法Odd-even Pricing漏斗深入法Funnel Approach露华浓Revlon乱数表Random-number Table罗塞·瑞夫斯Rosser Reevse罗夏测试Rorschach Test骆驼Camal马丁·迈耶Martin Mayer麦当劳McDonald’s麦肯爱里克森广告公司Mccann-Erickson麦氏威尔咖啡Maxwell House Coffee卖方市场Seller’s Market满意购买者Satisfied Buyer盲测Blind Test毛评点Gross Ratting points媒体分析Media Analysis每千人(户)成本Cost Per Thousand Figure每千人成本Cost Per Mille美孚Mobil美国报纸发行人协会American Newspaper Publisher’s Association 美国电报电话公司AT&T美国广播公司ABC美国广告代理商协会4A’sThe American Association of Advertising Agencies美国民意研究中心American Institute of Public Opinion美国营销协会American Marketing Association美国运通American Express描述性调研Descriptive Research民意测验Opinion Poll明尼苏达矿务及制造业公司3M模似Simulation姆姆巧克力M&M耐克Nike尼尔逊公司A. C. Nielsen尼尔逊全国电视指数Nielsen National Television Index 尼尔逊受众测定器Nielsen audiometer尼尔逊指数Nielsen Index欧宝OPEL欧洲民意测验和市场调研协会ESOMAR帕累托原理Pareto Principle派生需求Derived Demand攀比效应Bandwagon Effect判断性抽样Judgement Sampling旁氏Pond’s陪伴购物Accompanied Shopping配额Quota配额抽样Quota Sampling频率分布Frequency Distribution品牌Brang品牌测试Brang Test品牌估价Brang Valuation品牌管理Brang Management品牌偏好Brang Preference品牌认知Brang Awareness品牌形象Brang Image品牌性格Brang Personalities品牌忠诚度Brang Loyalty品牌转换成本Switching Cost品质认知度Perceived Quality七喜7UP期望值Expectations期望值Expected V alue其他指导人Other-directed Person企业标志Corporate Logo企业识别Corporate Identity前导性研究Pilot Study潜意识广告Subliminal Advertising强生公司Johnson & Johnson乔治·格里宾George Gribbin情感购买者Like Friend情感象征Emotional Symbol渠道冲突Channel Conflict全国性涵盖度Blanket人口统计学特征Demographics人员推销Personal Selling认识差距Cognitive Dissonance认知Awareness认知图表Perceptual Mapping日后记忆Day-after-recall入户访问Door-to-door Interview软性促销Soft Sell萨奇公司Saatchi & Saatchi三维营销3-D商店稽核Store Audit社会等级Social Grading社会接受度Social Acceptability社会营销Social Marketing深度访谈Depth Interview生存者Survivor生活方式Lifestyle声音比例SOV声音份额Share of V oice施乐Xerox时代华纳Time Warner时机感Sense of Timing时间档次Time Slot时序分析Time-Series analysis识阈效应Threshold Effect使用与态度Usage and Attitude市场策略的利润效果Profit Impact of Market Strategy 市场调研Market Research市场调研/营销调研Marketing Research市场细分Market Segmentation市场占有率Market Share视听众暴露度Impession收获战略Harvesting Strategy收入效应Income Effect收视(听)率Ratings收视率Television Rating售点POP售点POS斯塔奇数字Starch Figure斯坦利·里索Stanley Resor斯沃琪Swatch四点分析SWOT Analysis随机抽样Random Sampling索尼SONY态度Attitude探索性调研Exploratory汤橱浓汤Campbell’s Soup特许经营Franchise替代品Substitutes替代效应Substitution Effect天美时Timex听众调查Audience Research通用汽车General Motor同类相食Cannibalisation投射研究Projective Research图片响应法Picture Response Techniques推拉战略Push and Pull Strategies推力Push Power完成法Completion Techniques完全竞争市场Perfectly Competitive Market 万宝路Marlboro万事达卡Master Card威廉·伯恩巴克William Bernbach威士卡VISA维持者Sustainer伟哥Viagra胃溃疡峡谷Ulcer Gulch稳定插播Anchored Spot问卷Questionnaire沃尔玛Wal-Mart Stores无品牌忠诚度No Brand Loyalty无提示认知Unaided Awareness无准备调查访问Cold Calling西门子SIEMENS习惯购买者Habitual Buyer习惯性购买Habit Buying喜力Heineken系统销售System Selling细流战Drip Campaign显著特征Salient Attribute现场调研Field Research现场督导Conductor现场督导Field Supervisor现场工作Field Work现场人员Field Force线上活动Above-the-line线下活动Below-the-line相关群体Reference Group象牙牌香皂Ivory消费者购物固定样本Consumer Purchase Panel 消费者内在需求Consumer Insight消费者偏好Consumer Preferences消费者剩余Consumer Surplus消费者形象描述Consumer Profile销售定额Sales Quota销售反馈功能Sales Response Function销售领域Sales Territory销售预测Sales Forecast销售专集Sales Literature销售组合Sales Mix小组讨论Group Discussion心理图案学Psychographics心理戏剧Motivational Theater心智索引Mindex心智占有率Share of Mind新奇士Sunkist新人训练Orientation Training形象Image虚荣效应Snob Effect选择性分销Selective Distribution雪佛兰Chevrolet雅皮YUPPY眼睛轨迹研究Eye Tracking Research扬雅广告公司Young & Rubicam样品Sample一次性购物One-stop Shopping一手资料Primary Data伊莱克斯Electrolux宜家IKEA移情作用Empathy意见领导Opinion Leader因果性调研Causal Research营销会计稽核Marketing Audit营销近视Marketing Myopia营销组合10P’s营销组合4C’s’营销组合4P’s营销组合Marketing Mix营业额/到达率增长指数Turnover影响力等级Hierarchy of Effects佣金制Commission System由报纸决定(刊登位置) Run-of-paper邮购Mail Order有提示认知Aided Awareness有效贮藏期限Shelf Life诱导转向法Bait and Switch语义差异法Semantic Differential预检验Pre-testing原创性Originality原子状测试Atomistic Test岳母研究Mother-in-law Research载波技术ZAP赞助Sponsorship詹姆士·韦伯扬James Webb Young展览会Exhibition争夺经营Scrambled Merchandising正常商品Normal Goods直递Direct Mail直销Direct Marketing智威汤逊J. Walter Thompson重度消费者Heavy User主持人Moderator主题类化法Thematic Apperception属性特征Attributes住地居民细分法A Classification of Residential Neighborhoods 专家调研Specialist Research资料手册Fact Book自付优惠Self-liquidating Offer棕色商品Brown Goods最终用户End-user。
市场营销毕业论文外文翻译中英文
附录附录A：Pricing StrategyRussell .S. WinnerPrice is the most flexible element in marketing mix. Unlike product and place, price may change extremely fast in current business environment. Pricing is a core part of corporate strategy, which determines the profitability, and market share the company takes. To optimize products price in this competitive environment, cost structure is not the only attribute need to be considered. We should also take product life circle, price sensitivity of target customers and competitive environment into account.Pricing for Stability ，Sometimes customers for industrial products are as concerned about price stability as they are about actual price levels. This is because it is difficult to develop profit forecasts and long-range plans when prices for products and services that constitute a substantial portion of the buyer’s costs fluctuate dramatically. Telephone rates for large users such as telemarketing firms and banks fall into this category. Such customers expect rates to rise over time. However, significant price hikes at random intervals play havoc with their planning processes. As a result, these firms would rather pay a somewhat higher average rate than be subjected to constant fluctuations. Forward contracts on raw materials play this role in many manufacturing industries.Competitive pricing describes a situation in which you try to price at the market average or match a particular brand’s price. This is appropriate when customers have not been persuaded that significant differences exist among the competitors and that they view the product in a commodity. It may also be necessary in a category with high fixed costs because any loss of sales volume drives down sales and generates less revenue to cover those costs.Competition and pricing， So far, the discussion about setting price has described two key elements of the marketing manager’ thinking: the marketing strategy and the value customers place on the product. The first is obviously an internal factor because the external elements affecting all decisions: customers.A third critical element in pricing decisions is the competition. Competitors’ prices act as a reference point, either explicitly (as shown in the value computations earlier in this chapter) or implicitly as a way to assess the price of the product in question. Competitors’ prices do not necessarily represent willingness to pay because the set of possible prices or marketing strategies may have been limited; that is, the competitors may not have an accurate idea of customers’ willingness to pay.Competitors’ CostsMarketing managers cannot make intelligent pricing decisions without having some estimate of the relative cost positions held by competitors. Even better are estimates of the actual costs. An understanding of the cost structure of the market provides at least two types of help. First, assuming that no brand would be priced below variable cost, cost estimates provide you with an idea of how low some competitors can price. This can be very useful in a price battle in which prices are going down. Second, cost estimates give you some idea of the margins in the category or industry. Using data on sales volume, which are usually easy to obtain, and information on marketing program costs, you can then estimate total profits. This can be important information in forecasting the likelihood that a product will stay in the market or estimating the amount of money a competitor has to put behind the brand strategy.Costs can be estimated in several ways. A common approach for manufactured products is to us reverse engineering to analyze the cost structure. You should purchase competitors’ products and take them apart, studying the costs of the components and packaging. For many products, managers can readily identify components and their costs in the market. If a component is proprietary, such as a custom microprocessor in a computer, the cost can be estimated by engineers or other personnel.Another way to estimate costs, or at least margins, is to use publicly available data on the competitors. Based on annual reports, 10Kstastments, and the like ,you can ascertain average margins. These can be assumed to apply directly to the cost estimation, especially if the product is a big component of total sales or if, as is often the case, the company tends to use accost plus percent markup pricing strategy.Particularly for manufactured products, it is possible to understand current costs andforecast future costs through the use of the experience curve. The conventional functional relationship assumed in experience curve economics is that costs are a decreasing function of accumulated experience, or production volume.The costs of delivering services are more difficult to estimate. Because the costs associated with service products such as labor and office space are largely fixed, you can estimate relative cost positions by examining the number of employees, looking at efficiency rations such as sales per employee, and assessing other similar measures, Again, it is particularly useful to understand the cost structure by becoming a customer of a competitor’s service.The role of costs ，We suggested earlier in this chapter that costs should have little to do with the pricing decision other than to act as a floor or lower limit for price. In a non-market-driven firm, full cost (variable costs plus some allocation for overhead) plus some target margin is used to set price. This approach totally ignores the customer: The resulting price may be either above or below what the customer is willing to pay for the product，Other problems exist with using costs to set price. First, there are at least four different kinds of costs to consider. Development costs are expenses involved in bringing new products to market. Often these costs are spread out over many years and sometimes different products. Should price be set to recover these costs and, if so, in what time period ? In some industries such as pharmaceuticals, patent protection allows companies to set the prices of prescription drugs high initially to recover development costs and then reduce them when the drugs come off patent and the generics enter the category. However, if there is no legal way to keep competitors out of the market, these costs must be viewed as sunk costs that do not affect decision making after the product is introduced into the market. Otherwise, the resulting price may be above customers’ perceived value. A second kind of cost is overhead costs such as the corporate jet and the president’s salary. These costs must ultimately be covered by revenues from individual products, but they are not associated with individual products but do not vary with sales volume. Finally, there are variable costs, the per-unit costs of making the product or delivering the service. Of course, these must be recovered by the price.Therefore, one problem with using costs to set price is that several kinds of costs arerelated in different ways to an individual product. When costs are used as the basis for setting price, you should ask “Which costs?” Are they costs related to marketing the product or product line or are they costs over which you have no control? Using price as a cost-recovery mechanism can lead to a mismatch between price and customers’ perceptions of value for your product or service.A second problem with using costs to set price, particularly variable or unit costs, is that they may be a function of volume and, as a result, may be difficult to know in advance when developing marketing plans. Even if this is not the case, unit costs may be related to the use of capacity, which is also uncertain.In most instances, customers do not really care what the firm’s costs are; as Drucker puts it, “Customers do not see it as their job to ensure manufacturers a profit.” Using cost increases to justify raising price generates little sympathy from customers, particularly industrial customers, because the price increase has just raised their costs, which they may not be able to pass along to their customers.Costs do play an important role in pricing: In the new product development process, the projected costs (however defined) and price determine whether a product is forecasted to be sufficiently profitable to be introduced.Pricing ObjectiveYour pricing policy can accomplish many different objectives for your product. Penetration PricingPenetration pricing or market share pricing entails giving most of the value to the customer and keeping a small margin. The objective is to gain as much market share as possible. It is often used as part of an entry strategy for a new product and is particularly useful for preventing competitive entry. First, there is less of the market for the competition to get if you have been successful in penetrating the market. Second, the economics of entry look less attractive if the price levels are low. Penetration pricing is also appropriate when experience or scale effects lead to a favorable volume-cost relationship and when a large segment of the potential customer base is price sensitive.There are some drawbacks to penetration pricing. It should not be used in a productcategory when there is a price-perceived quality relationship unless the marketing strategy is at the low end of perceived quality. In addition, if the product has a strong competitive advantage, this advantage is dissipated by pricing at an unusually low level. Another limitation of penetration pricing is that it is always more acceptable to customers to reduce price than to raise it. This limits the flexibility of this pricing approach in some situations.The opposite of penetration pricing is skimming or prestige pricing. Skimming gives more the cost-value gap to you than to the customer. This strategy is appropriate in a variety of situations. If there is a strong price-perceived quality relationship and the value proposition includes a positioning of the product at the high end of the market, this objective makes sense. It is also a reasonable objective when there is little chance of competition in the near future; however, the higher the price, the higher the margins(holding costs constant, of course)and thus the greater the chance that competition will enter because their economic calculations will look better. Skimming is also a good objective when costs are not related to volume and managers are therefore less concerned about building significant market share. Finally, skimming makes sense early in the product life cycle because the early adopters of a new technology are normally price insensitive.Return on Sales or Investment Pricing. Return on sales or investment pricing implies that you can set a price that delivers the rate of return demanded by senior management. As a result, investment pricing ignores both customer value and the competition. It is useful only when the product has a monopoly or near monopoly position so that the market will produce the needed sales volume at the price you set. This is typical of the pricing of regulated utilities such as gas and electricity.附录B：定价策略Russell .S. Winner价格是在营销组合是最灵活的要素，有别于产品等策略，价格可能发生变化非常快，在目前的经营环境。
市场营销论文中英文外文翻译文献
市场营销论文中英文外文翻译文献中英文外文翻译文献The technical basis of network marketingNetwork marketing is based on the technology infrastructure of computer network technology, as represented by information technology. Computer networks of modern communications technology and computer technology to the product of combining it in different geographic regions and specialized computer equipment for external interconnection lines of communication into a large, powerful networks, thus enabling a large number of computers can easily transmit information to each other, share hardware, software, data and other resources. And network marketing is closely related to the computer network there are three types: the Internet, Extranet and Intranet.[Edit] the theoretical basis for the network marketingTheoretical foundation of network marketing is direct marketing network theory, network theory of relationship marketing, marketing theory and network software to integrate marketing theory.(A) Direct Response Network Marketing TheoryInternet marketing as an effective direct marketing strategy, network marketing that can be tested and measurable and can be evaluated and controlled. Therefore, the characteristics of the use of network marketing, you can greatly improve the efficiency of marketing and marketing decision-making effectiveness of the implementation.Direct marketing theory is the 20th century, one of the 80's the concept of eye-catching. Direct Marketing Association of the United States for its definition is: "a place to produce anymeasurable response and (or) use the Stock Exchange reached one or more advertising media marketing system interaction." Directly Marketing the key to the theory that network marketing is that it can be tested, measurable, can be evaluated, which a fundamental solution to evaluate the effect of the traditional difficulties in marketing and marketing for more scientific decision-making possible.(B) the network theory of relationship marketingRelationship Marketing is a great importance since 1990 by the marketing theory, which mainly includes two basic points: First of all, in the macro level will berecognized that the scope of marketing a wide range of areas, including customer market, the labor market, the supply market , the internal market, the market stakeholders, as well as the affected market (government, financial markets); at the micro level, recognizing that the relationship between business and customers are constantly changing, the core of marketing should be a simple one-time past transactions to a focus on maintaining relations up long-term relationships. Socio-economic system, enterprises are a major subsystem, corporate marketing objectives by many external factors to the impact of marketing activities of enterprises is a consumers, competitors, suppliers, distributors, government agencies and social organizations the process of interaction, the correct understanding of the relationship between the individual and the organization is the core of marketing is also key to business success or failure.The core of relationship marketing is to keep customers, to provide customers with a high degree of satisfaction with the value of products and services, by strengthening the links with customers to provide effective customer service, to maintainlong-term relationship with customers. And long-term customer relations based on the marketing activities to achieve the marketing objectives of companies. The implementation of relationship marketing is not to damage the cost of business interests, according to research, for marketing a new customer costs five times the cost of the old customers, so to strengthen relations with customers and build customer loyalty can bring long-term enterprise interests, it is to promote a win-win strategy for businesses and customers. The Internet as an effective two-way channels of communication between businesses and customers can achieve low-cost communication and exchange costs, which companies build long-term relationships with customers to provide effective protection. This is because, first of all, enterprises can use the Internet to receive customer orders directly, customers can make their own personalized needs. Enterprises in accordance with customer demand for personalized use of flexible production technology to meet the customer needs to maximize customers in the consumer products and services to create more value. Enterprise customers can also understand the market demand, market segments and targetmarkets, minimize marketing costs and increase the reaction rate on the market. Secondly, the use of the Internet companies to provide customers with better services and keep in touch with customers. Internet time and space constraints are not the characteristics of the convenience of our customers to maximize communication with the enterprise, customers can make use of the Internet in the shortest possible time in an easy way to access business services. At the same time, trading via the Internet to the entire enterprise can be achieved from the product quality,quality of service, such as transaction services to the entire process of quality control.On the other hand, enterprises can also be via the Internet with business-related companies and organizations build relationships and achieve win-win development. Internet as a channel of communication between the cheapest, it can help lower costs in the supply of business-to-business yet, distributors such as the establishment of collaborative partnerships. Cases such as in front of the computer company Lenovo, through the establishment of e-business systems and management information systems with the distributors of information sharing, reduce inventory costs and transaction costs, and close cooperation between the two sides. Relating to the application of network theory will be the strategy behind the marketing services network in detail.(C) The network of soft marketing theoryMarketing theory is soft against the industrial economy to the era of mass production for the main features of the "strong sales" of the new theory, the theory suggests that when customers buy products not only meet the basic physiological needs, but also to meet the mental and psychological level demand. Therefore, the soft marketing is one of the main characteristics of the follow netiquette, etiquette on the network through the use of clever marketing to obtain desired results. It emphasizes the marketing activities of enterprises at the same time the need to respect the feelings of consumers and the body read, so that consumers will be able to comfortably take the initiative to receive the marketing activities of enterprises. Traditional marketing activities can best embody the characteristics of a strong marketing promotions are two: thetraditional advertising and marketing staff. In traditional advertising,consumers are often forced to passive reception of advertising messages, "bombing", and its goal is to impart information through continuous means the hearts of consumers impressed, as to whether the consumer was not willing to accept the need for need not be taken into account; marketing personnel, the marketing staff does not consider the object is willing to sell and needs, but according to the marketing staff to determine their own marketing activities carried out forcibly.On the Internet, because information exchange is a free, equal, open and interactive, to stress that mutual respect and communication, on-line users pay more attention to the protection and privacy of personal experience. Therefore, using the traditional means of marketing a strong start in the Internet marketing activities are bound to backfire, such as the American company AOL has forced their users to send E-mail advertising, the results lead to the unanimous opposition of users, many users agreed to AOL at the same time the company server E-mail to retaliate, with the result that AOL's E-mail mail server in a paralyzed state, and finally had to apologize to quell public indignation. Network marketing is just soft from the consumer's experience and needs and take pull-type strategy to attract consumers concerned about the marketing effectiveness of enterprises to achieve. Network on the Internet to carry out marketing activities, in particular promotional activities must follow certain rules of network formation of virtual communities, some also known as "netiquette (Netiquette)". Network marketing is soft netiquette rules to follow based on the clever use of marketing to achieve a subtle effect. Marketing theory onnetwork application software in the network marketing sales strategy specific details.(D) Network Integrated MarketingIn the current post-industrial society, the tertiary industry in the development of the service sector is the major economic growth point, the traditional manufacturing-based to being service-oriented development, new service industries such as finance, communications, transportation and other industries the sun at high noon. Post-industrial society requires the development of enterprises must be based on service-oriented, it is necessary to customers as the center, to provide customers with timely and appropriate manner, as appropriate services, the maximum extent possibleto meet customer demand. Internet time and space as a cross-transmission of "superconductive" media, can provide timely customer service is located at the same time interactivity of the Internet can understand customer needs and provide targeted response, so the Internet era can be said to be the most consumers an attractive marketing tool.Network of integrated marketing theory include the following key points:Network marketing requires, first of all the consumers into the entire marketing process to the needs of their entire marketing process from the beginning.Network marketing distribution system for the enterprise as well as stakeholders to be more closely together.Corporate interests and the interests of customers to integrate together.Internet on the role of marketing, you can through the 4Ps (product / service, pricing, distribution, promotion) play animportant role in binding. The use of the Internet traditional 4Ps marketing mix can be better with the customer as the center of the 4Cs (customer, cost, convenience, communication) to combine.1. Products and services to customers as the centerAs the Internet has a very good interaction and guiding the user through the Internet under the guidance of the enterprise to choose the product or service or specific requirements of enterprise customers to choose based on the timely production and requirements and provide timely service, making Customer inter-temporal and spatial requirements are met by the products and services; On the other hand, enterprises can also keep abreast of customer needs and customer requirements in accordance with the timely production and marketing organizations to provide the production efficiency and marketing effectiveness. Such as the United States PC sales company Dell Inc., or a loss in 1995, but in 1996, their sales via the Internet to computers, the performance of 100 percent growth, due to customers via the Internet, you can design in the company's home page to choose and combination of computers, the company's production department immediately upon request, production, and sent through the postal service company, so companies can achieve zero inventory production, especially in the sharp decline in prices of computercomponents of the era, inventory will not only reduce the inventory costs can be avoided also because of losses brought about by high-priced stock.2. Customer acceptable cost pricingThe cost of traditional production-based pricing in the market-oriented marketing is to be discarded. The price of newcustomers should be based on acceptable cost pricing, and based on the cost to organize the production and marketing. Customer-centric enterprise pricing, customers must be the determination of market demand and the price accepted standards, otherwise the cost to the customer to accept the pricing is a castle in the air. Business on the Internet can be very easy to implement, the customer can be made via the Internet acceptable cost, the cost of business in accordance with customers to provide flexible product design and production program for the user to choose until after the customer agrees to confirm the production and marketing organizations, all All these are clients of the server program in the company under the guidance and does not require specialized services and, therefore, extremely low cost. At present, the United States, General Motors Corp. to allow customers on the Internet through the company's own guidance system of the design and assembly of motor vehicles to meet their needs, users first determine the criteria for acceptable price, and then according to the price limit system to meet the requirements of style show vehicle, the user can also be used for appropriate changes, the company producing the final product just to meet the customer requirements of price and performance.3. Products to facilitate the distribution of customer-orientedNetwork marketing is one-to-one distribution channels, cross-selling of space-time, customers can order anytime, anywhere using the Internet and purchase products. Iron and steel manufacturers in France still a Luolin Zinox for example, the company was founded in 8 years ago, because of the introduction of e-mail and the world order system, so that processing time from 15 days to 24 hours. At present, thecompany is using the Internet to provide better than the opponent and more efficient services. The company's internal network and vehicle manufacturers to establish contact so that they could demand the other party promptly after the production ofsteel to each other online.4. Repressively turn promotions to strengthen communication and contacts with customersIs the promotion of traditional enterprises, through certain media or tools of oppression customers to strengthen the company's customers and product acceptance and loyalty, customers are passive and accept the lack of communication with customers and contacts at the same time The high cost of the company's sales. Internet marketing is a one-on-one and interactive, and customers can participate in the company's marketing activities in the past, so the Internet can strengthen communication with customers and contacts and a better understanding of customer needs, attracted more customers agree . The U.S. company Yahoo's new star (Yahoo!) Company to develop a network in Internet information retrieval tools for classification, as the products are highly interactive, the user can think it is important for their classification information to Yahoo Yahoo The company immediately joined the classification of information products for the use of other users, so no need for advertising their products on well known, and in a short span of two years the company's stock market value of billions of dollars, an increase of as much as several hundred times.The main method of Internet MarketingCommonly used methods of network marketing system(1)Search Engine Marketing(2)Email marketing permission(3)Online Advertising(4)Web resource cooperation(5)Viral marketing(6)A membership-based network marketingCommon method for classification of network marketing:Web-based network marketing businessTo carry out Internet marketing does not necessarily have to have their own web site, in the absence of site conditions, enterprises in the network to carry out effectivemarketing. Free web site marketing mainly depends on the network marketing and e-mail marketing virtual community.Web-based network marketing is the subject of network marketing, it's main problem is the web site planning, construction, maintenance people, as well as with other marketing to promote the integration of methods. If the type of e-commerce website, web-based network marketing will be involved in product, price, and other traditional marketing channels and marketing a range of issues to consider.译文：网络营销的技术依据网络营销是基于技术基础设施的计算机网络营销。
市场营销毕业论文中英文文献
Quality service helps a company to maximize benefits and minimize burdens for customers—the essence of delivering value. Because it is important to most customers and defies imita on by compe tors, quality service offers a key compe ve advantage. Indeed, firms in every industry have demonstrated the differen a ng power of excellent service. Yet, despite this, price compe on seems to dominate company efforts to provide value. The meteoric growth of Wal-Mart Stores—and the tendency of many firms to lower prices as a first response to so ening demand—has focused so much marke ng energy on price compe on that it has become difficult not to assume that customers care only about price.
A er ten years, the ques on of course is, Are the lessons s ll relevant? Do they s ll apply to American firms? We believe they do and wish more businesses had heeded them during the past ten years. Indeed, these lessons have stood the test of
市场营销价格策略外文翻译文献
市场营销价格策略外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIESAll for-profit organizations and many nonprofit organizations set prices on their goods or services. Whether the price is called rent (for an apartment), tuition (for education), fare (for travel), or interest (for borrowed money), the concept is the same. Throughout most of history, prices were set by negotiation between buyers and sellers.Setting one price for all buyers arose with the development of large-scale retailing at the en d of the nineteenth century, when Woolworth’s and other stores followed a “strictly one-price policy” because they carried so many items and had so many employees.Now, 100 years later, technology is taking us back to an era of negotiated pricing. The Internet, corporate networks, and wireless setups are linking people, machines, andcompanies around the globe, connecting sellers and buyers as never before. Web sites like and allow buyers to compare products and prices quickly and easily. On-line auction sites like and make it easy forbuyers and sellers to negotiate prices on thousands of items. At the same time, new tech-nologies are allowing sellers to collect detailed data about customers’ buying habits, preferences—even spending limits—so they can tailor their products and prices.1In the entire marketing mix, price is the one element that produces revenue; the others produce costs. Price is also one of the most flexible elements: It can be changed quickly, unlike product features and channel commitments. Although price competi- tion is a major problem facing companies, many do not handle pricing well. The most common mistakes are these: Pricing is too cost-oriented; price is not revised oftenenough to capitalize on market changes; price is set independent of the rest of the marketing mix rather than as an intrinsic element of market-positioning strategy; and price is not varied enough for different product items, market segments, and purchase occasions.215Designing PricingStrategies andProgramsWe will address the following questions:■ How should a company price a new good or service?■ How should the price be adapted to meet varying circumstances and opportunities?■ When should the company initiate a p rice change, and how should it respond to competitive price changes?224 CHAPTER 12 DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS Value PricingValue pricing is a method in which the company charges a fairly low price for a high- quality offering. Value pricing says that the price should represent a high-value offer toconsumers. This is a major trend in the computer industry, which has shifted from charging top dollar for cutting-edge computers to offering basic computers at lower prices. For instance, Monorail Computer started selling PCs in 1996 for as little as $999to woo price-sensitive buyers. Compaq and others quickly followed suit. More recently,eMachines began selling its PCs for less than $500 without a monitor, targeting the 55 percent of computerless households with annual incomes of $25,000 to $30,000.13Value pricing is not a matter of simply setting lower prices on one’s products compared to those of competitors. It is a matter of reengineering the company’s oper- ations to become a low-cost pro ducer without sacrificing quality, and lowering pricessignificantly to attract a large number of value-conscious customers. An important typeof value pricing is everyday low pricing (EDLP), which takes place at the retail level. Retailers such as Wal-Mart and use EDLP pricing, posting a constant, everyday low price with few or no temporary price discounts. These constant prices eliminate week-to-week price uncertainty and can be contrasted to the “high-low” pric-ing of promotion-oriented competitors. In high-low pricing, the retailer charges higher prices on an everyday basis but then runs frequent promotions in which prices are temporarily lowered below the EDLP level.14Retailers adopt EDLP for a number of reasons, the most important of which isthat constant sales and promotions are costly and erode consumer confidence in the credibility of everyday prices. Consumers also have less time and patience for such time-honored traditions as watching for specials and clipping coupons. Yet promo- tions are an excellent way to create excitement and draw shoppers. For this reason, EDLP is not a guarantee of success. As supermarkets face heightened competition from store rivals and alternative channels, many are drawing shoppers using a combi- nation of high-low and EDLP strategies, with increased advertising and promotions.15Going-Rate PricingIn going-rate pricing, the firm bases its price largely on competitors’ prices. The firm might charge the same, more, or less than its major competitor(s) charges. In oligop- olistic industries that sell a commodity such as steel, paper, or fertilizer, firms normallycharge the same price. The smaller firms “follow the leader,” changing their prices when the market leader’s prices change rather than when their own demand or costs change. Some firms may charge a slight premium or slight discount, but they typica lly preserve the amount of difference. When costs are difficult to measure or competitive response is uncertain, firms feel that the going price represents a good solution, sinceit seems to reflect the industry’s collective wisdom as to the price that will y ield a fair return and not jeopardize industrial harmony.Sealed-Bid PricingCompetitive-oriented pricing is common when firms submit sealed bids for jobs. In bidding, each firm bases its price on expectations of how competitors will price rather than on a r igid relationship to the firm’s own costs or demand. Sealed-bid pricing involves two opposite pulls. The firm wants to win the contract—which means submit-ting the lowest price—yet it cannot set its price below cost.To solve this dilemma, the company woul d estimate the profit and the probabil-ity of winning with each price bid. By multiplying the profit by the probability of win- ning the bid on the basis of that price, the company can calculate the expected profit for each bid. For a firm that makes many bid s, this method is a way of playing the oddsSetting the Price 225to achieve maximum profits in the long run. However, firms that bid only occasionally or that badly want to win certain contracts will not find it advantageous to use the expected-profit criteri on.Step 6: Selecting the Final PriceThe previous pricing methods narrow the range from which the company selects its final price. In selecting that price, the company must consider additional factors: psy- chological pricing, the influence of other marketi ng-mix elements on price, company pricing policies, and the impact of price on other parties.Psychological PricingMany consumers use price as an indicator of quality. Image pricing is especially effec-tive with ego-sensitive products such as perfumes and expensive cars. A $100 bottle ofperfume might contain $10 worth of scent, but gift givers pay $100 to communicate their high regard for the receiver. Similarly, price and quality perceptions of cars inter- act:16 Higher-priced cars are perceived to possess high quality; higher-quality cars are likewise perceived to be higher priced than they actually are. In general, when infor- mation about true quality is unavailable, price acts as a signal of quality.When looking at a particular product, buyers carry in their minds a reference price formed by noticing current prices, past prices, or the buying context. Sellers often manipulate these reference prices. For example, a seller can situate its product among expensive products to imply that it belongs in the same class. Reference-price thinkingis also created by stating a high manufacturer’s suggested price, by indicating that the product was priced much higher originally, or by pointing to a rival’s high price.17Often sellers set prices that end in an odd number, believing that customers whosee a television priced at $299 instead of $300 will perceive the price as being in the $200 range rather than the $300 range. Another explanation is that odd endings con- vey the notion of a discount or bargain, which is why both and set prices ending in 99. But if a company wants a high-price image instead of a low- price image, it should avoid the odd-ending tactic.The Influence of Other Marketing-Mix ElementsThe final price must take into account the brand’s quality and advertising relative to competition. When Farris and Reibstein examined the relationships among relative price, relative quality, and relative advertising for 227 consumer businesses, they foundthat brands with average relative quality but high relative advertising budgets were able to charge premium prices. Consumers apparently were willing to pay higher prices for known products than for unknown products. They also found that brands with high relative quality and high relative advertising obtained the highest prices, while brands with low quality and advertising charged the lowest prices. Finally, the positive relationship between high prices and high advertising held most strongly in the later stages of the product life cycle for market leaders.18 Smart marketers there-fore ensure that their prices fit with other marketing-mix elements.定价战略以营利为目的的组织和非营利组织的都对他们的商品或服务制定价格。
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市场营销策略论文中英文资料对照外文翻译市场营销策略1 市场细分和目标市场策略具有需求，具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。
然而，在大多数市场中，购买者的需求不一致。
因此，对整个市场采用单一的营销计划可能不会成功。
一个合理的营销计划应以区分市场中存在的差异为起点，这一过程被称为市场细分，它还包括将何种细分市场作为目标市场。
市场细分使公司能更加有效地利用其营销资源。
而且，也使得小公司可以通过集中在一两个细分上场上有效地参与竞争。
市场细分的明显缺点是，其导致了比单一产品、单一大市场策略更高的生产和营销成本。
但是，如果市场细分得当的话，更加符合消费者的需求，实际上将生产更高的效率。
确定目标市场有三种可供选择的策略，它们是统一市场、单一细分市场和多重细分市场。
统一市场策略即采取一种营销组合用到一个整体的、无差异的市场中去。
采取单一细分市场策略，公司仍然仅有一种营销组合，但它只用在整个市场的一个细分市场中。
多重细分市场策略需要选择两个或更多的细分市场，并且每个细分市场分别采用一种单独的营销组合。
2 产品定位管理者将注意力集中于一种品牌，并以恰当的方式将其与类似的品牌相区分，但这并不意味着该品牌就一定能够最后赢利。
因此，管理者需要进行定位，即塑造与竞争品牌和竞争对手的其他品牌相关的自我品牌形象。
市场营销人员可以从各种定位策略中加以选择。
有时，他们决定对某一特定产品采用一种以上的策略。
以下是几种主要的定位策略:2.1与竞争者相关的定位对一些产品来说，最佳的定位是直接针对竞争对手。
该策略特别适用于已经具有固定的差别优势或试图强化这种优势的厂商。
为排挤微处理器的竞争对手，Intel公司开展了一项活动使用户确信它的产品优于竞争对手的产品。
公司甚至为电脑制造商出钱，让它们在自己的广告中带上“Intel Inside”标志。
作为市场领导者，可口可乐公司推出新产品并实施其市场营销策略。
同时，它密切注视百事可乐公司，以确保对主要竞争对手的任何一次巧妙、有效的营销举措采取相应的对策。
2.2 与产品类别和属性相关的定位有时候，公司的定位策略有必要将自己的产品与其类别和属性相联系(或相区别)。
一些公司尽力将其产品定位在期望的类别中，如“美国制造”。
用一句某顾问的话来说，“当你说‘美国制造’的时候，有一种强烈的感情因素在吸引着你”。
因此，一家名为Boston Preparatory的规模不大的运动服制1造商正在运用这种定位策略，以期胜过那些并非所有产品都在美国制造的势力强大的竞争对手如Calvin Kiein和Tommy Hilfiger。
2.3 通过价格和质量定位某些生产者和零售商因其高质量和高价格而闻名。
在零售行业，Saks Fifth Avenue和Neiman Marcus公司正是定位于该价格—质量策略的。
折扣店Target Kmart则是定位于该策略的反面。
我们不是说折扣商店忽视质量，而是说它们更加强调低廉的价格。
Penny's公司努力—并且大多获得了成功—通过升级高级服装线和强调设计者的名字将其商店定位于价格—质量策略上。
“品牌”一词是个综合性的概念，它包含其他更狭义的理解。
品牌即一个名称和(或)标志，用以识别一个销售者或销售集团的产品，并将之与竞争产品相区别。
品牌名称由能够发音的单词、字母和(或)数字组成。
品牌标志是品牌的一部分，它以符号、图案或醒目的颜色、字体的形式出现。
品牌标志通过视觉识别，但当人们仅仅读出品牌名称的时候，品牌标志并不能够被表达出来。
Crest、Coors、Gillette都是品牌名称。
AT&T由醒目的线条构成的地球以及Ralph Lauren's Polo的马和骑手是品牌标志，而Green Giant(罐装冷冻菜蔬产品)和Arm&Hammer(面包苏打)既是品牌名称又是品牌标志。
商标是销售者已经采用并且受到法律保护的品牌。
商标不仅包括品牌标志，如许多人所认为的那样，也包括品牌名称。
1946年的The Lanham Art法案允许厂商向联邦政府注册商标，以保护它们免受其他厂商的使用或误用。
1989年生效的《商标法修订案》(The Trademark Law Revision Act)旨在健全注册系统以维护美国厂商的利益。
对于销售者来说，品牌可以被推广。
当他们陈列于商店或出现在广告中时很容易被认出。
品牌化减少了价格比较。
因为在比较不同产品时，品牌是有必要考虑的另一因素，所以品牌化减少了仅仅依靠价格便作出购买决定的可能。
品牌的知名度还会影响到购买服务和消费品的消费者的忠诚度。
最后，品牌化可以区别商品(例如Sunkist牌鲜橙、 Morton牌食盐以及 Domino牌食糖)。
3 定价定价是一个动态的过程，公司会为其所有产品设计一个定价结构。
随着时间的推移，公司会改变价格结构，并将之调整到适应不同的消费者和形势的状态。
公司应采用多样的价格调整策略来适应消费群体和具体情况的差别。
一个是折扣和折让定价，及公司依批量、功能或季节来决定折扣或不同形式的折让。
第二个策略是差别定价，即公司为不同的顾客、产品或因地点不同而制定两个或两个以上的差别价格。
有时公司在作价格决策时不仅考虑经济因素，而且使用心理定价来传达有关产品的质量或价值信息。
在促销定价时，公司会在短期内以低于商品定价销售产品，通过大甩卖来吸引更多的顾客，有时甚至低于成本销售。
运用价值定价，公司以公平价格提供相应的质量和优质服务。
另一种方法是地区性定价，公司决定怎样为远距离的客户定价。
通常有以下几种方法可供选择:原产地定价、统一交货定价、区域定价、基点定价和免收运费定价。
2最后，国际市场定价意味着公司调整其价格来满足不同世界市场的需要。
4 产品的分销大部分生产商利用中间商将其产品推向市场。
他们努力建立“分销渠道”——一套指向消费者或企业用户、提供商品或服务的彼此独立建立的组织的总称。
为什么生产者将部分销售工作交给中介呢,毕竟，这样做意味着放弃对产品如何销售和向谁出售的某种控制。
利用营销中介可以提高商品走向目标市场的效率。
中介组织以其社会关系、经验、专长以及经营规模往往为生产商创造比其通过自身的努力所能获得的更大的价值。
商品通过分销渠道从生产者手中到达消费者手中。
时间、地点等因素不一致，会使商品和服务与消费者相分离，而分销渠道克服了这个矛盾。
分销渠道的作用很多，有些起着促成交易的作用，如:1.市场调研2.促销3.接触客户的功能:寻找潜在购买者并与之沟通。
4.适销功能:是供给适应购买者的需求，包括加工和包装。
5协调功能:就价格与其他交易条件达成协议以促成所有权的转移。
还有一些是功能是辅助交易的完成，如:1.货物储运功能2.资金融通功能3.承担风险功能:分销商可以替制造商承担分销过程中的风险。
问题不在于是否需要这些功能，而在于有谁来执行这些功能。
所有这些功能在三个方面是相同的，即它们都占用有限的资源，通过分工能更好地执行这些功能，以及它们可以由不同的分销商执行。
如果由制造商执行这些功能，会导致高成本，继而导致高价格。
然而，如果一些功能转由中间商执行，则制造商的成本可能会下降。
当然中间商会在价格中加入它们的工作成本。
在分配分销工作时，应当将其分配给在满足客户的多种需求方面效率最高的分销商。
分销渠道可以用其涉及到的中间环节的多少来描述。
将产品及其所有权向最终消费者专一的过程中的各个层次的营销中介组织就是渠道层面。
由于生产者与消费者都执行某种职能，故它们也是分销渠道的组成部分。
企业在选择中间商时，要清楚具有什么样的特征的中间商是更优秀的。
企业通常要考察中间商从业历史的长短、经营范围、企业增长和利润的记录、是否具有协作精神及其声誉情况。
如果该中间商是销售代理，企业就要考察其经营的其他产品的数量和特点、销售规模和能力。
如果该中间商是一个想获得独家或非独家经销权的零售店，企业就要考察其顾客的情况、地理位置及其未来的增长潜力。
理解分销渠道的性质是很重要的。
因为选择正确的分销渠道是企业决策最重要的内容之一。
之所以利用营销中介组织，是因为他们在是产品进入目标市场的过程中创造了更高的效率。
分销渠道的最关键的作用是，它能促成交易或辅助完成交易，从而将产品从生产者手中到达消费者手中。
3分销渠道可以用渠道中介环节的数量来描述。
在直接营销渠道中，没有一个中介环节，而在间接营销渠道中，则有一个或多个中介环节。
5 产品促销促销时公司营销组合四个主要组成部分之一。
主要的促销工具——广告、营业推广、公共关系和人员推销互相配合才能达到公司的沟通目标。
组织中各层次的人员必须清楚许多有关营销沟通的法律和伦理问题。
制定在广告、人员销售和直销方面对社会负责的营销沟通需要做很多工作。
公司必须努力和积极，以便使沟通开放、诚实，让顾客和分销商满意。
4Marketing Strategy1 Market Segmentation and Target StrategyA market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets.Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-marketstrategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency.The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach amass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segmentof the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment.2 Positioning the ProductManagement's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products.Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:2.1 Positioning in Relation to a competitor5For some products,the best position is directly against the competition.This strategy is especially suitable for a firm that already has a solid differential advantage or is trying to solidify such an advantage.To fend off rival markers of microprocessors,Intelunched a campaign to convince buyers that its product is superior to competitors.The company even paid computer makers to include the slogan,"Intel Inside" in their ads.As the market leader,Coca-Cola introduces new products and executes its marketing strategies.At the same time,it keeps an eye on Pepsi-Cola,being sure to match anyclever,effective marketing moves made by its primary competitor.2.2 Positioning in Relation to a Product Class or AttributeSometimes a company's positioning strategy entails associating its product with(or distancing it from)a product class or attributes.Some companies try to place their products in a desirable class,such as"Made in the USA."In the words of one consultant,"There is a strong emotional appeal when you say,'Made in the USA'".Thus a small sportswear manufacturer,Boston Preparatory Co.is using this positioningstrategy to seek an edge over large competitors such as Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger,which don't produce all of their products in the U.S.Positioning by Price and Quality 2.3Certain producer and retailers are known for their high-quality products and high prices.In the retailing field,Sake Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus are positioned at one end of the price-quality continuum.Discount stores such as Target and Kmart are at theother.We're not saying,however,that discounters ignore quality;rather, they stress low prices.Penney's tired—andfor the most part succeeded in—repositioning its stores on theprice-quality continuum byupgrading apparel lines and stressing designer names.The word brands is comprehensive;it encompasses other narrower terms.A brand is a name and/or mark intended to identify the product of one seller or group of sellers and differentiate the product from competing products.A brand name consists of words,letters,and/or numbers that can be vocalized.A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of a symbol, design,or distinctive color or lettering.A brand mark is recognized buy sight bu cannot be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.Crest,Coors,and rider for Ralph Lauren's Polo Brand.Green Giant(canned and frozen vegetable products)and Arm&Hammer(bakingsoda)are both brand names and brand marks.A trademark is a brand that has been adopted by a seller and given legal protection.A6trademark includes not just the brand mark,as many peoplebelieve,but also the brand name.The Lanham Act of 1946 permits firms to register trademarks with the federal government to protect them from use or misuse by other companies.The Trademark Law Revision Act,which took effect in 1989,is tended to strengthen the the registration system to the benefit of U.S. Firms.For sellers,brands can be promoted.They are easily recognized when displayed in a store or included in advertising.Branding reduces price comparisons.Because brands are another factor that needs to be considered in comparing different products,branding reduces the likelihood of purchase decision based solely on price.The reputation of a brand also influences customer loyalty among buyers of services as well as customer goods.Finally,branding can differentiatecommodities(Sunkist oranges,Morton salt,and Domino sugar,for example). 3 PricingPricing is a dynamic process,Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their products.They change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different customers and situations.Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes through itslife cycle.Marketers face important choice when they select new product pricing strategies.The company can decide on one of several price-quality strategies for introducing an imitative product.In pricing innovative products,it can practice market-skimming pricing by initially setting high prices to"skim"the maximum amount of revenue from various segments of the market.Or it can use market penetration pricing by setting a low initial price to win a large market share.Companies apply a variety of price-adjustment strategies to account for differences in consumer segments and situations.One is discount and allowance pricing,whereby the company decides on quantity,functional,or seasonal discounts,or varying types of allowances. A second strategy is segmented pricing, where the company sellers a product at two or more prices to allow for differences in customers, products, or locations. Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisions,and use psychological pricing to communicate about theproduct's quality or value.In promotional pricing,companies temporarily sell their product bellow list price as a special-event to draw more customers,sometimes even selling below cost.With value pricing, thecompany offers just the night combination of quality and good service at a fair price. Another approach is geographical pricing, whereby the company decides how to price distant customers, choosing fromalternative as FOB pricing,uniform delivered pricing, zone pricing, basing-point pricing, and freight-absorption pricing. Finally, international pricing means that the company adjusts its price to meet different world markets.74 Distribution ChannelsMost producers use intermediaries to bring their products to market.They try to forge a distribution channel—a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of marking a product or service available for use or consumption by the consumers or business user.Why do producers give some of the selling job tointermediaries?After all,doing so means giving up some control over how and to whom the products are sold.The use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in marking goods available to targetmarkets.Through their contacts, experience, specialization, and scales of operation,intermediaries usually offer the firm move value than it can achieve on its own efforts.A distribution channel moves goods from producers to customers.It overcomes the major time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who would use them. Members of the marketing channel perform many functions. Some help to complete transactions:rmation.2.Promotion.3.Contact:finding and communicating with prospective buyers.4.Matching:fitting the offer to the buyer's needs, including such activities as manufacturing and packaging.5.Negotiation:reaching an agreement on price and other terms of the offer so that ownership or possession can be transferred.Other help to fulfill the completed transferred.1.Transporting and storing goods.2.Financing.3.Risk taking:assuming the risk of carrying out the channel work.The question is not whether these functions need to be performed, but rather who is to perform them. All the functions have three things in common:They use up scarce resource, they often can be performed better through specialization, and they can be shifted among channel members.To the extent that the manufacturer performs these functions, its costs go up and its prices have to be higher. At the same time, when some of these functions are shifted to intermediaries, the producer's costs and prices may be lower, but the intermediaries must charge more to cover the costs of their work. In dividing the work of the channel, the various functions should be assigned to the channel members who can perform them most efficiently and effectively to provide satisfactory assortments of goods to target consumers.Distribution channels can be described by the number of channellevels involved. Each layer of marketing intermediaries that performs some work in brining the product and its8ownership closer to the final buyer is a channel level. Because the producer and the final consumer both perform some work, they are part of every channel.When selecting intermediaries, the company should determine what characteristics distinguish the better ones. It will want to evaluate the the channel member's years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit record, co-operativeness, and reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, the company will want to evaluate the number and character of the other lines carried, and the size andquality of the sales force. If the intermediary is a retail store that wants exclusive or selective distribution, the company will want to evaluate the store's customers, location, and future growth potential.Understanding the nature of distribution channels is important, as choosing among distribution channels is one of the most challenging decisions facing the firm. Marketing intermediaries are used because they provide greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets. The key distribution channel function is moving goods from producers to consumers by helping to complete transactions and fulfill the completed transaction. Distribution channels can be described by thenumber of channel levels, which can include no intermediaries in adirect channel, or one to several intermediaries in indirect channels.5 PromotionPromotion is one of the four major elements of the company's marketing mix. The main promotion tools——advertising, sales promotion, public relations, and personalselling——work together to achieve the company's communications objectives.People at all levels of the organization must be aware of the many legal and ethical issues surrounding marketing communications. Much work is required to produce socially responsible marketing communicating in advertising, personal selling, and direct selling. Companies must work hard and proactively at communicating openly, honestly, and agreeably with their customers and resellers.9下面是诗情画意的句子欣赏,不需要的朋友可以编辑删除!!谢谢!!!!!1. 染火枫林，琼壶歌月，长歌倚楼。