修辞学第1-3章(2009)

2.1.2 Sophists and their practices
• Sophists undertook to provide a stock of arguments on any subject, to prove any position. • They wandered about Greece, gave lectures, took pupils, and entered into disputations.
• Gorgias’ assertions: • 1. Nothing exists; • 2. If anything does exist, it cannot be known; • 3. If it can be known, the knowledge of it cannot be communicated. • Everything is an illusion, and language participates in this magical space.
• Derivation of the word ―rhetoric‖ • rhētorikē rhētor-ikē • As a verb: to speak well in public; • As a noun: a public speaker, an eloquent speaker • Oratory: the foundation of rhetoric; • Their common purpose: to impress, to convince, and to move the audience
2.1.3 Greek rhetoricians
• Gorgias (485 BC—380 BC) student of Tisias, a Sophist • Advocated the importance of form and skill of public speaking.
2.1.3 Greek rhetoricians
2.1 Classical rhetoric
(5th c. BC—A.D. 5th c.)
• 2.1.1 Ancient Greece and ancient Greek democracy • Ancient Greece: one of the greatest contributors to present-day civilization— democracy, philosophy, biology, mathematics, physics, and the theatre
2.1.1 Ancient Greece and democracy
• In 508 B.C., a new political organization Demokratia (democracy) and a Council of Five Hundred were created in Athens. All male citizens over 30 could serve for one year on the Council.
2.1.3 Greek rhetoricians
• Advocated to take advantage of audience, right timing, knowing what to say and when. • Position: • Developed the skill of using language • Exerted special influence on oratory
• Humanism, initiative, atheism
2.1.3 Greek rhetoricians
• Socrates
(469---399 BC), philosopher
• Most of our knowledge of him comes from the works of Plato • Socrates’ philosophical ideas: • (1) Do what one thinks is right even in the face of universal opposition; • (2) Pursue knowledge even when opposed.
English Rhetoric
• “I came, I saw, I conquered. ‖
--Julius Caesar • Make an analysis on the above remark in the light of rhetoric.
1.1 Rhetoric and oratory
• Unique method of philosophical inquiry— questioning people on the positions they asserted and working them through questions, proving that their original assertion was wrong.
2.1.3 Greek rhetoricians
• His three assertions: • (1) man is the measure of all things; • (2) he could make the ―worse (or weaker) argument appear the better (or stronger)‖; • (3) one could not tell if the gods existed or not.
2.1.1 Ancient Greece and democracy
• Argue and debate were just common before any issue could be settled. • The rapid turnover in the Council ensured (1) a large number of Athenians held some political position in their lifetime; (2) the Assembly would contain a larger and more sophisticated membership.
2.1.3 Greek rhetoricians
• Protagoras (480 BC—410 BC), sophist
• the first Greek to earn money in higher education and notorious for charging extremely high fees
Chapter 2 Brief History of Western Rhetoric • • • • • 1. Classical rhetoric 2. Rhetoric in the Middle Ages 3. Rhetoric in the Renaissance 4. New Classical rhetoric 5. Contemporary rhetoric
1.2 Connotation
• Negative: a fraudulent practice to appeal to audience’s emotions or prejudice • ―Oh, that’s all rhetoric!‖ • 子曰：“巧言令色，鲜矣仁。”《论语· 阳货 篇》 • 花言巧语，天花乱坠
2.1.2 Sophists and their practices
• They sought to dazzle by means of strange metaphors, by unusual figures of speech, and by being clever and smart (rather than earnest and truthful).
1.2 Connotation
• rhetoric has taken on a positive, as well as a negative, meaning. • Positive: a commendable skill with words, ―Your article needs rhetoric.‖ • ―言之无文，行而不远。” • Shakespeare, • Li Bai • The Declaration of Independence
2.1.1 Ancient Greece and Ancient Greek Democracy
• Athenians: believe in freedom, individuality, strive for excellence • Athens, Sparta: two well known city-states • In a city-state, all citizens were involved in politics, justice, military service, religious ceremonies, intellectual discussion, athletics and artistic pursuits.
2.1.3 Ancient Greek rhetoricians and their theories
• Corax (539—443 BC) and Tisias, his student, the first rhetoricians in history, composed the first written rhetoric. • Contribution: four logical parts of persuasion texts • introduction, explanation, argumentation and conclusion
1.4 Five assumptions
• 1. humane study and pragmatic art • 2. culturally determined, relating to more than one branch of knowledge • 3. use language to induce co-operation • 4. not all verbal communication aims to create an effect • 5. choices for both the speaker and the audience
• Nature of rhetoric: • Rhetoric is generally understood as an art. It is more about the Hows than about the Whats. • As it is an art, deceitful people use it to deceive, ethical people use it to make truth and justice prevail.
2.1.3 Greek rhetoricians
• ―Rhetoric (form and eloquence) was impressive but did not tell people much.‖ • Only thought, truth, fact and wisdom were important.
2.1.3 Greek rhetoricians
Baidu Nhomakorabea
• ―Each man is the standard of what is true to himself, all truth is relative to the individual who holds it and can have no validity beyond him.‖ • Advocated personal experience and feeling