医学专业英语翻译二单元2
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Passage Two Diagnosis and prognosis诊断和预后 Diagnosis 诊断 In most clinical encounters, the patient presents basic questions to the doctor: what’s wrong with me? What is causing my illness? These questions set the stage for making a diagnosis, i.e. determine the cause of an illness and a diagnosis is accomplished with history, physical examination and laboratory testing. The process of diagnosing a disease begins with the person’s health history. The physician asks the patient questions on both present and past illnesses, family history of disease, habits and so on. The following table presents typical contents of a standard medical history.诊断在大多数的就诊过程中,病人会向医生提出一些很基础的问题,例如:“我是不是生了病?”“我的病是什么原因引起的?”这些问题促使医生去做出一个诊断,即确立生病的原因,而一个完整的诊断由病人的病史、身体检查和实验室检查所组成。 诊断的过程是由采集病人的病史开始。医生向病人询问当前和过去所患过的疾病、家庭病史、生活习惯等等。下表展示了一个标准病史里所包含的典型内容。 Description of patient病人的一般情况 Age, gender, race, occupation and parity (for woman ). 年龄、性别、民族、职业、生育情况(女性) Chief complaint主诉 Four or five words, preferably quoting the patient, stating the purpose of the visit and the duration of the complaint. Occasionally the patient states a request instead of a complaint such as I need a flu shot.用四到五个字,最好是引用患者的自述,陈述就诊的目的和病痛的持续时间。偶尔,也可将患者的要求作为主诉,如:“我需要注射流感疫苗”。 Other physicians involved in the patient’s care患者的其他保健医生续表 Name, address, telephone number, and relationship to the patient 姓名、地址、电话号码、与患者的关系 History of the present illness现病史 For each of the major symptom, what, where, when, how much, chronological course, what makes the symptom better or worse, past medical care, questions to narrow diagnostic possibilities. 每一种主要症状,包括什么症状、发生部位、发生时间、轻重程度、时间经过、症状好转或加重的影响因素、既往诊治情况及可能缩小诊断范围相关的问题 Past medical history既往史 Previous illnesses and hospitalizations, immunizations, medications the patient takes, allergies, and alcohol, tobacco, and drug habits. 既往所患疾病及住院治疗情况、计划免疫、用药情况、过敏史、吸烟、饮酒及有无药物成瘾等 Social and occupational history社会及职业史 Description of a typical day in the patient’s life and how the present illness affects it, social supports ( family, friends, and colleagues ) available to the patient, and occupational history.描述患者日常生活中典型的一
天以及目前疾病对其的影响;患者可获得的社会支持(来自家庭、朋友或同事)及职业史 Family history家族史 History of genetically related diseases in the patient’s family and longevity and cause of death of family members.家族中的遗传病史,家族成员的寿命及死亡原因 Review of systems系统回顾 Systematic review of major organ systems: skin, hematopoietic system ( including lymph nodes), head, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, throat, neck, breasts, and respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, musculoskeletal, nervous, endocrine, and psychiatric systems. 主要器官系统回顾:皮肤、造血系统(包括淋巴结),头、眼、耳、鼻、口、喉、 颈、乳房及呼吸系统、心血管系统、胃肠道系统、泌尿系统、肌肉骨骼系统、神经系统、内分泌和精神系统 Asking the patient’s medical history is followed by the general physical examination which includes measuring height and weight, and taking blood pressure; listening to the heart and lungs with a stethoscope; and examining eyes, ears, and mouth. Tests of hearing and vision are sometimes performed in routine physical examinations. Reflex tests are simple tests of nerve conduction that involve, among several other tests, tapping with a rubber hammer in areas such as the knee. 询问病史之后的第二步就是全面的身体检查,其内容包括测量身高和体重、血压,对心肺进行听诊,检查眼、耳和口。测试听力和视力有时候在常规身体检查中进行。反射检查是简单的神经传导检查,其项目有好几项,包括用橡皮锤在一些部位(如膝盖)的敲打 Since the body fluids often reveal important information about the nature of the disorder, laboratory testing plays an important role in determining the patient’s disease. Blood tests can determine whether the person has anemia---that is, an insufficient amount of healthy red blood cells---infection, or a blood disease, such as leukemia. Blood analysis can also uncover nutritional deficiencies and other disorders. The glucose-tolerance test, which is used to diagnose diabetes, measures insulin activity by monitoring the level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood. 因为体液常常揭示了关于疾病的重要信息,所以在确诊病情上,实验室检查起着非常重要的作用。血液检查能判断出病人是否贫血,即正常红血细胞不足,是否有感染或患有血液病,如白血病。血液分析能显示营养不良和其它的疾病。葡萄糖耐糖实验是用来检查糖尿病的,它通过检测血液里的糖份水平来测量胰岛素的活性。 Urine is also tested for glucose as well as for bacteria, protein, and other materials. Glucose in the urine is sometimes caused by diabetes. Bacteria in the urine can indicate a kidney or bladder infection, and the presence of protein may result from a kidney disorder. A stool sample is teste
d for disease-causing microorganisms and for blood, which is often a symptom of intestinal disease. 尿样检验是用来探测小便里是否有葡萄糖、细菌、蛋白质及其它物质的存在。尿液中的葡萄糖有时是由糖尿病引起的,尿液中的细菌可以显示肾脏和膀胱的感染,尿液中的蛋白质可能起源于肾脏的疾病。粪便样品的检查旨在于找寻便血和引起疾病的微生物,这些常常是肠道病的症状 Spinal fluid is examined for microorganisms and other unusual contents when a nervous system disorder is suspected. Mucus from the nose and throat can be tested to identify the organisms responsible for respiratory infections. 当怀疑有神经系统病变时,医生常常通过检查脊液来发现微生物和其它不正常成分的存在。鼻腔和喉部的粘膜检查常常可确定引起呼吸道感染的生物。 A sample of tissue can be taken from an organ or any other part of the body by a process called biopsy. The tissue is then sliced into very thin sections, stained with special dyes, and studied under the microscope to discover the abnormalities in the cells.通过活检,医生可以从人体的某个器官或其它部位抽取组织样品,然后把该样品切成非常薄的切片,用特殊的染剂加以染色,再置于显微镜下观察研究,以发现细胞组织的病变。 Radiographs, or x-ray photographs, are used to examine various parts of the body. A chest x ray, for example, can help diagnose tumors, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. X rays can also show bone fractures and other conditions of the musculoskeletal system. 放射照片,x光照片,被用来检查身体的多个部位。比如说,一张胸片有助于诊断肿瘤、肺炎和肺结核。x光照片可以显示骨折和其它有关于肌肉和骨骼系统的情况。 Radiopaque liquids are injected into the urinary tract, spinal column, circulatory system, and other areas. These materials do not allow x ray s to pass through them. Thus they allow x ray examination of soft tissues that would otherwise be invisible by x ray. Spinal cord disorders, for example, often show up in myelograms after a radiopaque liquid has been injected into the spinal canal. Various kinds of angiograms show heart and circulatory disease. In these procedures a radiopaque dye is injected into a vein or artery, x-ray photographs will then show if there is a blockage or an aneurysm.把不能穿透x光射线的液体注射入泌尿道、脊柱循环系统和其它部位。由于x光不能通过这些物质,因而使x光能够检查其它本来x光检查不了的软组织。例如,当不透射线的液体注射人脊髓管后,x光脊髓照片常常揭示脊髓的病变。不同的血管x光片显示r心脏和循环系统的疾病,在此过程中,不透射线的染色液被注入静脉或动脉,X光照片就能显示血管中是否存在阻塞或有动脉瘤的存在。 x-ray examination of the esophagu
s and stomach is carried out by having the patient swallow a radiopaque solution to highlight details in the upper gastrointestinal tract. For x raying the lower intestinal tract, the patient is given an enema.在进行食管和胃部的X光检查的时候,医生常让病人服下不透X光射线的流体,目的是让上部胃肠道受检部位特别的显著。而用X光检查肠部下端的时候,医生常常给病人施以灌肠。 CT ( computerized tomography) scanners are specialized x ray cameras that take highly detailed images of hard and soft tissues. By picturing one layer of the body’s tissues at a time, CT scanners can detect very small tumors and other disorders.计算机断层扫描仪是专业化的X光摄像机,它能拍下具有高度细节的软硬组织的照片。通过一次只拍下身体组织的一个断层,计算机断层扫描仪能侦察到很微小的肿瘤和其它病变。 Nuclear magnetic resonance, or magnetic resonance imaging, is a hazard-free, non-invasive method that uses radio waves in the presence of a strong magnetic field to probe a patient and generate visual images of thin slices of the brain, heart, liver, and other organs. The high-contrast, variable-toned images that result can uncover tumors, blood-starved tissues, and plaques. 核磁共振,或核磁共振成像,是一种没有副作用,没有伤害性,在强烈磁场下使用放射波的探测手段,它能把大脑、心脏、肝脏和其它人体器官剖析成很薄的片层,并产生高比较度、具有不同色泽的照片,能用来探测肿瘤、缺血组织及蚀斑 In the procedure termed scintigraphy, a small amount of a radioactive isotope is introduced into the body. A scintiscan camera, or gamma camera, measures the uptake and concentration of the isotope in certain tissues, such as the brain, kidney, or thyroid gland. Metabolic diseases and other disorders can be uncovered by this technique. 在一种被称为闪烁显像的方法中,少量的放射性同位素被导人人体。一部闪烁或伽玛相机可以测量某些组织中同位素的摄入和浓度,如大脑、肾脏或甲状腺。新陈代谢病和其它一些病变可以用这种技术来发现。 Ultrasonography is useful in locating tumors of the lung and abdominal cavity. It employs ultra high frequency sound waves to form television images of internal organs. Because it produces no radiation, ultrasound is sometimes used during pregnancy to determine the size and position of the fetus. 肺部和腹腔的肿瘤用超声波检测法是有效的。它使用超高频率的声波来形成内部器官的电视图像。由于无放射性,超声波有时被用于妊娠期的妇女,以确定胎儿的位置及大小。 Both the heart muscle and the nervous system produce electrical impulses that can be measured with special machines. The electrocardiograph (ECG) is useful for diagnosing certain heart conditions. With electrodes taped to a person’
s chest, the electrical activity of the heart can be recorded while the patient is either resting or performing some activity, such as walking on a treadmill. The electroencephalogram (EEG) measures the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes attached to the head. This test detects whether there is an area if irritability in the brain, such as occurs in epilepsy. The electromyogram (EMG) records the activity of nerves in the muscles. The EMG is helpful in diagnosing degenerative nerve disorders such as multiple sclerosis.心肌和神经系统均能产生电流脉冲,可以用特殊的仪器测量出来。心电图( ECG)对于诊断某些心脏病是有用的。当心电图仪的电极被固定在病人的胸部时,无论病人是在休息还是在进行某些活动,如在计步器上走动,他心脏的电流活动都可能被记录下来。脑电图( EEG)则是通过固定在病人头上的电极来测量他脑部的电流活动。它可探测出癫痫病人的大脑区是否存在一个波动很大的区域。而肌电图(EMG)可以记录下肌肉里神经的活动,对于诊断多发性硬化症这一类的神经退化病变是有效的。 Tests of pulmonary function measure the breathing capacity of the lungs and airways. By exhaling into a tube connected to a machine called a spirometer, information is obtained on respiratory functions.肺功能测试则测量肺和呼吸道的呼吸能力。通过向一根与肺量计相连的管道呼气,就能测试出呼吸功能有关的信息。 Fiber optic technology has allowed physicians to see parts of the body that previously could be seen only by performing surgery. Fiber optic tools are essentially hair-thin glass fibers that can enter small areas and can be moved deep into the body cavities. Fiber optic technology can be used to examine the colon and the bronchial tubes in the lung.光纤技术使内科医生能看到一些从前只能通过手术才能看到的部位。光纤仪器主要是像头发丝一样细的玻璃纤维,它细得可以进入很小的区域,能够深深地进入体腔内。光纤技术可以被用来检查结肠和肺部的支气管。 A pelvic examination is performed to assess the general reproductive health of a woman. The pap smear is a test for cancer of the cervix. A breast examination can detect lumps that may indicate cancer. Mammography, a procedure that involves using special x rays to produce an image of the soft tissues of the breast, is a much more reliable way to detect tumors.骨盆检查用来评价妇女的一般生殖健康情况。巴氏实验(涂片检查)用来检查官颈癌。乳房检查能探测到可能是癌的肿块,而通过使用x光来产生乳房软组织影像的乳房X光照片是探测肿瘤更为可靠的一个途径。 Skin tests are used to diagnose hypersensitivity conditions, or allergies. Psychological tests are used to diagnose learning and mental disorders. 皮试是用来诊断高敏感度状态
或过敏。心理测试是用来诊断学习上和智力发育上的问题。 Prognosis 预后 A physician may encounter another type of questions, such as, “Do you think I can get recovered from my condition?” “Can you help me to stay well?” the patient is asking for their prognosis, the forecast of the probable results of his or her disease. In fact, for a great many patients, the prognosis is their biggest concern.一个医生可能遇到另一类问题,如:“你认为我的这种情况能痊愈吗?”“你能帮我使我的病情好转吗?”患者是在向他的医生打听预后,即对他或她病情可能的发展作出预测。实际上,对于很大数量的患者来讲,预后才是他们最最关心的事。 So, it is important to tell the patient the diagnosis and discusss what to expect from the clinical course of the condition. If the illness is likely to resolve withour sequelae, reassurance is often all that is needed. However, the most difficult prognoses to discuss are those for fatal illnesses, especially many cancers. Most patients want to know even bad prognoses, but how much a physician tells a given patient should be determined primarily by the patient, not the physician. The physician has the duty to make the patient aware of his/her willingness to discuss the prognosis. Often detailed discussions are best conducted at follow-up visits, after the two have had a chance to get to know each other. The best physicians blend honest fact and hope together, helping the patient through the complicated steps of shock, denial, depression, and acceptance of fatal illness. Most importantly, they make it clear that they will not abandon the patient. 因此,告诉病人对他的病的诊断,以及和他一起探讨可以从他的治疗过程中所期盼的东西。如果他所患的疾病痊愈后不会有什么后遗症,那么对他施以安慰就行了。但要最难讨论的预后是那些致死性疾病的预后,特别是诸多癌症的预后。大多数病人想知道哪怕是最坏的预后,但针对每一个特定的病人,医生应告诉他多少,则主要取决于病人,而不是医生。医生有责任让病人意识到讨论预后与否将取决于病人的意愿。通常情况下,详细的讨论最好在随访中进行,最好在双方有机会相互了解之后。最高明的医生能将疾病的真实情况和希望交融在一起,帮助病人度过对身患致死性疾病的震惊、否认、抑郁和接受现实的复杂阶段。最为重要的是:他们能让病人明白医生是不会扔下病人不管的。 诊断在大多数的就诊过程中,病人会向医生提出一些很基础的问题,例如:“我是不是生了病?”“我的病是什么原因引起的?”这些问题促使医生去做出一个诊断,即确立生病的原因,而一个完整的诊断由病人的病史、身体检查和实验室检查所组成。 诊断的过程是由采集病人的病
史开始。医生向病人询问当前和过去所患过的疾病、家庭病史、生活习惯等等。下表展示了一个标准病史里所包含的典型内容。 病 史病人的一般情况 年龄、性别、民族、职业、生育情况(女性)主诉 用四到五个字,最好是引用患者的自述,陈述就诊的目的和病痛的持续时间。偶尔,也可将患者的要求作为主诉,如:“我需要注射流感疫苗”。患者的其他保健医生续表 姓名、地址、电话号码、与患者的关系现病史 每一种主要症状,包括什么症状、发生部位、发生时间、轻重程度、时间经过、症状好转或加重的影响因素、既往诊治情况及可能缩小诊断范围相关的问题既往史 既往所患疾病及住院治疗情况、计划免疫、用药情况、过敏史、吸烟、饮酒及有无药物成瘾等社会及职业史 描述患者日常生活中典型的一天以及目前疾病对其的影响;患者可获得的社会支持(来自家庭、朋友或同事)及职业史家族史 家族中的遗传病史,家族成员的寿命及死亡原因系统回顾 主要器官系统回顾:皮肤、造血系统(包括淋巴结),头、眼、耳、鼻、口、喉、 颈、乳房及呼吸系统、心血管系统、胃肠道系统、泌尿系统、肌肉骨骼系统、神经系统、内分泌和精神系统 询问病史之后的第二步就是全面的身体检查,其内容包括测量身高和体重、血压,对心肺进行听诊,检查眼、耳和口。测试听力和视力有时候在常规身体检查中进行。反射检查是简单的神经传导检查,其项目有好几项,包括用橡皮锤在一些部位(如膝盖)的敲打。 因为体液常常揭示了关于疾病的重要信息,所以在确诊病情上,实验室检查起着非常重要的作用。血液检查能判断出病人是否贫血,即正常红血细胞不足,是否有感染或患有血液病,如白血病。血液分析能显示营养不良和其它的疾病。葡萄糖耐糖实验是用来检查糖尿病的,它通过检测血液里的糖份水平来测量胰岛素的活性。 尿样检验是用来探测小便里是否有葡萄糖、细菌、蛋白质及其它物质的存在。尿液中的葡萄糖有时是由糖尿病引起的,尿液中的细菌可以显示肾脏和膀胱的感染,尿液中的蛋白质可能起源于肾脏的疾病。粪便样品的检查旨在于找寻便血和引起疾病的微生物,这些常常是肠道病的症状。 当怀疑有神经系统病变时,医生常常通过检查脊液来发现微生物和其它不正常成分的存在。鼻腔和喉部的粘膜检查常常可确定引起呼吸道感染的生物。 通过活检,医生可以从人体的某个器官或其它部位抽取组织样品,然后把该样品切成非常薄的切片,用特殊的染剂加以染色,再置于显微镜下观察研究,以发现细胞组织的病变。 放射照
片,x光照片,被用来检查身体的多个部位。比如说,一张胸片有助于诊断肿瘤、肺炎和肺结核。x光照片可以显示骨折和其它有关于肌肉和骨骼系统的情况。 把不能穿透x光射线的液体注射入泌尿道、脊柱循环系统和其它部位。由于x光不能通过这些物质,因而使x光能够检查其它本来x光检查不了的软组织。例如,当不透射线的液体注射人脊髓管后,x光脊髓照片常常揭示脊髓的病变。不同的血管x光片显示r心脏和循环系统的疾病,在此过程中,不透射线的染色液被注入静脉或动脉,X光照片就能显示血管中是否存在阻塞或有动脉瘤的存在。 在进行食管和胃部的X光检查的时候,医生常让病人服下不透X光射线的流体,目的是让上部胃肠道受检部位特别的显著。而用X光检查肠部下端的时候,医生常常给病人施以灌肠。 计算机断层扫描仪是专业化的X光摄像机,它能拍下具有高度细节的软硬组织的照片。通过一次只拍下身体组织的一个断层,计算机断层扫描仪能侦察到很微小的肿瘤和其它病变。 核磁共振,或核磁共振成像,是一种没有副作用,没有伤害性,在强烈磁场下使用放射波的探测手段,它能把大脑、心脏、肝脏和其它人体器官剖析成很薄的片层,并产生高比较度、具有不同色泽的照片,能用来探测肿瘤、缺血组织及蚀斑。 在一种被称为闪烁显像的方法中,少量的放射性同位素被导人人体。一部闪烁或伽玛相机可以测量某些组织中同位素的摄入和浓度,如大脑、肾脏或甲状腺。新陈代谢病和其它一些病变可以用这种技术来发现。 肺部和腹腔的肿瘤用超声波检测法是有效的。它使用超高频率的声波来形成内部器官的电视图像。由于无放射性,超声波有时被用于妊娠期的妇女,以确定胎儿的位置及大小。 心肌和神经系统均能产生电流脉冲,可以用特殊的仪器测量出来。心电图( ECG)对于诊断某些心脏病是有用的。当心电图仪的电极被固定在病人的胸部时,无论病人是在休息还是在进行某些活动,如在计步器上走动,他心脏的电流活动都可能被记录下来。脑电图( EEG)则是通过固定在病人头上的电极来测量他脑部的电流活动。它可探测出癫痫病人的大脑区是否存在一个波动很大的区域。而肌电图(EMG)可以记录下肌肉里神经的活动,对于诊断多发性硬化症这一类的神经退化病变是有效的。 肺功能测试则测量肺和呼吸道的呼吸能力。通过向一根与肺量计相连的管道呼气,就能测试出呼吸功能有关的信息。 光纤技术使内科医生能看到一些从前只能通过手术才能看到的部位。光纤仪器主要是像头发丝一样细的玻璃纤维,它细得可以进入很小的区域,能
够深深地进入体腔内。光纤技术可以被用来检查结肠和肺部的支气管。 骨盆检查用来评价妇女的一般生殖健康情况。巴氏实验(涂片检查)用来检查官颈癌。乳房检查能探测到可能是癌的肿块,而通过使用x光来产生乳房软组织影像的乳房X光照片是探测肿瘤更为可靠的一个途径。 皮试是用来诊断高敏感度状态或过敏。心理测试是用来诊断学习上和智力发育上的问题。 预后。一个医生可能遇到另一类问题,如:“你认为我的这种情况能痊愈吗?”“你能帮我使我的病情好转吗?”患者是在向他的医生打听预后,即对他或她病情可能的发展作出预测。实际上,对于很大数量的患者来讲,预后才是他们最最关心的事。 因此,告诉病人对他的病的诊断,以及和他一起探讨可以从他的治疗过程中所期盼的东西。如果他所患的疾病痊愈后不会有什么后遗症,那么对他施以安慰就行了。但要最难讨论的预后是那些致死性疾病的预后,特别是诸多癌症的预后。大多数病人想知道哪怕是最坏的预后,但针对每一个特定的病人,医生应告诉他多少,则主要取决于病人,而不是医生。医生有责任让病人意识到讨论预后与否将取决于病人的意愿。通常情况下,详细的讨论最好在随访中进行,最好在双方有机会相互了解之后。最高明的医生能将疾病的真实情况和希望交融在一起,帮助病人度过对身患致死性疾病的震惊、否认、抑郁和接受现实的复杂阶段。最为重要的是:他们能让病人明白医生是不会扔下病人不管的。