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Building engineering biddingAbstract: Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed. The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market. This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively. bidding documents should be well formulated ,which is important to a successful bidding and direct influence the success or failure of the bidding the success or failure of the bidding for the survival and development of enterprise has a direct impact, so we have a high quality, improve the bid documents of the unit, prevent invalid and successful pass mark appear, become a research topic.key : bidding drawbacks of unfair competition countermeasuresBidding is a form of project transactions, project bidding process is to determine the successful bidder and the cost of the process and the price of the project, project bidding work of a very important link, do a good job bidding to determine the price, we can effectively control construction costs, and create a fair and equitable market environment, create orderly competition mechanism. Bidding in construction activities, construction enterprises in order to tender invincible works to be successful, And from the contracted projects profitable, it needs to integrate various subjective and objective conditions, the tender research strategy determine tender. Tender bidding strategy, including pricing strategies and skills. All of the strategies and skills from the numerous contractors bidding on the accumulated experience and objective understanding of the law and of the actual situation understanding, but also with the contractor's decision-making ability and courage are closely related.Bidding documents is the general programme and play book of the bidding activity through the process of bidding. The bidding documents willspecify that How to conduct each bidding work, how to dispatch bidding documents, the requirements for tenderer,how to rate and decide bidding and the procedures of bidding. Therefore, the personnel who is responsible for prepare bidding documents should first have a general view of the bidding work, include all the requirements and arrangements into the bidding documents. If meet problems that have not been considered previously, then resolve them one by one during the preparation. The course of bidding documents preparation is also the course of making bidding scheme .In another respect, bidding documents is also the legal instruments. Besides relevant law and rules, the bidding documents are the common game rules that bidder,bidding agent and tenderer should subject to through the bidding. Bidding documents are the legal instruments that all the three bidding related parties should subject to, have legal force, therefore, the bidding documents -making personnel required to have the awareness and quality of legal in order to reflect the fair, just and legal requirement in the bidding documents.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role. But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve. This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated. Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed. The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market. This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China'sconstruction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role. But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve. This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated. The practice of project bidding purpose is to market competition of openness, fairness and justice. However, due to the construction market development is not standard, management system and the experience of inadequate, architectural engineering bidding in concrete operation exist in ACTS of unfair competition, and some drawbacks. This obviously violate the bidding, the bidding process, and will lose its significance for other bidder fails to bid is unjust, disturbed the bidding (project contracting market economic order, for activities), this kind of behavior must be prohibited, only in this way can we make construction engineering competitive trading activity lawfully healthy. This subject will I learned and social practice, present situation and construction project bidding system is expounded, and the disadvantages of bidding for construction project with ACTS of unfair competition phenomenon and analysis of causes, and finally make corresponding preventive countermeasures.Construction cost management system, both theoretical discussion, but also need to practice innovation. Under the conditions of market economy, project cost management, competitive and orderly market for construction management services platform structures. In such a premise, the original scale and method of valuation is inappropriate, and this needs to be reformed and improved. The spirit of "the government's macro regulation and control, enterprise autonomy offer, the market will price" principle, to implement the implementation specification bill of quantity. Inventory Valuation bidding activities are based on market economy mechanism, based on legal, scientific, fair, open and reasonable way to determine the winning bidder of an economic activity. Bidding is bidding activities constitute two basic aspects. The bidding activity is merely that by bidding to choose the one with the workConstruction process capability, moderate cost, quality is excellent, short duration of construction enterprises, and this is the ultimate goal tender. I have participated in internships over the course of the project bidding, and completed over part of the calculation of quantities, combined with graduate experience in the design process, a brief analysis of the mode Quantities Call for TenderThe meaning of risk and risk characteristics of the general construction, the lowest price sealed bidding construction method produces several risks and incentives, according to their characteristics discussed the feasibility of risk control and prevention. Comparison of engineering and engineering security risk management, insurance, similarities and differences between the two projects and benefits; construction project bidding and tendering process characteristics of human behavior is analyzed to reveal the bidder's risk appetite and behavioral characteristics with changes in the external environment change, when the default punishment is light, the bidder preference appetite for risk and default penalties, with the increase exceeds a certain value, the risk of bidders to show preference for behavior change to avoid the risk of penalties, the greater the bidder biased in favor of a more risk-averse behavior, the results of the control and prevention of risk behavior of bidders has an important and practical significanceConstruction Cost Management from the "quantity-one price" plan model to "price of separation volume" model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost. This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation. It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.With the construction of in-depth development of the market, the traditional fixed pricing model no longer suited to market-oriented economic development needs. In order to adapt to the current project bidding by the market needs of a project cost, we must work on the existing valuation methods and pricing model for reform, the implementation of projects bill pricing. Engineering is a list of pricing model and adapt to the market economy, allowing independent contractor pricing through market competition determine prices, with the international practice of pricing model. With the bill pricing model projects to promote, in accordance with international bidding practices is imperative. Therefore, "the lowest reasonable price of the successful bidder" My future is the most important evaluation methods. At this stage due to the implementation of projects bill pricing model and the problems mainly against China at this stage " in the minimum reasonable price of the principles of the successful bidder, most contractors have not yet set up their own enterprises of scale, companies unable to determine the reasonable Cost. This article is a scientific and fast set "reasonable cost" to study the key. First, from the project cost of the basic concept, of the engineering bill pricing model under the cost structure, to accurately predict costs of the project provided the basis, considering the average cost of the social cost to individual enterprises and the tender stage of the cost estimates. Followed through on fuzzy math and technology for smooth in-depth analysis, through "close-degree," the concept of reasonable fuzzy math and exponential smoothing technologies, construction of the project cost vague prediction model, and in accordance with the relevant information and statistics Information and experience to establish a "framework structure," the comparison works Construction Cost Management from the "quantity-one price" plan model to "price of separation volume" model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost. This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of projectbidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation. It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.A healthy bidding system should be in accordance with the "open, fair and justice" and the principle of good faith, and establish a unified, open, competitive and orderly construction market. In view of the current problems existing in the bidding process, adopt regulations, and formulate and perfect the institution, strengthening process supervision measures, they can better regulate construction market order, prevent corruption from its source, purify construction market, promote the construction market order progressively toward standardization, institutionalized, and constantly improve the quality and level of the bidding work.。

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外文文献：The Significance of the Tendering Contract on The Opportunities for Clients to Encourage Contractor-led Innovation ABSTRACTDuring the tendering process for most major construction contracts there is the opportunity for bidders to suggest alternative innovative solutions. Clearly clients are keen to take advantage of these opportunities, and equally contractors want to use their expertise to establish competitive advantage. Both parties may very well benefit from the encouragement of such innovation and the availability of cheaper methods of construction than have been contemplated by the tendering authority.However recent developments in common law have raised doubts about the ability of owners to seek alternative tenders without placing themselves at risk of litigation. This common law has recognised the existence of the so-called ‘tendering contract’ or ‘process contract’. Since the tendering process is inherently price competitive, the application of the tendering contract concept is likely to severely inhibit the opportunity for alternative tenders.This paper is primarily based on the literature review. The aim of this paper is to highlight the problems with the competitive tendering process in relation to contractor-led innovation and explore ways in which owners can develop procurement procedures that will allow and encourage innovation from contractors.PROBLEMS WITH COMPETITIVE TENDERINGThe traditional tendering process was designed to produce direct price competition for a specified product. Evaluation of tenders could only be confined to price alone by creating a system in which price is the only criterion that could vary while design and technical content are the same for each competing tender. Albeit the contract period is stipulated as constant, owners often encourage tenderers to submit a second tender which offers an alternative price for an alternative time performance. Tenderers would achieve this by reworking their tender programme, finding the optimum contract period, and adjusting the tender price accordingly. Each tenderer would compete to find novel ways of organising the work method that would allow not only the minimum construction cost but also maximum profit margin within the price proposed. However,this process is always confined by the boundary of the owner’s design. In this way, the successful tenderer’s scope to be innovative is very limited .When evaluating alternative tenders, the owner is confronted with the duty of equal treatment and fairness to all tenderers. If one is to be preferred on an alternative tender, which is not a conforming tender in terms of the original invitation, how can all tenderers be treated equally and fairly? Any individualism exhibited on the part of a tenderer outside the permitted scope of price and time must disqualify that tender from the owner’s consideration because it does not conform to the invitation. Therefore, the traditional tendering process prevents, restricts or even discourages contractor-led innovation .Songer and Ibbs believed that the use of design-and-build procurement method would encourage innovation in the building process. This procurement method imposes single point responsibility on contractor for the complete building and its tendering processdiffer from that of the traditional procurement method in that it must be capable of evaluating design as well as production capability, time and price, all on a competitive basis. This is not easy. Competitive design is not easy to evaluate in the context of tendering. The objectivity appears to be replaced by subjectivity in picking the winner, and the apparent integrity of the bidding process is lost, unless very clear criteria are established at the outset for evaluation of competing designs. This also means to say that the tender process rules must be designed as such that itencourages contractor-led innovation, yet at the same time places some limit on the scope for such innovation. The limits must be such that the project delivered is still the project for which tenders were invited. Songer and Ibbs, with respect to this aspect, asserted that one concern of public agencies is how to allow for innovation while maintaining appropriate control of certain design aspects of the project. Determining an appropriate balance of innovation and control in design and adequately communicating the desired balance to potential design-and-build tenderers provides a significant challenge to public sector agencies.THE ‘TENDERING CONTRACT’Developments in the law relating to tenders traditionally treated an ‘invitation to tender’ or a ‘request for tenders’ as no more than an invitation to treat, an indication that the owner was ready to do business – something prior to and short of an offer . In other words, an invitation to treat was not an offer to make a contract with any person who might act on the invitation, butmerely a first step in negotiation which may, or may not, lead to a contract. When each tenderer submitted its tender in the prescribed form, it amounted to an offer which could be regarded as an offer to makea contract. If the offer met with unequivocal acceptance, contractual obligation arose between the owner and the successful tenderer .Recently, the modern view turns this theory upside down. There exists what is known as the ‘two contract’ analysis involving the emergence of the ‘tendering contract’. The invitation to tender is now in some circumstances to be treated as an offer to make a contract which a tenderer accepts when it submits a conforming tender. The owner makes an offer to each tenderer which might be worded as follows:“If you submit a tender in response to my invitation and which complies with the stipulations made, I will consider that tender …” .There is no obligation at all at this point on the side of the tenderers, but if a conforming tender is submitted, a contract is formed between owner and tenderer which has been described here as the ‘tendering contract’ or described elsewhere as a ‘pre-award contract’or ‘process contract’. This contract is quite distinct from the contract eventually entered into with the successful tenderer, called the main contract. Obligations of a contractual nature therefore arise between the owner and each tenderer who has submitted a proposal. Justas the tender contract places obligations on the owner, each tender also imposes obligations on the tenderer. Once the tender has been submitted to the owner, meaning the tender or first contract has been formed, the owner becomes obliged to each tenderer to perform its side of bargain, which at this stage is an obligation to consider all conforming tenders. By the same token, tenderers become obliged to not simply withdraw their tender, the tender will remain open for a stipulated period of time. Under the ‘two contract’ principle,a tenderer who makes a mistake may find that thetender is accepted with no opportunity to escape even if there is an error in tender compilation .For the sake of clarity, it may be stated that the submission of a conforming tender in response to an invitation can create contractual obligations for both parties. In the case: Ontario v. Ron Engineering & Construction Eastern Ltd, the Court of Canada held that a contract was brought into being automatically upon the submission of a responsive tender by each tenderer. Having established that a ‘tendering contract’ exists, it is then important to constitute what the terms are of that contract. The terms are derived from the tender conditions, the ‘tendercode’, andother relevant material such as legislation and correspondence . All or some of the provisions of the ‘tender code’ may be incorporated in the ‘tendering contract’ by reference and/or by implication. A terms may be implied to the effect that the owner must consider all conforming tenders, must treat all tenderers equally and fairly, and must award only a contract for the project tendered for.GUIDANCE ON CONTRACTOR SELECTIONThe Significance of Probity in TenderingProbity is defined in various dict ionaries as “moral excellence, integrity, uprightness, conscientiousness, honesty, sincerity”. In the tendering context, it generally depends upon confidentiality of documentation and decision making, objective and consistent assessment at each phase of decision making and resolution of any possible, perceived or actual conflicts of interest. Thus, one of the primary objectives of probity in tendering is to maintain the integrity of the bidding process. The Canadian court in the Ron Engineering case referred to this as the obligation of owners to treat all tenderers equally and fairly.Johnstone asserts that transparency in the entire contracting out process is essential so that potential contractors and members of the public can have confidence in the outcomes. If integrity and impartiality are not evident, tenderers may be reluctant to make a bid, the formulation of which requires significant amount of time and resources. In that case, competition is likely to be lessened and the best value for money may not be achieved.In principle, recent development in common law attempts to maintain some integrity in the tendering process by recognising the existence of the parties’ obligations to one another so that the owner cannot simply reject or accept tenders as it pleases, or cannot negotiate with one or more tenderers to produce satisfactory deal. As mentioned previously, the contractual obligation between the parties is referred to as the ‘tendering contract’. Breach of the ‘tendering contract’entitles the injured party to the normal remedy of damages. Probity in the tendering process ensures that fair and equal treatment to all tenderers is put in place and maintained so that no term of the ‘tendering contract’ is likely to be breached. Accord ing to Johnstone, common probity objectives are:·to ensure all respondents are assessed objectively and consistently· to ensure integrity in all evaluation and selection process· to ensure all confidential information is secured· to address any potential, or actual conflicts of interest· to promote defensibility of process.Guidelines to Avoid Breach of the ‘Tendering Contract’ in the Competitive Bidding Process On conclusion, Craig suggests some guidelines on how alternative tenders and tenders involving design proposals might be taken legitimately by the owner so as to avoid or minimise the likelihood of the clients placing themselves at risk of litigation due to a breach of the contractual obligations arising out of the ‘tendering contract’. They are specified as follows.· Under the ‘tendering contract’ the owner is obliged to treat all tenders equally and fairly. All conforming tenders must therefore be considered.·An effective ‘privilege clause’ which says something like “any tender will notnecessarily be accepted” will normally prevent an owner becoming obliged to accept any tender. All tenders may therefore be properly rejected. On the other hand, a term to the effect that a contract will be awarded to the lowest, or highest, bidder is enforceable. This implies that an owner cannot use the ‘privilege clause’ as an excuse for deviating from the contract evaluation and award criteria set down in the tender invitation or documents. Or, put it another way, the‘privilege clause’ does not allow the owner to: (i) choose comparatively among the tenderers based on criteria that has not been disclosed to the tenderers; or (ii) to award to another tenderer or another person something other than the main contract.· It would be a breach of the tendering obligation of equal and fair treatment for the owner to negotiate with one tenderer on terms which do not apply to other tenderers.·All tenderers are entitled to know the basis on which tenders will be evaluated and on which acontract-award decision will be made.·If innovation from tenderers is required, an owner must expressly create the right for a tenderer to submit an alternative tender. If the right then exists, the owner is obliged to consider such proposals. Tenderers must be informed of criteria for evaluation of such alternative proposals.·Tender conditions must define the scope of alternative tenders. That scope must be not too tight so as to restrict innovation, but not too wide so as to result in a proposal for a scheme quite different to the one originally tendered for.·Tender conditions for projects involving design must include criteria for evaluating that design. The criteria must be made known to all tenderers.·It is a breach of the ‘tendering contract’ for the owner to award a contract to a tenderer who offers something different to what was asked for in the invitation to tender.Furthermore, Johnstone adds· Invitation document should be accessible to all potential bidders. They should be expressed in readily understood terms.·It is easier to formulate appropriate selection criteria when the project specifications are developed first. Clear specifications and selection criteria assist possible contractors to formulate bids appropriately.· A policy in relation to non-conforming bids should be formulated and documented in the invitation documentation.·Often assessment of bids will involve a number of assessment panels. In this situation, there should be a separation of assessment panels. For example, a panel of experts may review financial viability whilst another will look at those same bids from a design perspective. Assessment panels would commonly be quarantined through the evaluation period. SUMMARYThis paper highlights the problems with competitive tendering in relation to contractor-led innovation. In the traditional method, contractor-led innovation may be encouraged at the tendering stage. However, to enable acceptance by the owner, criteria for evaluation of and the scope of alternative tenders must be clearly defined in the tender document. By the same token, tender conditions for projects involving design must include criteria for evaluating that design t.Guidance has been outlined of how to reduce the risk of owner falling into a breach of the ‘tendering contract’ in the competitive tendering process when it involves alternative tenders or design proposals. One of the alternative contractor selection methods identified has been briefly described.。

招投标外文文献

外文文献：The Significance of the Tendering Contract on The Opportunities for Clients to Encourage Contractor-led Innovation ABSTRACTDuring the tendering process for most major construction contracts there is the opportunity for bidders to suggest alternative innovative solutions. Clearly clients are keen to take advantage of these opportunities, and equally contractors want to use their expertise to establish competitive advantage. Both parties may very well benefit from the encouragement of such innovation and the availability of cheaper methods of construction than have been contemplated by the tendering authority.However recent developments in common law have raised doubts about the ability of owners to seek alternative tenders without placing themselves at risk of litigation. This common law has recognised the existence of the so-called ‘tendering contract’ or ‘process contract’. Since the tendering process is inherently price competitive, the application of the tendering contract concept is likely to severely inhibit the opportunity for alternative tenders.This paper is primarily based on the literature review. The aim of this paper is to highlight the problems with the competitive tendering process in relation to contractor-led innovation and explore ways in which owners can develop procurement procedures that will allow and encourage innovation from contractors.PROBLEMS WITH COMPETITIVE TENDERINGThe traditional tendering process was designed to produce direct price competition for a specified product. Evaluation of tenders could only be confined to price alone by creating a system in which price is the only criterion that could vary while design and technical content are the same for each competing tender. Albeit the contract period is stipulated as constant, owners often encourage tenderers to submit a second tender which offers an alternative price for an alternative time performance. Tenderers would achieve this by reworking their tender programme, finding the optimum contract period, and adjusting the tender price accordingly. Each tenderer would compete to find novel ways of organising the work method that would allow not only the minimum construction cost but also maximum profit margin within the priceproposed. However, this process is always confined by the boundary of the owner’s design. In this way, the successful tenderer’s scope to be innovative is very limited .When evaluating alternative tenders, the owner is confronted with the duty of equal treatment and fairness to all tenderers. If one is to be preferred on an alternative tender, which is not a conforming tender in terms of the original invitation, how can all tenderers be treated equally and fairly Any individualism exhibited on the part of a tenderer outside the permitted scope of price and time must disqualify that tender from the owner’s consideration because it does not conform to the invitation. Therefore, the traditional tendering process prevents, restricts or even discourages contractor-led innovation .Songer and Ibbs believed that the use of design-and-build procurement method would encourage innovation in the building process. This procurement method imposes single point responsibility on contractor for the complete building and its tendering processdiffer from that of the traditional procurement method in that it must be capable of evaluating design as well as production capability, time and price, all on a competitive basis. This is not easy. Competitive design is not easy to evaluate in the context of tendering. The objectivity appears to be replaced by subjectivity in picking the winner, and the apparent integrity of the bidding process is lost, unless very clear criteria are established at the outset for evaluation of competing designs. This also means to say that the tender process rules must be designed as such that itencourages contractor-led innovation, yet at the same time places some limit on the scope for such innovation. The limits must be such that the project delivered is still the project for which tenders were invited. Songer and Ibbs, with respect to this aspect, asserted that one concern of public agencies is how to allow for innovation while maintaining appropriate control of certain design aspects of the project. Determining an appropriate balance of innovation and control in design and adequately communicating the desired balance to potential design-and-build tenderers provides a significant challenge to public sector agencies.THE ‘TENDERING CONTRACT’Developments i n the law relating to tenders traditionally treated an ‘invitation to tender’ or a ‘request for tenders’ as no more than an invitation to treat, an indication that the owner was ready to do business –something prior to and short of an offer . In other words, an invitation to treat was not an offer to make a contract with any person who might act on theinvitation, but merely a first step in negotiation which may, or may not, lead to a contract. When each tenderer submitted its tender in the prescribed form, it amounted to an offer which could be regarded as an offer to makea contract. If the offer met with unequivocal acceptance, contractual obligation arose between the owner and the successful tenderer .Recently, the modern view turns this theory upside down. There exists what is known as the ‘two contract’ analysis involving the emergence of the ‘tendering contract’. The invitation to tender is now in some circumstances to be treated as an offer to make a contract which a tenderer accepts when it submits a conforming tender. The owner makes an offer to each tenderer which might be worded as follows:“If you submit a tender in response to my invitation and which complies with the stipulations made, I will consider that tender …” .There is no obligation at all at this point on the side of the tenderers, but if a conforming tender is submitted, a contract is formed between owner and tenderer which has been described here as the ‘tendering contract’ or described elsewhere as a ‘pre-award contract’ or ‘process contract’. This contract is quite distinct from the contract eventually entered into with the successful tenderer, called the main contract. Obligations of a contractual nature therefore arise between the owner and each tenderer who has submitted a proposal. Justas the tender contract places obligations on the owner, each tender also imposes obligations on the tenderer. Once the tender has been submitted to the owner, meaning the tender or first contract has been formed, the owner becomes obliged to each tenderer to perform its side of bargain, which at this stage is an obligation to consider all conforming tenders. By the same token, tenderers become obliged to not simply withdraw their tender, the tender will remain open for a stipulated period of time. Under the ‘two contract’ principle,a tenderer who makes a mistake may find that thetender is accepted with no opportunity to escape even if there is an error in tender compilation .For the sake of clarity, it may be stated that the submission of a conforming tender in response to an invitation can create contractual obligations for both parties. In the case: Ontario v. Ron Engineering & Construction Eastern Ltd, the Court of Canada held that a contract was brought into being automatically upon the submission of a responsive tender by each tenderer. Having established that a ‘tendering contract’ exists, it is then important to constitute what theterms are of that contract. The terms are derived from the tender conditions, the ‘tendercode’, and other relevant material such as legislation and correspondence . All or some of the provisions of the ‘tender code’ may be incorporated in the ‘tendering contract’ by reference and/or by implication. A terms may be implied to the effect that the owner must consider all conforming tenders, must treat all tenderers equally and fairly, and must award only a contract for the project tendered for.GUIDANCE ON CONTRACTOR SELECTIONThe Significance of Probity in TenderingProbity is defined in various dicti onaries as “moral excellence, integrity, uprightness, conscientiousness, honesty, sincerity”. In the tendering context, it generally depends upon confidentiality of documentation and decision making, objective and consistent assessment at each phase of decision making and resolution of any possible, perceived or actual conflicts of interest. Thus, one of the primary objectives of probity in tendering is to maintain the integrity of the bidding process. The Canadian court in the Ron Engineering case referred to this as the obligation of owners to treat all tenderers equally and fairly.Johnstone asserts that transparency in the entire contracting out process is essential so that potential contractors and members of the public can have confidence in the outcomes. If integrity and impartiality are not evident, tenderers may be reluctant to make a bid, the formulation of which requires significant amount of time and resources. In that case, competition is likely to be lessened and the best value for money may not be achieved.In principle, recent development in common law attempts to maintain some integrity in the tendering process by recognising the existence of the parties’ obligations to one another so that the owner cannot simply reject or accept tenders as it pleases, or cannot negotiate with one or more tenderers to produce satisfactory deal. As mentioned previously, the contractual obligation between the parties is referred to as the ‘tendering contract’. Breach of the ‘tendering contract’ entitles the injured party to the normal remedy of damages. Probity in the tendering process ensures that fair and equal treatment to all tenderers is put in place and maintained so that no term of the ‘tendering contract’ is likely to be breached. Accordi ng to Johnstone, common probity objectives are:·to ensure all respondents are assessed objectively and consistently· to ensure integrity in all evaluation and selection process· to ensure all confidential information is secured· to address any potential, or actual conflicts of interest· to promote defensibility of process.Guidelines to Avoid Breach of the ‘Tendering Contract’ in the Competitive Bidding Process On conclusion, Craig suggests some guidelines on how alternative tenders and tenders involving design proposals might be taken legitimately by the owner so as to avoid or minimise the likelihood of the clients placing themselves at risk of litigation due to a breach of the contractual obligations arising out of the ‘tendering contract’. They are specified as follows.· Under the ‘tendering contract’ the owner is obliged to treat all tenders equally and fairly. All conforming tenders must therefore be considered.·An effective ‘privilege clause’ which says something like “any tender will notnecessarily be accepted” will normally prevent an owner becoming obliged to accept any tender. All tenders may therefore be properly rejected. On the other hand, a term to the effect that a contract will be awarded to the lowest, or highest, bidder is enforceable. This implies that an owner cannot use the ‘privilege clause’ as an excuse for deviating from the contract evaluation and award criteria set down in the tender invitation or documents. Or, put it another way, the‘privi lege clause’ does not allow the owner to: (i) choose comparatively among the tenderers based on criteria that has not been disclosed to the tenderers; or (ii) to award to another tenderer or another person something other than the main contract.· It would be a breach of the tendering obligation of equal and fair treatment for the owner to negotiate with one tenderer on terms which do not apply to other tenderers.·All tenderers are entitled to know the basis on which tenders will be evaluated and on which acontract-award decision will be made.·If innovation from tenderers is required, an owner must expressly create the right for a tenderer to submit an alternative tender. If the right then exists, the owner is obliged to consider such proposals. Tenderers must be informed of criteria for evaluation of such alternative proposals.·Tender conditions must define the scope of alternative tenders. That scope must be not too tight so as to restrict innovation, but not too wide so as to result in a proposal for a schemequite different to the one originally tendered for.·Tender conditions for projects involving design must include criteria for evaluating that design. The criteria must be made known to all tenderers.·It is a breach of the ‘tendering contract’ for the owner to award a contract to a tenderer who offers something different to what was asked for in the invitation to tender.Furthermore, Johnstone adds·Invitation document should be accessible to all potential bidders. They should be expressed in readily understood terms.· It is easier to formulate appropriate selection criteria when the project specifications are developed first. Clear specifications and selection criteria assist possible contractors to formulate bids appropriately.· A policy in relation to non-conforming bids should be formulated and documented in the invitation documentation.·Often assessment of bids will involve a number of assessment panels. In this situation, there should be a separation of assessment panels. For example, a panel of experts may review financial viability whilst another will look at those same bids from a design perspective. Assessment panels would commonly be quarantined through the evaluation period. SUMMARYThis paper highlights the problems with competitive tendering in relation to contractor-led innovation. In the traditional method, contractor-led innovation may be encouraged at the tendering stage. However, to enable acceptance by the owner, criteria for evaluation of and the scope of alternative tenders must be clearly defined in the tender document. By the same token, tender conditions for projects involving design must include criteria for evaluating that design t.Guidance has been outlined of how to reduce the risk of owner falling into a breach of the ‘tendering contract’ in the competitive tendering process when it involves alternative tenders or design proposals. One of the alternative contractor selection methods identified has been briefly described.。

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外文文献：The Significance of the Tendering Contract on The Opportunities for Clients to Encourage Contractor—ledInnovationABSTRACTDuring the tendering process for most major construction contracts there is the opportunity for bidders to suggest alternative innovative solutions. Clearly clients are keen to take advantage of these opportunities, and equally contractors want to use their expertise to establish competitive advantage. Both parties may very well benefit from the encouragement of such innovation and the availability of cheaper methods of construction than have been contemplated by the tendering authority.However recent developments in common law have raised doubts about the ability of owners to seek alternative tenders without placing themselves at risk of litigation. This common law has recognised the existence of the so—called ‘tendering contract’ or ‘process contract'. Since the tendering process is inherently price competitive，the application of the tendering contract concept is likely to severely inhibit the opportunity for alternative tenders。

外国关于招标文件的文献

Abstract:This paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of bidding documents in the context of international procurement. Bidding documents play a crucial role in ensuring transparency, fairness, and efficiency in the procurement process. The paper explores the components of bidding documents, their significance, and the challenges associated with their preparation and utilization. It also examines the legal and regulatory frameworks governing bidding documents in various countries and suggests best practices for their preparation.1. Introduction1.1 BackgroundInternational procurement is a complex process involving multiple stakeholders, including buyers, suppliers, and regulatory bodies. The procurement process is governed by legal and regulatory frameworks that vary across countries. Bidding documents serve as a cornerstone in this process, providing essential guidelines and requirements for suppliers to respond to procurement tenders.1.2 PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze the role of bidding documents in international procurement, highlighting their importance, components, and challenges. It also aims to provide insights into the legal and regulatory frameworks governing bidding documents and offer best practices for their preparation.2. Components of Bidding Documents2.1 IntroductionBidding documents are comprehensive documents that outline the procurement process, requirements, and evaluation criteria. Thefollowing are the key components of bidding documents:2.2 Tender NoticeThe tender notice provides general information about the procurement process, including the name of the buyer, the scope of the project, and the deadline for submitting bids.2.3 Technical SpecificationsTechnical specifications detail the requirements, standards, and performance criteria for the goods or services being procured. This section is crucial for ensuring that suppliers understand the technical aspects of the project.2.4 Terms of ReferenceTerms of reference outline the scope of work, responsibilities, and deliverables expected from the supplier. This section helps both the buyer and the supplier to align their expectations and deliverables.2.5 Evaluation CriteriaEvaluation criteria define the criteria used to assess and compare bids submitted by suppliers. These criteria may include price, technical competence, past performance, and compliance with legal and regulatory requirements.2.6 Financial ProvisionsFinancial provisions include information about the budget, payment terms, and any financial guarantees required from the supplier.2.7 Contractual ClausesContractual clauses outline the legal obligations and rights of both the buyer and the supplier. This section is essential for ensuring that both parties are protected throughout the procurement process.3. Significance of Bidding Documents3.1 TransparencyBidding documents ensure transparency by providing clear and comprehensive information about the procurement process, requirements,and evaluation criteria. This transparency fosters trust among stakeholders and reduces the risk of corruption and favoritism.3.2 FairnessBy outlining the evaluation criteria and requirements, bidding documents promote fairness in the procurement process. Suppliers are given equal opportunities to bid, and the evaluation process is based on objective criteria.3.3 EfficiencyBidding documents streamline the procurement process by providing a structured framework for suppliers to follow. This efficiency reduces the time and resources required for procurement, resulting in cost savings for both buyers and suppliers.4. Challenges in Preparing Bidding Documents4.1 ComplexityPreparing comprehensive bidding documents can be a complex task, requiring a deep understanding of the project requirements, legal and regulatory frameworks, and the supplier market.4.2 Legal and Regulatory ComplianceEnsuring compliance with the legal and regulatory frameworks governing bidding documents is crucial. Failure to comply can lead to legal challenges and the cancellation of the procurement process.4.3 Language and Cultural BarriersInternational procurement often involves stakeholders from different countries with different languages and cultural backgrounds. Overcoming language and cultural barriers can be challenging when preparing bidding documents.5. Legal and Regulatory Frameworks5.1 International FrameworksInternational frameworks, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Government Procurement (GPA) and the United Nations Guidelines on Public Procurement, provide a global framework for bidding documents and procurement processes.5.2 National FrameworksNational legal and regulatory frameworks vary across countries. For example, the United States has the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR), while the European Union has the Public Sector Directive on Public Procurement.6. Best Practices for Preparing Bidding Documents6.1 Consultation with StakeholdersInvolving stakeholders, such as legal advisors, procurement professionals, and technical experts, during the preparation of bidding documents can ensure that all requirements and considerations are addressed.6.2 Clarity and ConcisenessBidding documents should be clear, concise, and easy to understand. Avoiding legal jargon and using plain language can help suppliers better understand the requirements.6.3 Compliance with Legal and Regulatory FrameworksEnsure that bidding documents comply with the relevant legal and regulatory frameworks to minimize legal risks and challenges.6.4 Review and ApprovalThoroughly review and approve bidding documents to ensure accuracy, consistency, and completeness before issuance.7. ConclusionBidding documents play a critical role in international procurement, ensuring transparency, fairness, and efficiency. Understanding the components, significance, and challenges associated with biddingdocuments is essential for stakeholders involved in the procurement process. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of bidding documents, highlighting their importance and offering best practices for their preparation. By adhering to these best practices and understanding the legal and regulatory frameworks, stakeholders can ensure a successful and compliant procurement process.。

投标报价策略外文翻译文献

投标报价策略外文翻译文献投标报价策略外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)译文:报价策略的定性分析法恰当的报价是中标的关键，报价太高，无疑会失去竞争力而失标，报价太低也未必中标，即使中了标也会遭受亏损，只有报价适度才是中标的基础。

如何确定一个低而适度的报价这就取决于决策人员的经验、知识和能力。

投标报价策略作为投标取胜的方式、手段甚至艺术,贯穿于投标竞争的始终,虽然各承包商方法各异,但从审计监督的角度分析,有其自身的特点。

从运用策略的目的分析,不论运用那种策略,不外乎首先是成功中标,其次是为获取额外利润创造条件,最后以取得最大利润为其最终目的。

目的清楚了,审计监督的方向也就明确了。

从运用的时间上看,策略的运用发生非常早,甚至早在签订合同前就己实施。

从策略能否成功实施上看,虽然策略早在投标时就己运用,但能否成功,取得最理想的经济效益,还须在以后的施工过程中逐步实现,因此,若能在施工无忧论文网过程中把好关,也能阻止部分策略的实现。

从策略运用的条件上看,承包商在不影响中标的前提下,利用建设工程的不确定性,埋下伏笔,以期结算时获得额外的利润回报。

因此,建设工程的不确定性是运用策略的前提条件,如果建设工程设计图纸清楚、工程量计算准确,几乎没有变更、增加工程等,那么“伏笔”也就无从入手,策略的运用受到限制。

虽然在工程开始前,要做到这么尽善尽美,很难实现,但审计应在这方面发挥作用,督促或监督业主尽可能做到,防止个别工程管理者,利用工程的不确定性,搞腐败活动,侵吞国家财产。

定性分析方法，就是运用决策人员的逻辑思维和推理判断能力去进行报价决策的一种方法。

决策的前提是企业要广泛收集，系统积累大量的信息.企业只有在占有大量信息的情况下，知己知彼，不失时机地周密研究出既能降低报价，易于中标，又能使企业减少利润损失的报价方案。

根据对一些企业投标情况的调查、研究，报价策略有以下几个方面:1.1发挥优势降低成本以优取胜一个企业的优势是多方面的，如职工素质高，技术装备先进，施工技术先进，材料周转灵活，管理机构精干，办事效率高等。

采购招标中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Procurement: Tendering ProceduresOVERVIEW1. PurposeThese Procedures are a supplement to the University’s Procurement Policy and apply to tendering for the acquisition of goods and services from suppliers external to the University, valued at $200,000 and above. The acquisition of goods includes purchasing and leasing of goods. The acquisition of services includes contractor and consultant services, but excludes services provided by staff employed through the University payroll, and any services provided to Investment and Capital Management in connection with the University’s investment portfolio.2. CoverageThese Procedures apply to all University activities including activities undertaken by Foundations, Centers, Controlled Entities and any other entity which has entered into an agreement with the University, and such agreement includes a term which requires it to comply with the University’s purchasing policy and associated procedures.KEY ASPECTS OF THE TENDERING PROCESS3. Open tenderingUniversity tenders should be open to the public so that the market is assessed for the goods or services required. There are two ways this may be done, either by fully Open Tender or a multi-stage tender which initially involves the calling of an Expression of Interest, followed by a Selective Tender. The Procurement Services Department must approve all Open Tender proposals and the Chief Procurement Officer must approve all EOI proposals.4. Invited tenderingInvited Tendering may be used instead of Open Tendering in certain circumstances. Invited Tendering occurs when specific suppliers are invited to tender for goods or services rather than the tender being open to any suppliers. The Chief Procurement Officer must approve all Invited Tender proposals, with the exception of using approved pre-qualified supplier panels.5. DocumentationAccountability requires comprehensive documentation for all tenders. Detailed justification of all key decisions made, especially the selection of the tenderer, must be recorded on an official Records Management file from the time that a decision is made to tender until the finalisation of the contract. Documentation must be available to show that the tendering process is not only fair but also that it is seen to be fair. All communications with tenderers must be documented.6. ConfidentialityAll tenderer information and tender documents received are to be treated as confidential. The confidentiality and anonymity of tenderers must be maintained throughout the tender process. PROCEDURES7. Strategic planningIt is important that a proper strategy be planned. Staff involved must ensure that the objectives of the project being tendered are clarified and that clear specifications are developed and funding identified.8. Types of TendersThere are three types of tendering for the acquisition of goods or services:•Open Tender•Multi-Stage Tender•Invited Tendering8.1 Open TenderOpen Tendering tests the market in a transparent manner. Tenders are advertised publicly and no restriction is placed on the number of tenderers. All prospective bidders are given the same tender documentation. The Procurement Services Department must be consulted on all Open Tender proposals.8.2 Multi-Stage TenderMulti-stage tendering may be used to cull a large number of respondents and identify the best service providers in a particular well-supplied market that are interested in providing the relevant goods or services. It also limits the number of tenderers to those able to demonstrate the requisite capability in the first stage. Multi-stage tenders may be used:•to establish a panel of suitable suppliers for a specific category of goods or services;•to identify suppliers with suitable proposals for complex procurements.The first stage in multi-stage tendering is an Expression of Interest or Request for Proposal to invite interested suppliers to register their interest against the requirements listed in the EOI document. The second stage in multi-stage tendering is a Selective Request for Tender to invite suppliers shortlisted in the first stage to a submit proposals in response to specific criteria outlined in the Request for Tender document.8.2.1 Expression of InterestThe EOI document must state what further processes are expected beyond the first stage of the tender process.The University would then short-list interested suppliers with the ability to undertake the particular product supply or services required. These prequalified tenderers would be asked to indicate their availability to tender in the second stage, a Selective Request for Tender.The Chief Procurement Officer must be consulted on all EOI proposals.8.2.2 Selective Tende rIn this case tenders are called for a specific contract in a second stage from short listed service providers identified in the EOI stage.Tenderers are required to submit tenders to respond to specifications identified in the Request for Tender document, such as price, capacity, expertise and experience.The Chief Procurement Officer must approve all selective tender proposals, with the exception of using approved pre-qualified supplier panels.8.3 Invited TenderingInvited Tendering may be used: in emergency situations; for specialist work; in special circumstanceswhere only one or a limited number of suppliers are known to be able to carry out the work;for low value, low risk activities.Invited Tendering involves issuing RFT documents to known available suppliers assessed as the most capable of delivering the goods or services required. The Chief Procurement Officer must approve all proposals for invited tendering.9. Tender WaiversThe need to run a tender may be waived in exceptional circumstances. Refer to section 8 in the Procurement Policy.10. Tenders requiring a Non-Disclosure AgreementIn certain circumstances, the Procurement Services Department may require an interested tenderer to accept and sign a Non-Disclosure Agreement before receiving the tender documentation.11. Tender Evaluation TeamAll tenders must have a Tender Evaluation Team to ensure the probity of the tender process. The Tender Evaluation Team must consist of at least three members, including a representative from the Procurement Services Department as well as other people who have the relevant technical knowledge of the goods or services required. For Campus Infrastructure and Services managed tenders, the Procurement Services Department representative may be replaced with a CIS representative who has been trained and approved by Procurement Services Department.•One member of the evaluation team is to be external to the area requesting the tender and may come from outside the University.•The representative from the Procurement Services Department (or CIS for CIS managed tenders) will be the Team Leader who will be the tender contact and the only member of the Team permitted to communicate with tenderers.•Tenders relating to information and communications technology must also have a representative from Information Communication Technology.•Evaluation Teams for approved Capital Works programs or approved Repairs and Maintenance Programs must have a representative from Campus Infrastructure and Services.Tender Evaluation Team members must not have a vested or perceived interest in the outcome. A Conflict of Interest declaration will be distributed to the Evaluation Team members prior to the commencement of evaluations by the Team Leader and anyone with a conflict of interest must declare this conflict and disqualify themselves from the tender. Refer to the University’s Code of Conduct and Corruption Prevention Strategy for details.Tender Evaluation Team members can seek external assistance and advice on specific aspects of he tender. This assistance must be co-ordinated through the Tender Evaluation Team Leader.12. Advertising TendersThe call for Open Tenders and Expressions of Interest will be advertised in the Sydney Morning Herald every fortnight. Other, additional methods of advertisement may also be utilized from time to time. The Procurement Services Department must approve all tender advertisements, with the exception of CIS managed tenders.Public advertisements must include:•an adequate description of the tender to allow prospective tenderers to decide whether they wish to prepare a tender, or a link to the location where this information is available;•the location where the tender documents may be obtained, including the name, telephone number and email of the contact officer;• a tender reference number;•where tenders are to be lodged and the closing date and time;•any other important dates and deadlines.The University will endeavor to ensure that the time given between the release and the closing date of the tender is sufficient to allow a tenderer to study the tender specification and prepare a bid; however the final duration will be determined by the Procurement Services Department.13.Receipt and Registration of TendersAll tenders are to be lodged in the University’s eTenderBox at the tender web lodgment address. The eTenderbox will be opened after the tender closing date and time. Details of the tenders received are registered by the eTinderbox on a schedule/register which includes: tender details; tender reference number and tender name; tender closing date and time; date and time the tender box was opened; supplier name, time submitted and a unique identifier for each file.All tenders received must be kept in a secure location.Tenders will only be accepted in the University’s eTenderBox. Tenders submitted by facsimile, email, hand delivery, post or any method other than via the eTenderBox will not be accepted, except in exceptional circumstances with express approval from the Procurement Services Department. Tenders that are not uploaded to the eTenderbox prior to closing time will be deemed to be a late tender.14. Late TendersLate tenders must not be considered, except when the University is satisfied and can demonstrate that the integrity and competitiveness of the tendering process would not be compromised.Late tenders may be considered when verifiable circumstances are confirmed by the University, such as:•exceptional circumstances, such as the tender being the only tender or a natural disaster affectingall tenders equally, that ensure the integrity and competitiveness of the tendering process would not be compromised by considering the late tender;•the tender left the control of the tenderer prior to close of tenders and confidentiality of the tender was maintained before it was opened;•control of the confidentiality of tenders before the scheduling of tenders guarantees no enhancement to the late tender occurred using knowledge of the other tenders.•the RFT documents stipulate that lateness is not a bar to consideration. Acceptance of a late tender will be at the discretion of the Tender Evaluation Team Leader.15. Evaluating and Assessing TendersThe Tender Evaluation Team Leader obtains the schedule/register of tenders received and the tender documents for evaluation. The methodology, format and detailed criteria for the evaluation are to be documented and agreed to by the Tender Evaluation Team prior to the commencement of the evaluation. Assessments must be undertaken in a timely manner. Each member of the Tender Evaluation Team is to evaluate the tenders independently and then the Team together will consider and agree on the results. Supporting documentation must be comprehensive and include the decisions arrived at in making the assessment and reasons for the recommended tender, especially where the lowest tender is not accepted. The Tender Evaluation Team Leader is to prepare a report for the Tender Board on the evaluation and assessment process taken. The report will include a recommendation on the successful tenderer(s) and action required. Justification for the selection of the recommended tender is to be included. Each member of the Tender Evaluation Team will sign the evaluation document t o confirm that member’s concurrence to the outcome and then this report is to be submitted to the Tender Board.16. Clarification of TendersIf important information received in a tender is not clear then clarification can be requested from the tenderer. The clarification sought from the tenderer must not give the tenderer an unfair advantage over the other tenderers or allow the tenderer to revise or enhance its original tender. The Tender Evaluation Team cannot trade-off one tenderers prices against o ther tenderers’ prices in order to obtain lower prices.17. Modifications and Re-tenderingDuring the tender evaluation process, if the Tender Evaluation Team decides to make substantial modifications to the original tender, then it will be necessary to recommence the tendering process. An opportunity must be given to each original tenderer to submit a new tender. Comprehensive documentation must be retained that shows why the substantial modifications are necessary and demonstrates that the modifications are consistent with the original requirements of the userdepartment. The Chief Procurement Officer is to approve the re-tendering proposal.18. Post Tender NegotiationsWhere there are no acceptable tenders, negotiations may be conducted with the tenderer submitting the least unacceptable tender, or the tender which conforms most closely to the requirements and provides best value for money .Where tenders are ranked by a systematic method, for example, by scoring tender prices and other evaluation criteria, the tender with the best ranking would normally be regarded as the best tender.There are also instances when the University may negotiate with an acceptable preferred tenderer to improve outcomes. Any negotiation process should be transparent, recorded and conducted in a manner that does not disadvantage other tenderers. If none of the tenders are acceptable following negotiation it will be necessary to close the tender and re-tender. The Chief Procurement Officer is to approve the re-tendering proposal.19. Acceptance of TenderThe Tender Board is to approve all tenders valued at $200,000 and above. Following formal Tender Board approval, a “letter of acceptance” is to be issued to the successful tenderer. The letter of acceptance must state that the acceptance of the tender is conditional upon execution of a contract satisfactory to the University.All other tenderers are to be notified in writing that they were not successful. Unsuccessful tenderers can request a debriefing with the Tender Evaluation Team Leader. Debriefings should explain how their tender performed against the evaluation criteria, rather than against the successful tender. The letter of acceptance and letters to unsuccessful tenderers are to be prepared by the Tender Evaluation Team Leader and signed by the Chief Procurement Officer or the Director of Campus Infrastructure and Services for CIS managed tenders. If none of the tenders are acceptable it will be necessary to close the tender and re-tender. The Chief Procurement Officer is to approve the re-tendering proposal.20. Dealing with Queries from Unsuccessful TenderersTender information is commercially sensitive and therefore must be handled and protected appropriately. The disclosure of information could prejudice the commercial interests of the companies submitting the bid and the bargaining power of the University in the future. Unsuccessful tenderers can be advised of the name of the successful tenderer, the contract price and, in the case of a higher price having been accepted, the reasons why their offer was not successful. The University may wish to inform the unsuccessful tenderer about the weaknesses in their bid in comparison made against the tender selection criteria, but not the other bids.Some tips to remember are:•Ensure all tenderers are aware of the sole contact person.•Ensure relevant people in your department/unit are aware of the sole contact person,•Ensure all communications are documented so that there can be no argument about what was said.21. Agreements ArisingAll tenders will require a written agreement between the University and the successful tenderer. The draft Agreement provided with the tender documentation will form the basis. In most cases, Agreement negotiations between the University and preferred tenderer will be finalized prior to the Tender Board approval for the acceptance of a tender. Agreements are to be signed by the Chief Procurement Officer or the Director of Campus Infrastructure and Services for CIS managed tenders.采购：招标过程一概述（一）目的以下流程主要是对高校采购政策的进一步补充。

投标询价采购--毕业设计外文文献

外文文献:Bid ShoppingAbstract：Bid shopping is considered an unethical practice used by contractors to gain advantage over their clients in the bidding process. Bid shopping can be harmful to the construction industry because it creates an unhealthy business environment, eliminates the benefits of the bid system, promotes lower standards of quality performance, delays project completion and reduces job site safety. Attempts have been made to stop bid shopping through contract law but these attempts have not been successful. Educating contractors of the effects of bid shopping is a means of helping to reduce the amount of bid shopping that occurs.Key Words:：Bid Shopping, Ethics, EstimatingIntroductionGraduates of construction programs will be responsible to discover and use processes that allow contractors to build cheaper, faster and more efficient projects. To accomplish this, students must be taught methods that accomplish this goal and informed about methods that do not accomplish this goal. One method that prevents the goal of building cheaper, faster and more efficient projects is bid shopping. Bid shopping is an unethical practice that hinders progress in construction and hurts the construction industry.To better explain how bid shopping has a detrimental effect on the construction industry, this paper examines how bid shopping occurs in the bidding process, the difference between pre- and post-award bid shopping and the effects of each, and what has been done to try and eliminate the practice.The Bidding ProcessWhen a project is competitively bid, the owner hires an architect to create a set of plans and allow general contractors (contractor) to submit bids to build the project. In most states,statutory law requires that the prime contract for a governmental/public project is awarded to the lowest responsible bidder, whose bid meets those requirements set by the awarding authority. In the case of public projects, the awarding authority, or owner, is the public/governmental agency, and the projects are paid for through tax monies.These laws further state that except under exceptional circumstance, once the prime contract has been awarded to the contractor, the awarding authority is prohibited from either re-soliciting bids for the project or renegotiating the bid price with the determined lowest bidder (Dufficy, 1989).The purpose of these laws is to protect the awarded contractor and allow for the public projects to be performed at the lowest possible price or tax dollar. Private owners may also bid their projects using the competitive bid system or they may elect to negotiate the contract. Unlike the governmental/public agency owners, the private owners are not bound by law to award the project to the lowest responsible bidder.Most building projects cover a large and broad scope of work, making it impractical for the contractor to perform most of the work itself. To complete the project on time and be the lowest responsible bidder on the bid, the contractor needs to solicit subcontract bids from subcontractors. Subcontractors submit their bids to the contractor to be incorporated into the contractor’s bid. Once the prime contract has been awarded, th e subcontractors become bound to the contractor in the same way the contractor becomes bound to the owner. This applies to public/governmental bids as well as private owner bids. That is, subcontractors are legally obligated to perform the work for the price specified on the bid. However, current law does not prohibit the contractor from re-soliciting or renegotiating the bid price after the prime contract has been awarded.There are many different kinds of subcontractors in the construction industry, and competition among these groups is often strong. This competition allows the contractor to have the work performed at the lowest possible price. In theory, this sort of competition is healthy for the industry because it keeps the cost of construction down. This enables the contractor to receive a fair price for the subcontracted work, and the saved money is then passed on to the owner of the project. In reality, however, competition can lead the contractor to take advantage of subcontractors through the use of excessive bargaining pressure in theform of bid shopping.Bid ShoppingBid shopping is an unethical practice in which a contractor discloses the bid price of one subcontractor to another in an attempt to obtain a lower bid price. Included in bid shopping is “bid peddling,” in which subcontractors themselves offer to undercut the known bid of another subcontractor. Bid shopping can occur both before and after the project owner awards the prime contract to the contractor.Pre-Award Bid ShoppingMany people consider pre-award bid shopping, or bid shopping that occurs prior to the awarding of the prime contract, as an acceptable expression of free competition. “It (pre-award bid shopping) ultimately benefits the (owner) by arriving at the lowest possible bid for, and consequently the cost of, the project” (Dufficy, 1989).Effects of Pre-Award Bid ShoppingAlthough this sort of competition may seem beneficial in terms of lower costs and market dynamics, the resulting savings do not come without a price. Subcontractors devote time and money to the preparation of their bids. To try and prevent contractors from shopping their bids, subcontractors submit their bids to the contractor just prior to the time that the contractor is required to submit their bid to the o wner. The reasoning is that the contractor won’t have time to shop their bids to other subcontractors. This practice is often referred to as “just in time bid submittal.”While this practice, used by subcontractors as a defense against bid shopping, does keep the contractor from bid shopping, it can also act as a double-edged sword. The problem is, if the subcontractors turn in their bids just prior to the deadline of the contractors bid turn, the contractor is unable to check for any discrepancies or errors. These discrepancies and errors, of course, lead to increased costs, disputes over the scope of work, and the general inefficient prosecution of work (Foster, 1997).Post-Award Bid ShoppingDespite all of the problems associated with pre-submission negotiations, it is post-award bid shopping that is considered the most harmful to the construction industry. In post-award bid shopping, the contractor seeks to obtain a lower price from a second subcontractor, after having already been awarded the prime contr act through the original subcontractor’s bid. Post-award bid shopping serves only to benefit the contractor, as monies from these savings are used to increase the profit margin rather than being passed on to the public authority or owner.The steps to bid shopping are simple. First, the contractor solicits bids from various subcontractors for the scopes of work on the project. It should be mentioned that soliciting these bids and/or listing them in its own prime contract bid does not bind the contractor to these subcontractors in any way.Second, the contractor returns to the subcontractors and attempts to further chisel down their bid prices by using the incorporated subcontractor’s bid as a negotiating tool. This happens after the awarding of the prime contract, but before the contractor enters into a subcontract agreement. To do this, the general gives the subcontractors permission to use any means possible to achieve the lower price, including suggesting design modifications under the guise of “value engineering” (Mechanical Contractors Assn., 2001).Lastly, the contractor repeats the above steps, using the lowest received bid each time as the benchmark until the lowest possible price is obtained. Each subcontractor is forced to either reduce his or her costs and/or profit margin, or forfeit being awarded the contract. Those that can afford to do so will drop out, while those who need the work are forced to remain. This process continues until “all but one subcontractor drops out of the bidding or there app ears to be no further reduction attainable” (Mechanical Contractors Assn., 2001).Effects of Post-Award Bid ShoppingThe post-award bid shopping effects on the industry are discussed below. Creates an adverse business environment. Defeats the purpose of the competitive bid system. Promotes lower work quality. Delays project completion.The Human Toll. Lastly, bid shopping has a detrimental effect on the lives of the peopleinvolved in the construction industry by exposing them to additional risk. Worst of all, bid shopping exposes our workers to additional safety risks by tempting the subcontractor to either push insufficiently sized crews to complete the work on schedule or cut costs on safety equipment. This could contribute to the already high industry risk by causing an accident on the job site that could result in the injury or death of a worker. Both of these risks, financial and safety, are unreasonable to require from subcontractors, and are the very cause of the elimination of the practice of bid shopping. It must be understood that these are people and not just businesses that are being affected by bid shopping.Why Bid Shopping ExistsTo prevent bid shopping, one must understand why it occurs. Bid shopping exists due to the inability of the subcontractor to tie the contractor to their bid. As mentioned earlier, the owner protects the contractor against post-award negotiations tactics under statutory law. Unlike the contractor, however, no such protection exists for the subcontractor. Under common law, the contractor is not obligated to enter into a contractual agreement with a subcontractor, even though the subcontractor’s bid was used in the preparation of the (contractors) bid (Foster, 1997).Although no contractual relationship actually exists that can bind the contractor to the subcontractor, the subcontractor, on the other hand, may find them-selves bound to the contractor by way of its submitted bid. “Courts generally allow the contractors to hold subcontractors to their bids, even though a subcontractor has made an honest mistake in preparing its bid and no formal subcontract was ever created” (Stockenberg, 2001). As a result, the contractor is guaranteed a price on the scope of work and, having avoided entering into a formal subcontract, “ is fr ee to engage in further negotiations with these as well as other subcontractors in order to secure a still lower bid” (Dufficy, 1989).Attempts to Curb Bid ShoppingIn an effort to tie the contractor to the bid, and therefore control post-award bid shopping, some states have created statutes requiring that the contractor supply a list of subcontractors that are intended to work on the project. Oregon recently passed such legislature in 1999,insisting that the names all first-tier subcontractors furnishing labor or materials, be submitted within four working hours of the bid submittal deadline (ENR, 1999). The hope is that, by requiring that these subcontractors be listed on the contractors bid received by the owner, the owner can hold the contractor to use the subcontractors listed on their bids.Unfortunately such legislation doesn’t always hold. In the California case of Klose v. Sequoia Union High School District, the court held that such statutes “did nothing to obligate the contractor to the subcontract or” (Foster, 1997). Due to the system of precedence, or the tendency of the courts to follow after proceeding rulings in our legal system, supreme courts in Idaho and Minnesota also reached similar decisions.Other attempts to curb bid shopping practices include efforts to change the traditional concept of offer and acceptance principles through the Uniform Commercial Code. According to the code, the contractor’s use of a subcontractor’s bid in the preparation of the its own bid, constitutes an acceptance of that offer once the contractor has been awarded the prime contract. Unfortunately, these attempts, like the many other national attempts to prevent bid shopping, have proved largely ineffective (Dufficy, 1989).Finally, in its latest efforts to eliminate the consequences brought about by bid shopping, the American Subcontractors Association submitted to congress to enact The Construction Quality Assurance Act of 2001. This bill was reintroduced to Congress on March 19, 2003 (Mendes, 2003). This bill, once it is passed, will give contracting officers the right to investigate bid shopping allegations on all federal contracts over one million dollars. Under this new act, penalties for bid shopping could include contract cancellation, fine covering the differences between bid prices and debarment (Angelo, 2001). Whether the act will have any effect remains yet to be seen.ConclusionIn this paper, bid shopping and its negative effects on the construction industry have been closely examined. Legislation has been enacted in an effort to eliminate these harmful consequences, but has been overturned in the courts thus far. The only way to effectively control bid shopping is by controlling ourselves and influencing those around us to do the same. Hopefully this paper will help educate contractors on the negative affects of bidshopping and will help influence them to avoid the practice of bid shopping. If bid shopping could be eliminated in our companies and our industry, everyone will benefit.References[1] Angelo, W. “How to Curb Bid Abuse.” Engineering News Record 247.4 (2001): 95.[2]Dufficy, K. “Post-Award Bid Shopping in the Colorado Public Construction Industry.” The Colorado Lawyer Sep. 1989: 1739-1742.[3]ENR Magazine. “Oregon Deals Head-On with Prompt Pay, Bid Shopping.”Engineering News Record 243.9 (1999): 152.[4]Foster, C. A., Schenck J., and Davis, P.. Construction & Design Law. Charlottesville, Va.: Lexis Law, 1997.[5]Mendes, D. (March 19, 2003). Bill to Eliminate Bid Shopping on Federal Government Construction Re-Introduced, American Subcontractors Association News Release./Releases/0203-BidShoppingBillReintroduced.htm[6]Bid Shopping/ Bid Peddling: Don’t Play Games with your next Construction Project. 10 Jul. 2001. Mechanical Contractors Association. /affil/bidshop.htm. Stockenberg, R. A. “The Perils of Bid Shopping.” Building Design & Construction 42.3 (2001): 29.中文译文：投标询价采购摘要：所谓投标询价采购是指承包商在投标报价过程中采取非道德做法以确保价格具有竞争性的一种采购方式。

外文翻译---分析投标商远期合同的投标策略

Analysis of equilibrium about bidding strategy ofsupplierswith future contractsZhiqiang Yuan *, Dong Liu, Chuanwen JiangElectricPowerSchool, ShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity, Shanghai 200030, PR ChinaReceived 6 May 2005; accepted 9 August 2006Available online 2 October 2006AbstractIn this paper, the supply function model is employed to simulate the bidding strategy of suppliers in the power pool, and models of the supply function with future contracts are presented. It is proved that only one of the parameters between slope and intercept of the bidding curve is an independent variable in order to achieve definite equilibrium. In the meantime, the equilibria of the bidding strategy about suppliers are studied when different intercepts of the bidding curve are chosen. Some examples are employed to study the Nash equilibrium strategies of suppliers with different future contracts in various bidding strategy models. The results show that the equilibria are different in different bidding strategy models, but the future contracts can effectively make spot prices decrease in all the models.1. IntroductionThe electric power industry worldwide is experiencing unprecedented restructuring from the traditional integrated regulation monopoly to a competitive power market. The object of deregulation is to introduce a competition mechanism into the power market and provide incentives for efficient operation of the power industry, eventually reducing the market price. The ideal market is a perfect competitive market in which participants bid their marginal cost into the market. Consequently, the market price is low in this kind of market. However, the electricity market is different from other merchandise markets. In the power market, only a few suppliers can provide power services in some geographic region. This is due to the restriction of some factors, such as large investment scale, small demand elasticity, transmission constraints and no largely storable electricity. Consequently, the actual power market is more close to an oligopolistic market in which the suppliers can achieve maximum profit through strategic bidding. That means that the generation companies possess market power, which is harmful to the operation of the power systemand will make electricity price far higher than the marginal cost of the power market.One famous example is the electricity crisis of California of America in the summer 2000, which made the electricity price far above competitive levels. So, it is meaningful to study the bidding strategy of suppliers.Generally speaking, there are basically three ways for a supplier to develop an optimal bidding strategy [1]. The first one relies on estimation of the market clearing price (MCP) in the next trading period, the second one is based on estimation of the bidding behavior of rival participants and the third one is game theory based. The models of bidding strategy of suppliers based on game theory used in the power market are mainly Cournot, Bertrand and the supply function model [2]. Among these models, both the Cournot and supply function models are widely studied.Probability theory is employed to study the bidding strategy of suppliers based on the supply function model in Refs. [3,4], where the bidding coefficients of rival participants are assumed to obey a joint normal distribution. In Ref. [5], a conjectured supply function is utilized to simulate the bidding strategy of suppliers. In Ref. [6], a supply function model whose slope and intercept of the bidding curve vary with the same scale is employed to analyze the bidding strategy of suppliers, where the influence of contracts for difference CFDs [7](CFDs means that if the spot price rises above the strike price, which is the price level atwhich the contract can be called, suppliers compensate retailers for the difference, but if the spot price falls below the strike price, then the retailers compensate suppliers for the difference) on market equilibrium is considered. In Ref. [8], the concept of virtual rival and the method of parameter estimation are introduced to study the bidding strategy of suppliers based on game theory, where the slope and intercept of the bidding curve is also assumed to vary with the same scale.Forward contracts are one of the efficient means for risk management, and it is applied in the power market of many countries. The power pool will plan the electricity of suppliers according to the market rules, the bidding price of suppliers and forward contracts while there are forwardcontracts between suppliers and buyers. The bidding strategy of suppliers will vary with the forward contracts to achieve maximum profit. In this paper, a supply function model is used to simulate the bidding strategy of suppliers in a power pool. Firstly, a supply function model with forwardcontracts is presented. Accordingly, it is proved that only one of the parameters between the slope and intercept of the bidding curve can be strategy variable in order to achieve definite equilibrium (the Nash equilibrium is a strategy profile in whicheach player’s part is as good a response to what the others are meant to do as any other strategy available to that player [9]). Secondly, the equilibria of the market are studied when different intercepts of the bidding curve are chosen. Finally, the effect of different future contracts on the equilibrium strategies of suppliers in various bidding strategy models is analyzed. Besides, the bidding strategies are also studied while generation constraints are active.2. Supply function equilibrium model with forward contracts It is supposed that the inverse demand function is a linear function, that is1p=r-s Ni i q =∑（1）where p is market price, r and s are the intercept and slope of the inverse demand function, respectively, i q is the generation of the supplier i and N is the number of suppliers. Eq. (1)can be transformed into the electricity demand function,i i i q +i p =αβmax 1N i i qq lp ==-∑（2）max r q s=，1l s = The bidding curve of the supplier is assumed as a linear function,i i i q +i p =αβ（3）where i α and i β are the intercept and slope of the bidding curve, respectively, both of which are larger than zero, and i = 1,. . . ,N.The electricity price is assumed to clear at the uniform price in the power pool, and then, the generations of the suppliers are calculated according to Eqs. (2) and (3). If the forward contracts is i f while the dealing price is i k , the equilibrium state of the suppliers can be obtained by maximizing an individual profit function of each supplier.()()i i i i i i max =p q -f f -C q π+λmin max i i i q q q ≤≤（i=1……N ）（4）Without loss of generality, the cost function of a supplier is assumed to be a quadratic function of active power generation. That is:Then, the generation of supplier i isCorrespondingly, the system marginal price isIf both the intercept and slope of the bidding curve are chosen to be independent strategy variables by the supplier, the maximum profit of supplier i can be achieved when the following differential equation is satisfiedEqs. (8) and (9)show that the intercept and slope of the bidding curve are not independent. The 2N variables, xi and bi, need to be calculated by means of N equations, so there exists an infinite number of equilibrium states. That means only one of the parameters between the intercept and slope of the bidding curve is independent in order to achieve a definite equilibrium.If the slope of the bidding curve is chosen to be the strategyvariable by supplier i, Eqs. (6)–(8)yield the following optimal reaction function of supplier iisthe point that the bidding curve passes through.If the intercept of the bidding curve is chosen to be thestrategy variable by supplier i, Eqs. (6), (7) and (9)yield thefollowing optimal reaction function of supplier iThe equilibrium bidding strategy can be obtained by solving Eqs. (10) or (11).When the slope of the bidding curve is chosen to be the strategy variable by supplier i, if the bidding curve passes through the point(),i i i i f a f b +, which means the supplier I is bidding its marginal cost at generation of forward contracts, the bidding curve isThen, the generation of supplier i isCorrespondingly, the system marginal price isAccording to differential equations akin to Eq. (8), the following optimal reactionfunction of supplier i exists,Eq. (15) shows that the strategy variable i a is independent of the forward contracts if the bidding curve passes through point (),i i i i f a f b +.3 The equilibrium of supply function model with generationconstraintsGeneration constraints have not been considered in the optimal reaction function of the models mentioned above. When generation constraints are considered, if thegeneration of supplier i calculated from Eqs. (10), (11) or (15)is above the upper limit of generation of supplier i, his generation will be set to the limited value. If the market price calculated from the optimal reaction function of the suppliers is low and the calculated generation is below the minimum generation of supplier i, it is possible that the profit of supplier i is negative. As a result, supplier i will buy electricity from the spot market to meet the forward contracts and maximize its own profit. The necessary condition of supplier to generate electricity iswhere ()i p q -is the market price without suppliers If inequality (16)is met, let i q = min i q , otherwise, let i q = 0.If there exist suppliers whose generation constraints are active, then suppliers whose generation constraints are not active will be faced with the following residual demand function:where M –L and N –M are the numbers of suppliers whose generation is overmaximum and under minimum generation, respectively. max i q and min k q are the maximum and minimum generations of supplier i, respectively.The generations of suppliers whose generation constraints are not active arecalculated by using Eqs. (17),(10), (11) or (15)again. If there still exist supplierswhose generation exceeds their generation limit, the residual demand function will be calculated again. The calculation processes are repeated until there no longer exist suppliers whose generation exceeds their generation limit, and then, the threshold value of the bidding strategy of supplier i whose generation constraints are active iswhere lim i q is the maximum and minimum generation of supplier i.The threshold value of the bidding strategy for supplier indicates that the supplier will choose any strategy that is less than the threshold value if the maximum generation is active, while the supplier will choose the threshold value if the minimum generation is active.分析投标商远期合同的投标策略Zhiqiang Yuan *, Dong Liu, Chuanwen Jiang摘要在这篇论文里, 电力联营里供应厂商用供应函数模型来模仿投标策略,及模型的供应职能与未来的合同提交。

定价战略外文翻译文献

定价战略外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIESAll for-profit organizations and many nonprofit organizations set prices on their goods or services. Whether the price is called rent (for an apartment), tuition (for education), fare (for travel), or interest (for borrowed money), the concept is the same. Throughout most of history, prices were set by negotiation between buyers and sellers.Setting one price for all buyers arose with the development of large-scale retailing at the end of the nineteenth century, when Woolworth’s and other stores followed a “strictly one-price policy” because they carried so many items and had so many employees.Now, 100 years later, technology is taking us back to an era of negotiated pricing. The Internet, corporate networks, and wireless setups are linking people, machines, andcompanies around the globe, connecting sellers and buyers as never before. Web sites like and allow buyers to compare products and prices quickly and easily. On-line auction sites like and make it easy forbuyers and sellers to negotiate prices on thousands of items. At the same time, new tech-nologies are allowing sellers to collect detailed data about customers’ buying habits, preferences—even spending limits—so they can tailor their products and prices.1In the entire marketing mix, price is the one element that produces revenue; the others produce costs. Price is also one of the most ﬂexible elements: It can be changed quickly, unlike product features and channel commitments. Although price competi- tion is a major problem facing companies, many do not handle pricing well. The most common mistakes are these: Pricing is too cost-oriented; price is not revised oftenenough to capitalize on market changes; price is set independent of the rest of the marketing mix rather than as an intrinsic element of market-positioning strategy; and price is not varied enough for different product items, market segments, and purchase occasions.215Designing PricingStrategies andProgramsWe will address the following questions:■ How should a company price a new good or service?■ How should the price be adapted to meet varying circumstances and opportunities?■ When should the company initiate a price change, and how should it respond to competitive price changes?224 CHAPTER 12 DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS Value PricingValue pricing is a method in which the company charges a fairly low price for a high- quality offering. Value pricing says that the price should represent a high-value offer toconsumers. This is a major trend in the computer industry, which has shifted from charging top dollar for cutting-edge computers to offering basic computers at lower prices. For instance, Monorail Computer started selling PCs in 1996 for as little as $999to woo price-sensitive buyers. Compaq and others quickly followed suit. More recently,eMachines began selling its PCs for less than $500 without a monitor, targeting the 55 percent of computerless households with annual incomes of $25,000 to $30,000.13Value pricing is not a matter of simply setting lower prices on one’s products compared to those of competitors. It is a matter of reengineering the company’s oper- ations to become a low-cost produce r without sacriﬁcing quality, and lowering pricessigniﬁcantly to attract a large number of value-conscious customers. An important typeof value pricing is everyday low pricing (EDLP), which takes place at the retail level. Retailers such as Wal-Mart and use EDLP pricing, posting a constant, everyday low price with few or no temporary price discounts. These constant prices eliminate week-to-week price uncertainty and can be contrasted to the “high-low” pric-ing of promotion-oriented competitors. In high-low pricing, the retailer charges higher prices on an everyday basis but then runs frequent promotions in which prices are temporarily lowered below the EDLP level.14Retailers adopt EDLP for a number of reasons, the most important of which ist hat constant sales and promotions are costly and erode consumer conﬁdence in the credibility of everyday prices. Consumers also have less time and patience for such time-honored traditions as watching for specials and clipping coupons. Yet promo- tions are an excellent way to create excitement and draw shoppers. For this reason, EDLP is not a guarantee of success. As supermarkets face heightened competition from store rivals and alternative channels, many are drawing shoppers using a combi- nation of high-low and EDLP strategies, with increased advertising and promotions.15Going-Rate PricingIn going-rate pricing, the ﬁrm bases its price largely on competitors’ prices. The ﬁrm might charge the same, more, or less than its major competitor(s) charges. In oligop- olistic industries that sell a commodity such as steel, paper, or fertilizer, ﬁrms normallycharge the same price. The smaller firms “follow the leader,” changing their prices when the market leader’s prices change rather than when their own demand o r costs change. Some ﬁrms may charge a slight premium or slight discount, but they typically preserve the amount of difference. When costs are difﬁcult to measure or competitive response is uncertain, ﬁrms feel that the going price represents a good soluti on, sinceit seems to reﬂect the industry’s collective wisdom as to the price that will yield a fair return and not jeopardize industrial harmony.Sealed-Bid PricingCompetitive-oriented pricing is common when ﬁrms submit sealed bids for jobs. In bidding, each ﬁrm bases its price on expectations of how competitors will price rather than on a rigid relationship to the firm’s own costs or demand. Sealed-bid pricing involves two opposite pulls. The ﬁrm wants to win the contract—which means submit-ting the lowest price—yet it cannot set its price below cost.To solve this dilemma, the company would estimate the proﬁt and the probabil-ity of winning with each price bid. By multiplying the proﬁt by the probability of win- ning the bid on the basis of that price, the company can calculate the expected proﬁt for each bid. For a ﬁrm that makes many bids, this method is a way of playing the oddsSetting the Price 225to achieve maximum proﬁts in the long run. However, ﬁrms that bid only occasionally or that badly want to win certain contracts will not find it advantageous to use the expected-proﬁt criterion.Step 6: Selecting the Final PriceThe previous pricing methods narrow the range from which the company selects its ﬁnal price. In selecting that price, the company must consider additional factors: psy- chological pricing, the inﬂuence of other marketing-mix elements on price, company pricing policies, and the impact of price on other parties.Psychological PricingMany consumers use price as an indicator of quality. Image pricing is especially effec-tive with ego-sensitive products such as perfumes and expensive cars. A $100 bottle ofperfume might contain $10 worth of scent, but gift givers pay $100 to communicate their high regard for the receiver. Similarly, price and quality perceptions of cars inter- act:16 Higher-priced cars are perceived to possess high quality; higher-quality cars are likewise perceived to be higher priced than they actually are. In general, when infor- mation about true quality is unavailable, price acts as a signal of quality.When looking at a particular product, buyers carry in their minds a reference price formed by noticing current prices, past prices, or the buying context. Sellers often manipulate these reference prices. For example, a seller can situate its product among expensive products to imply that it belongs in the same class. Reference-price thinkingis also created by stating a high manufacturer’s suggested price, by indicating that the product was priced much higher origina lly, or by pointing to a rival’s high price.17Often sellers set prices that end in an odd number, believing that customers whosee a television priced at $299 instead of $300 will perceive the price as being in the $200 range rather than the $300 range. Another explanation is that odd endings con- vey the notion of a discount or bargain, which is why both and set prices ending in 99. But if a company wants a high-price image instead of a low- price image, it should avoid the odd-ending tactic.The Inﬂuence of Other Marketing-Mix ElementsThe ﬁnal price must take into account the brand’s quality and advertising relative to competition. When Farris and Reibstein examined the relationships among relative price, relative quality, and relative advertising for 227 consumer businesses, they foundthat brands with average relative quality but high relative advertising budgets were able to charge premium prices. Consumers apparently were willing to pay higher prices for known products than for unknown products. They also found that brands with high relative quality and high relative advertising obtained the highest prices, while brands with low quality and advertising charged the lowest prices. Finally, the positive relationship between high prices and high advertising held most strongly in the later stages of the product life cycle for market leaders.18 Smart marketers there-fore ensure that their prices ﬁt with other marketing-mix elements.定价战略以营利为目的的组织和非营利组织的都对他们的商品或服务制定价格。

外文文献翻译中英文对照工程招投标价格形成机制及价格控制--毕业设计论文

工程招投标价格形成机制及价格控制１、前言企业的生产和销售产品的活动是一种经营活动，工程建设也是一种经营活动，投入的是人、财、物，产出的产品可以是铁路，桥梁，公路，民用建筑，或是一个工业生产装置等。

工程建设过程不是简单的投入和产出，它涉及到市场问题，用户问题，效益问题等等。

工程建设涉及到设计、物资采购和施工三个方面，而设计和施工是工程建设过程中的两个不同的阶段和两个独立的专业，和其它的商品生产一样需要分别进行成本控制并获取一定的利润。

因此在工程招投标中，工程造价的计算和控制显得尤其重要。

报价高固然为盈利奠定了基础，但是鉴于当前国内工程建设市场竞争已趋白热化，高价夺标已不可能。

特别是我国加入WTO以后，外国的工程承包企业要进入我国市场，和我国的工程承包企业展开竞争，另外我国的工程承包企业也同样要到国外的工程建设市场上谋求发展。

因此我们要总结过去国际国内承包工程建设经营管理的经验和教训，充分了解工程招投标中价格形成机制的特点和运行规律，对工程造价进行有效的控制，利用好两种资源，开拓两个市场，提高企业经济效益。

２、工程招投标价格形成机制建设工程造价，一般是指进行某项工程所花费（指预期花费或实际花费）的全部费用。

它是一种动态投资。

它的运动受价值规律、货币流通规律和商品供求规律的支配。

因此在承包工程投标报价计算中我们要运用决策理论、会计学、经济学等理论评定报价策略，经过从行政上、技术上和商务上进行全面鉴别、比较以后采用科学的计算方法和切合实际的计价依据，合理确定工程造价，使其报价中标。

⑴我国现行工程造价计价依据的特点由于我国现行的工程造价管理制度是在计划经济模式下建立的，忽视了企业独立的经济地位，国家直接参与管理活动，直接制定和控制构成工程造价的各种因素，如设备材料出厂价、采购保管费、运杂费、工资、间接费、管理费和税金等。

不适应市场经济条件下的国际国内承包工程的投标报价工作。

我国施工企业也很少有自己的施工预算定额，这给国际承包工程投标报价工作带来了一定的难度。

招标控制价外文参考文献

招标控制价外文参考文献
1.《招标控制价的概念与应用》（刘海龙，2014年）
2. 《招标控制价制度的建立与实践》（李晓强，2016年）
3. 《招标控制价管理的问题与对策》（张凡，2013年）
4. 《招标控制价在工程项目管理中的应用研究》（王宝华，2017年）
5. 《招标控制价在公共建设领域的应用与实践》（马军，2015年）
6. 《招标控制价在企业工程项目管理中的应用》（李明，2012年）
7. 《招标控制价制度下的工程质量管理研究》（刘洋，2018年）
8. 《招标控制价制度对工程承包企业的影响研究》（赵丽丽，2016年）
9. 《招标控制价制度下的工程变更管理研究》（张晨，2015年）
10. 《招标控制价制度与工程成本管理的关系研究》（杨涛，2017年）。

- 1 -。

招投标外文文献

Building engineering biddingAbstract: Nowadays in the engineering construction industry，the market which is characteristic for project bidding，has formed。

The construction companies，which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market。

This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.bidding documents should be well formulated ，which is important to a successful bidding and direct influence the success or failure of the bidding work。

Because the success or failure of the bidding for the survival and development of enterprise has a direct impact, so we have a high quality, improve the bid documents of the unit, prevent invalid and successful pass mark appear，become a research topic。

工程管理专业建筑项目招投标Building-engineering-bidding毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：建筑项目招投标文献、资料英文题目：Building engineering bidding 文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：工程管理班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14本科毕业设计外文翻译Building engineering biddingYang Cao a,*, Shuhua Wang b, Heng Li aaDepartment of Building and Real Estate, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, HongKong, ChinabState Key Laboratory of Novel Software Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing210093, ChinaAbstractNowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed. The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market. This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively. bidding documents should be well formulated ,which is the improtment to a successful bidding and direct influence the success or failure of the biddingwork.Becasue the success or failure of the bidding for the survival and development of enterprise has a direct impact, so we have a high quality, improve the bid documents of the unit, prevent invalid and successful pass mark appear, become a research topic.[key] : bidding drawbacks of unfair competition countermeasuresBidding is a form of project transactions, project bidding process is to determine the successful bidder and the cost of the process and the price of the project, project bidding work of a very important link, do a good job bidding to determine the price, we can effectively control construction costs, and create a fair and equitable market environment, create orderly competition mechanism. Bidding in construction activities, construction enterprises in order to tender invincible works to be successful, And from the contracted projects profitable, it needs to integrate various subjective and objective conditions, the tender research strategy determine tender. Tenderbidding strategy, including pricing strategies and skills. All of the strategies and skills from the numerous contractors bidding on the accumulated experience and objective understanding of the law and of the actual situation understanding, but also with the contractor's decision-making ability and courage are closely related.Bidding documents is the general programme and play book of the bidding activity through the process of bidding. The bidding documents will specify that How to conduct each bidding work, how to dispatch bidding documents, the requirements for tenderer,how to rate and decide bidding and the procedures of bidding. Therefore, the personnel who is responsible for prepare bidding documents should first have a general view of the bidding work, include all the requirements and arrangements into the bidding documents. If meet problems that have not been considered previously, then resolve them one by one during the preparation. The course of bidding documents preparation is also the course of making bidding scheme .In another respect, bidding documents is also the legal instuments. Besides relevant law and rules, the bidding documents are the common game rules that bidder,bidding agent and tenderer should subject to through the bidding. Bidding documents are the legal instuments that all the three bidding related parties should subject to, have legal force, therefore, the bidding documents -making personnel required to have the awareness and quality of leagal in order to reflect the fair, just and legal requirement in the bidding documents.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role. But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve. This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed. The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market. This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role. But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve. This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.The practice of project bidding purpose is to market competition of openness, fairness and justice. However, due to the construction market development is notstandard, management system and the experience of inadequate, architectural engineering bidding in concrete operation exist in ACTS of unfair competition, and some drawbacks. This obviously violate the bidding, the bidding process, and will lose its significance for other bidder fails to bid is unjust, disturbed the bidding (project contracting market economic order, for activities), this kind of behavior must be prohibited, only in this way can we make construction engineering competitive trading activity lawfully healthy. This subject will I learned and social practice, present situation and construction project bidding system is expounded, and the disadvantages of bidding for construction project with ACTS of unfair competition phenomenon and analysis of causes, and finally make corresponding preventive countermeasures.Construction cost management system, both theoretical discussion, but also need to practice innovation. Under the conditions of market economy, project cost management, competitive and orderly market for construction management services platform structures. In such a premise, the original scale and method of valuation is inappropriate, and this needs to be reformed and improved. The spirit of "the government's macro regulation and control, enterprise autonomy offer, the market will price" principle, to implement the implementation specification bill of quantity. Inventory Valuation bidding activities are based on market economy mechanism, based on legal, scientific, fair, open and reasonable way to determine the winning bidder of an economic activity. Bidding is bidding activities constitute two basic aspects. The bidding activity is merely that by bidding to choose the one with the workConstruction process capability, moderate cost, quality is excellent, short duration of construction enterprises, and this is the ultimate goal tender. I have participated in internships over the course of the project bidding, and completed over part of the calculation of quantities, combined with graduate experience in the design process, a brief analysis of the mode Quantities Call for TenderThe meaning of risk and risk characteristics of the general construction, the lowest price sealed bidding construction method produces several risks and incentives, according to their characteristics discussed the feasibility of risk control and prevention. Comparison of engineering and engineering security risk management, insurance, similarities and differences between the two projects and benefits; construction project bidding and tendering process characteristics of human behavior is analyzed to reveal the bidder's risk appetite and behavioral characteristics with changes in the external environment change, when the default punishment is light, the bidder preference appetite for risk and default penalties, with the increase exceeds a certain value, the risk of bidders to show preference for behavior change to avoid the risk of penalties, the greater the bidder biased in favor of a more risk-averse behavior, the results of the control and prevention of risk behavior of bidders has an important and practical significanceConstruction Cost Management from the "quantity-one price" plan model to "price of separation volume" model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost. This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation. It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.With the construction of in-depth development of the market, the traditional fixed pricing model no longer suited to market-oriented economic development needs. In order to adapt to the current project bidding by the market needs of a project cost, we must work on the existing valuation methods and pricing model for reform, the implementation of projects bill pricing. Engineering is a list of pricing model and adapt to the market economy, allowing independent contractor pricing through market competition determine prices, with the international practice of pricing model. With the bill pricing model projects to promote, in accordance with international bidding practices is imperative. Therefore, "the lowest reasonable price of the successful bidder" My future is the most important evaluation methods. At this stage due to the implementation of projects bill pricing model and the problems mainly against China at this stage " in the minimum reasonable price of the principles of the successful bidder, most contractors have not yet set up their own enterprises of scale, companies unable to determine the reasonable Cost. This article is a scientific and fast set "reasonable cost" to study the key. First, from the project cost of the basic concept, of the engineering bill pricing model under the cost structure, to accurately predict costs of the project provided the basis, considering the average cost of the social cost to individual enterprises and the tender stage of the cost estimates. Followed through on fuzzy math and technology for smooth in-depth analysis, through "close-degree," the concept of reasonable fuzzy math and exponential smoothing technologies, construction of the project cost vague prediction model, and in accordance with the relevant information and statistics Information and experience to establish a "framework structure," the comparison works Construction Cost Management from the "quantity-one price" plan model to "price of separation volume" model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost. This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation. It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big stepforward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.A healthy bidding system should be in accordance with the "open, fair and justice" and the principle of good faith, and establish a unified, open, competitive and orderly construction market. In view of the current problems existing in the bidding process, adopt regulations, and formulate and perfect the institution, strengthening process supervision measures, they can better regulate construction market order, prevent corruption from its source, purify construction market, promote the construction market order progressively toward standardization, institutionalized, and constantly improve the quality and level of the bidding work.References[1] R.G. Casey, D.R. Ferguson, Intelligent forms processing, IBMSystem Journal 29 (3) (1990) 435– 450.[2] T. Watanabe, Q. Luo, N. Sugie, Layout recognition of multikindsof table-form documents, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 17 (4) (1995) 422–445.[3] J.L. Chen, H.J. Lee, An efficient algorithm for form structureExtr ction using strip projection, Pattern Recognition 31 (9)Fig. 9. Table with no obvious separating symbol between records. (1998) 1353– 1368.Y. Cao et al. / Automation in Construction 11 (2002) 573–584 583[4] L.Y. Tseng, R.C. Chen, Recognition and data extraction of form documents based on three types of line segments, Pattern Recognition 31 (10) (1998) 1525–1540.[5] K.C. Fan, J.M. Lu, G.D. Chen, A feature point clustering approach to the recognition of form documents, Pattern Recognition 31 (9) (1998) 1205–1220.[6] S. Chandran, R. Kasturi, Structure recognition of tabulated data,Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, Tsukuba Science City, Jap20–22, 1993, pp. 516– 519.[7] K. Itonori, Table structure recognition based on textblock arrangement and ruled line position, Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, Tsukuba Science City, Japan, Oct. 20– 22, 1993, pp. 765– 768.[8] J.H. Shamilian, H.S. Baird, T.L. Wood, A retargetable table reader, Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, Ulm, Germany, Aug. 18– 20,1997, pp. 158–163.[9] J.Y. Chiang, S.C. Tue, Y.C. Leu, A new algorithm for line image vectorization, Pattern Recognition 31 (10) (1998) 1541–1549.建筑项目招投标摘要目前在工程建设项目行业中，以工程招投标为特征的建筑市场已经形成，施工企业为创造良好经济效益，必须严格控制成本，加强成本控制管理，才能提高市场适应能力和竞争力。

工程管理毕业论文---投标报价策略与技巧的研究(外文翻译)

Xx工程大学科信学院学士学位论文(简装稿)论文名称: 投标报价策略与技巧的研究摘要随着我国国民经济和社会发展的需要，工程建设规模也越来越大，对于施工企业的发展，既是机遇又是挑战。

施工企业为了自身的生存和发展，只有通过招投标来获取工程项目。

本文通过作者在施工企业实习期间的经历，结合编制标书及其投标报价过程中存在的问题，介绍了工程招投标的定义和基本特性、工程招投标的基本程序，以及工程招投标在我国经济建设中的作用和发展状况；说明工程招标标底的确定及评标方法分析以及工程投标中的决策；介绍了如何编制标书和投标报价，以及投标报价过程中应采取的策略和技巧；如何进行工程投标风险的识别和防范。

在借鉴作者投标过程中的经验和教训，总结了施工企业在编制标书和投标报价以及投标报价的策略和技巧。

如何选择投标对象、编制标书、回避风险、最大限度获取工程利润是每一个施工企业极为关注并重点研究的课题。

本文从承包商的角度出发，认真分析投标全过程，为承包商选择投标对象、合理报价、回避合同风险、提高中标机率、最大程度获取利润提出一些切实可行的建议，力图对施工承包企业投标工作起到一定的现实指导意义。

关键词：投标；报价；技巧；风险策略Bid price quotation strategy and skillsAbstractAlong with our country national economy with the demand that society development, Developments scale is more and more, Toward development of construction enterprise, Since it is an opportunity and it is challenge. Construction enterprise exists with develop for the sake of the oneself, Only passing to recruit to bid to obtain project. This text passes the problem that author exsits in business enterprise that start construction career filed worked period, Combination establishment mark book and its bid quote process, Introducing the engineering recruit the def function indevelopments with develop the condition; Explaining the engineering invites bids to mark the bottom to really settle and the bidding the method analyze sand the engineering bids inside of decision; Introduce how establishment mark book with bid to quote, and bid to quote the process the strategy that insides hould adopt w inition of the hurl tore cruit the basic procedure that bid with the basic characteristic, engineering, and the engineering recruit to bid at the our country economicith technique and how to proceed the engineering bid the risk identifies with against etc At draw lessons from the author bid experiencein the process with teach, tally up the construction business enterprise to mark the book with bid to quote and bid the strategy that quote in the establishment to make use of with the technique. How to choose to bid object, establishment mark book, get around the risk, biggest limit obtains the engineering profits is each a construction business enterprise to extremely pay attention to lay equal stress on to order investigative lesson. This text sets out from the undertaker's angle, earnest analysis bid who leprocess, for undertaker choice bid object, reasonable offer, get around the contract risk, increase inside mark the probability, biggest degree obtains the profits puts forward the some slices solid viable suggestion, the dintdiagram contracts for to the construction the business enterprise bids to work to rise certainly of actuality guide meaning.Keywords: To bid; To quote; Strategy; The technique Risk目录1绪论 (1)1.1 研究背景 (1)1.2研究意义 (1)1.3 研究内容 (2)2 投标的基本概念及理论 (3)2.1 投标的概念和特点 (3)2.2 投标的主要程序 (4)3 投标报价策略 (7)3.1 投标策略 (7)3.2 报价策略 (9)4 投标报价技巧及报价手段 (14)4.1 投标报价技巧研究 (14)4.2 投标报价决策 (18)4.3 投标报价的其他补充策略 (20)5 投标报价实例 (23)5.1 投标单位概况 (23)5.2 工程概况 (23)5.3 投标报价方案比较 (24)结束语 (27)参考文献 (28)致谢 (29)1 绪论1.1 研究背景进入新世际以来，中国经济的快速发展和人民生活水平的不断提高，形成了对大规模基础设施、厂房、办公设施、商铺、高层住宅等生产生活性建筑物的巨大需求，这大大刺激了中国建筑行业的发展，促成了中国建筑市场的空前繁荣。

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