学术英语(医学)Unit14课文课本翻译
学术英语(社科)Unit1-8 Text A译文
学术英语课文翻译Unit1人们如何做出决策理性的人认为在保证金1.经济学家通常假设人是理性的。
理性的人们系统地,有目的地做最好的,他们可以实现他们的目标,考虑到可用的机会。
当你学习经济学,你会遇到公司决定雇佣多少工人,有多少他们的产品生产和销售利润最大化。
你也会遇到那些决定花多少时间工作和买什么商品和服务产生的收入来实现最高水平的满意度。
2.理性的人知道生活中的决策很少是黑白的，但通常是灰色的。
在吃饭的时候，你面对的不是空腹或是像猪一样进食，而是吃额外的一匙土豆泥。
当考试开始时，你的决定不是介于两者之间，而是让他们减少或学习一天24小时，而不是花更多的时间复习笔记而不是看电视。
经济学家用“边际变化”这个术语来描述对现有的行动计划的调整。
请记住，边际意味着“边缘如此边缘的变化是在你正在做的边缘周围的调整”。
理性的人往往通过比较边际收益和边际成本来做出决定。
3.例如，考虑一家航空公司决定向待机乘客收取多少费用。
假设撒德躺在横跨美国的200座飞机上，航空公司损失100,000英镑。
在这种情况下，每个座位的平均成本是1,000美元/ 200美元，这是500美元。
有人可能会得出这样的结论：航空公司不应该售出票价低于500美元的机票。
事实上，一家理性的航空公司通常可以通过考虑利润率来提高利润。
想象一下，一架飞机即将起飞，有10个空座位，候机旅客在门口等候，将支付300美元的座位。
航空公司应该把票卖掉吗？当然应该。
如果飞机有空座位，增加一个乘客的成本很小。
乘飞机的平均成本是S500，边际成本仅仅是额外的乘客将消耗的花生袋和苏打水的成本。
只要备用乘客支付超过边际成本，售票是有利可图的。
4.边际决策有助于解释一些令人费解的经济现象。
这里有一个经典的问题：为什么水这么便宜，而钻石这么贵？人类需要水来生存，而钻石是不必要的；但出于某种原因，人们愿意付出更多的钻石比一杯水。
原因是一个人愿意支付任何好处是基于一个额外单位的好处会产生边际效益。
医学英语课文翻译
U5RB1.当肺炎这个词被用在医学实践中，它最常指的是一种由急性感染引起的综合征，感染通常由细菌所致。
它的特点是临床或X线检查表现为一侧肺或左右两肺的一部分或数个部分有实变征象。
然而这一术语的词意已经很大程度上延伸到由各种各样的微生物所导致非细菌性的肺部感染。
Pneumonitis偶尔被用作是pneumonia的一个同义词，特别的当肺部炎症是由非感染因素比如化学或射线损伤造成的。
2.从实际目的出发，肺炎的分类应当既依照解剖学部位，又指明其病因：前者使用描绘性词语表达肺（一侧肺或左右两侧）病程的发展程度和分布情况，后者指明涉及的/致病的微生物。
考虑到，初始阶段常有这种情况/常常如此，我们并不清楚思考肺部的感染是社区感染性还是医院感染性是否有意义。
它有助于考虑肺炎是否由咽部吸入造成，以及是否会发生在免疫力受损的宿主身上。
3.解剖学术语的使用可以表明肺炎是否侵犯一个或更多的肺叶或是否病程仅局限在一个或多个节段中。
以更确切的形式，肺炎也许是节段性的。
对解剖部位的描述在实际中完全取决于胸透所见，（它透过X光检查）所显示的肺炎程度比体检所得到的的估计更准确。
早期的临床医生在病理学意义上区分支气管肺炎和大叶性肺炎。
支气管肺炎被认为是支气管在炎症过程被局限于一小部分或终末支气管和与之相对的肺小叶范围的并发症，因此可以用“小叶性肺炎”这一名称替代。
而另一方面，大叶性肺炎经常反复出现，并以炎症性的外流或液体渗出物蔓延至一个叶或数个肺叶为特征。
4.当临床和影像检查证明融合性实变占据一侧或双侧肺的一个或多个肺叶时，通常称为大叶性肺炎。
亚节段性肺炎指肺实变的范围不足以占据一叶的大部分，但相应地接近于解剖学上的一叶或多叶的支气管肺段。
当X线阴影的区域更为局限时，亚节段性肺炎就是一个合适的描述性词语，虽然这仍是暗指一个融合且局限的过程。
如果（X光检查）显示亚段病变的阴影呈零星状（非融合的），散布于一肺或左右肺的一部分或全部，很难定位，则仍可以使用支气管肺炎这一术语。
学术英语(医学)Unit
• …who was impressive not only for his clinical skills but also for his devotion to patients
• I told them suffering or comfort — it was their decision.
withdraw life-support machines and medications / treatment
• …who was impressive not only for his clinical skills but also for his devotion to patients
• Decide whether life-support system should be continued or withdrawn;
• Decide whether euthanasia should be considered; • Decide whether a new therapy should be tried; • Decide whether surgery should be the first choice or the
• Things that counts in maintaining a amiable physicianpatient relationship
• The way to communicate properly and effectively with the patients
Unit 7 Life and Medicine
2019年医学学术英语课文翻译-精选word文档 (4页)
本文部分内容来自网络整理，本司不为其真实性负责，如有异议或侵权请及时联系，本司将立即删除！== 本文为word格式，下载后可方便编辑和修改！ ==医学学术英语课文翻译医学英语是用英语来学习医学，下面请看小编特地为大家收集的医学学术英语课文翻译！欢迎阅读！医学英语文献选读课文译文及部分参考答案Unit1 中医能否治好姚明的伤？1 NBA超级巨星姚明决定回中国寻求传统中医方法治疗他的应力性骨折，这一决定使医生和中医专家们就中医疗法是否有效争论不休。
2 这位27岁，7.6英尺高的休斯顿火箭队全明星中锋，因为左脚的应力性骨折被迫退出了这个赛季。
特别是在连接脚踝和脚掌的足舟骨上有一道裂缝。
3 姚明在上个月初进行了手术，手术时植入了一颗固定骨骼的钢钉。
施行手术的医生表示，手术十分成功。
姚明术后一旦能行走，将会进行积极的康复治疗。
4 这项手术通常需要4个月的术后休息。
但似乎姚明也想借助传统中医方法（中医是一种包括针灸和草药在内的医学体系）加快治疗进度。
周五，美联社报道称姚明已经回到了他的祖国，和中国顶级的中医专家进行了探讨。
5 一些美国医生，比如位于华盛顿特区的乔治·华盛顿大学中的整形外科医生---Robert.J.Neviaser，对这种额外的举动是否会有任何益处表示怀疑。
6 “我很清楚没有任何已知的科学证据表明，中医疗法能对应力性骨折有明显的效果。
”Neviaser说，“我们不太了解针灸，他的价值似乎在对手术麻醉的一种替代，但没有任何数据表明它对医治骨折有好处。
”7 但有些中医专家声称，尽管没有文献证据证明，但中医的方法似乎可以成功的解决姚明的伤痛。
8 “这么做毫无问题，如果我是姚明我也会这样做的。
因为传统西方医学中，除了被动地恢复也没有什么好的办法来治疗应力性骨折。
”Raymond Chang博士说，他是位于纽约的“中西药研究院”的院长。
9 “尽管只凭经验没有研究，传统中医在这种情况下是有用的，作为我们中国人所受教育的一部分，在几乎所有中国人的眼里，它是常见的，且享有盛誉，姚明选择这种疗法实在正常不过。
医学英语新教程(下册)课文翻译
医学英语新教程（下册）课文翻译UNIT1疾病的介绍1人体是一个艺术的杰作。
我们对身体的功能了解越深，就越赏识。
即使在生病时，身体在故障修复和补偿方面表现也相当出色。
身体内不断发生变化，然而，一个叫内环境稳定（稳态）的平稳状态能大抵保持平衡。
机体内环境稳定出现某种重大的紊乱，就能引起各种各样的反应，这些反应常常促使疾病的体征和症状出现。
比如，由于运动员对氧气的需求增加，他们体内的红细胞计数就会异常升高。
这是一个使更多血红蛋白循环的自然补偿机制，但它却是红细胞增多症的一个症状。
2当一个器官需要做更多工作时，它往往会增大，肥大。
心脏会因为长期的高血压而增大，因为它必须不间断地克服巨大的阻力把血液输送到全身。
当瓣膜存在缺陷时，心肌同样也会肥大，因为那些要么太宽，要么太窄的瓣膜需要额外的抽吸作用。
如果一个肾衰竭了，另一个肾就会增大以满足身体的需要，并弥补那个有缺陷的肾。
当流向这两个肾的血液不足时，它们会通过分泌荷尔蒙（激素）的方式帮助血压升高。
然而，如果某个器官或身体的某个部位没有得到使用，它就会萎缩，或者，也就是说，面积变小或功能下降。
3血液在维持内环境稳定方面发挥着几个作用。
当组织受到创伤，损伤，或者感染时，血流就会积聚在受损区域。
这是极其重要的，因为血液携带了专门用于清除有害物质和细胞碎片的细胞。
血液中的其他细胞则产生抗体，以抵抗致病生物的入侵。
5关于疾病，一个重要方面是它的病因学或病因。
许多熟悉的疾病是由病原体造成的。
普通感冒和流感都是病毒感染，但是脓肿和脓毒性咽喉炎是由细菌造成的，而真菌和寄生虫分别是运动员足部疾病和蠕虫病的病原体。
一种疾病或异常病变的原因及进展称之为疾病的发病机制。
6病理学是研究疾病特点、原因和影响的一个医学分支。
细胞病理学家研究的是细胞或显微镜的变化，而临床病理学家则利用实验室试验和方法进行诊断。
一位病理学家可能专长于验尸或手术上的研究结果。
7许多疾病是由遗传造成的，经缺陷基因遗传。
学术英语(医学)教师版Unit2课文翻译
Unit 2 Text A再现疾病：今天遁形无踪，明日卷土重来？桑塔亚纳有句格言：“不能铭记过去的人注定要重蹈覆辙”，这句话用在生物学上就有这样一个推论：人们相信我们已经征服了古老的微生物这个敌人，这种信念让我们惊人地脆弱，很易受他们的攻击。
“宿敌不死。
”我们有两个选择。
按照第一种选择去做，10 年之后头条新闻要么报道国会里你死我活的争吵，要么报道哪位运动员签了几百万的合约。
而另一方面，第二种选择的结果是出现这样的标题：“新型流感变种在蔓延：死亡人数已达五十万”1969 年，美国卫生局局长威廉·斯图尔特在国会听证时说，我们可以“给传染病画上句号了。
”抗生素和疫苗带来了一个接一个了不起的胜利，从青霉素的发现到脊髓灰质炎的防治等凡此种种，让医学界欣喜不已。
他们认为这场战争几乎结束了。
今天，当我们面对各种已经被称为新现疾病和再现疾病时，我们认识更加透彻。
在《美国医学协会杂志》传染病的一期特刊中，诺贝尔奖得主，哥伦比亚生物学家约书亚·莱德伯格写道：“‘出现’其实是回归，回到上个世纪普遍盛行的水平。
”就在这期特刊中，有个报告对日益严重的传染病构成的威胁进行了量化：1980 年到 1992 年间，美国传染病的死亡率增加了 58％，其中艾滋病占了一半略多一点，而其他一些疾病，特别是呼吸道感染，也有显著贡献。
宣布胜利的日子里，人们飘飘然起来，然而后来突然出现了像艾滋病和埃博拉之类的各种新型疾病，虽然人们认为那些已有的病魔已经被降服，但是他们已经再次暴发。
白喉在前苏联正卷土重来。
虽然上层社会的歌剧迷们也许觉得结核病只是歌剧《波西米亚人》中的创作，而事实上，结核病就从来没有消失过，再次成为包括纽约市在内的城市中心的威胁。
甲型链球菌传染病正在增多，这意味着猩红热可能再次为大家熟知。
每一位在传染病领域的工作者都害怕，终有一日一种强大的新型流感菌株会席卷全球。
“战争胜利了，” 最近有位科学家嘲弄道，“是对方（传染病）获胜。
医学学术英语(医学)课文翻译以及课后问题答案
Unit11、Some factors that may lead to the complaint:·Neuron overload·Patients* high expectations·Mistrust and misunderstanding between the patient and the doctor2、Mrs. Osorio’s condition:·A 56-year-old woman·Somewhat overweight·Reasonably well-controlled diabetes and hypertension·Cholesterol on the high side without any medications for it·Not enough exercises she should take·Her bones a little thin on her last DEXA scan3、Good things:·Blood tests done·Glucose a little better·Her blood pressure a little better but not so great Bad things:·Cholesterol not so great·Her weight a little up·Her bones a little thin on her last DEXA scan 44、The situation:·The author was in a moderate state of panic: juggling so many thoughts about Mrs. Osorio’s conditions and trying to resolve them all before the clock ran down.·Mrs. Osorio made a trivial request, not so important as compared to her conditions.·Mrs. Osorio seemed to care only about her “innocent —and completely justified —request”：the form signed by her doctor.·The doctor tried to or at least pretended to pay attention to the patient while completing documentation.5、Similarities:·In computer multitasking, a microprocessor actually performs only one task ata time. Like microprocessors, we human beings carft actually concentrate ontwo thoughts at the same exact time. Multitasking is just an illusion both in computers and human beings.Differences:·The concept of multitasking originated in computer science.·At best, human beings can juggle only a handful of thoughts in a multitasking manner, but computers can do much better.·The more thoughts human beings juggle, the less human beings are able to attune fully to any given thought, but computers can do much better.6、·7 medical issues to consider·5 separate thoughts, at least, for each issue·7 x 5 = 35 thoughts·10 patients that afternoon·35 x 10 = 350 thoughts·5 residents under the authors supervision·4 patients seen by each resident·10 thoughts, at least, generated from each patient·5 x 4 x 10 = anther 200 thoughts·350 + 200 = 550 thoughts to be handled in total·If the doctor does a good job juggling 98% of the time, that still leaves about10 thoughts that might get lost in the process.7、Possible solutions:·Computer-generated reminders·Case managers·Ancillary services·The simplest solution: timeUnit21、The author implies:• Peoples inadequate consciousness about the consequence of neglecting the re- emerging infectious diseases·Unjustifiability of peoples complacency about the prevention and control of the infectious diseases·Unfinished war against infectious diseases2、Victory declarations:·Surgeon General William Stewart's hyperbolic statement of closing “the book on infectious disease”.·A string of impressive victories incurred by antibiotics and vaccines·The thought that the war against infectious diseases was almost overWhat followed ever since:·Appearance of new diseases such as AIDS and Ebola·Comeback of the old afflictions:» Diphtheria in the former Soviet Union» TB in urban centers like New York City» Rising Group A streptococcal conditions like scarlet fever·The fear of a powerful new flu strain sweeping the world3、Elaborate on the joined battle:·WHO established a new division devoted to worldwide surveillance and control of emerging disease in October 1995.·CDC launched a prevention strategy in 1994.·Congress raised fund from $6.7 million in 1995 to $26 million in 1997.4、The borders are meaningless to pathogenic microbes, which can travel from one country to another remote country in a very short time.5、TB:·Prisons and homeless shelters as ideal places for TB spread·Emerging of drug-resistant strain or even multi-drug-resistant strain·A ride on the HIV w^on by attacking the immunocompromisedGroup A strep:·A change in virulence·Mutation in the exterior of the bacteriumFlu:Constant changes in its coat (surface antigens) and resultant changes in its level of virulence6、Examples:·Experiment in England is seeing the waning immunity because of no vaccination.·Du e to poor vaccination efforts, the diphtheria situation in the former Soviet Union is serious. '• The vaccination rates are dropping in some American cities, and it will lead to more diphtheria and whooping cough.7、The four areas of focus:·The need for surveillance·Updated science capable of dealing with discoveries in the field ·Appropriate prevention and control·Strong public health infrastructure8、The infectious diseases such as TB, flu, diphtheria and scarlet fever will never really go away, and the war against them will never end.Unit31、Terry's life before·She loved practicing Tae Kwon Do·She loved the surge of adrenaline that came with the controlled combat of tournaments.·She competed nationally, even won bronze medal in the trials for the Pan American Games.·She attended medical school, practiced as an internal medicine resident, and became an academic general internist.·She got married and got a son and a daughter.2、The symptoms of MS and autoimmune disease:·Loss of stamina and strength·Problems with balance·Bouts of horrific facial pain·Dips in visual acuity3、Terry did the following before she self-experimented:·She started injections.·She adopted many pharmacotherapies.·She began her own study of literature:» She read articles on websites such as PubMed.» She searched for articles testing new MS drugs in animal models.»She turned to articles concerning neurodegeneration of all types —dementia，Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and Lou Gehrig's disease.»She relearned basic sciences such as cellular physiology, biochemistry, and neurophysiology.4、Approaches Terry mainly used:·Self-experimentation with various nutrients to slow neurodegeneration based on literature reports on animal models·Self-experimentation with neuromuscular electrical stimulation which is not an approved treatment for MS·Online search to identify the sources of micronutrients and having a new diet ·Reduction of food allergies and toxic load5、Cases mentioned in the text:·Increased mercury stores in the brains of people with dental fillings·High levels of the herbicide atrazine in private wells in Iowa·The strong association between pesticide exposure and neurodegeneration ·The association of single nucleotide polymorphisms involving metabolism of sulfur and/or B vitamins·Inefficient clearing of toxins6、With 70% to 90% of the risk for diabetes, heart disease, cancer, andautoimmunity being due to environmental factors other than the genes, we can take many health problems and the health care crisis under our control, for example, optimizing our nutrition and reducing our toxic load.Unit41、Two concepts:·Complementary medicine refers to the use of conventional therapies together with alternative treatments such as using acupuncture in addition to usual care to help lessen pain. Complementary and alternative medicine is shortened as CAM.·Alternative medicine refers to healing treatments that are not part of conventional therapies —like acupuncture, massage therapy, or herbal medicine. They are called so because people used to consider practices like these outside the mainstream.2·TCM does not require advanced, complicated, and in most cases, expensive facilities.·TCM employs needles, cups, coins, to mention but a few.·Most procedures and operations of TCM are noninvasive.·The substances used as medicine are raw herbs or abstracts from them, and they are indeed all natural, from nature.·TCM has been practiced as long as the Chinese history, so the efficiency i s proven and ensured.·Ongoing research around the world on acupuncture, herbs, massage and Tai Chi have shed light on some of the theories and practices of TCM3、It may be used as an adjunct treatment, an alternative, or part of a comprehensive management program for a number of conditions: post-operative and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting, post-operative dental pain, addiction, stroke rehabilitation, headache, menstrual cramps, tennis elbow, fibromyalgia, myofascial pain, osteoarthritis, low back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and asthma.4、A well-justified NO:·More intense research to uncover additional areas for the use of acupuncture ·Higher adoption of acupuncture as a common therapeutic modality not only in treatment but also in prevention of disease and promotion of wellness ·Exploration and perfection of innovative methods of acupuncture point stimulation with technological advancement·Improved understanding of neuroscience and other aspects of human physiology and function by basic research on acupuncture·Greater interest by stakeholders·An increasing number of physician acupuncturists5、·Appropriate uses of herbs depend on proper guidance:» Proper TCM diagnosis of the zheng of the patient» Correct selection of the corresponding therapeutic strategies and principles that guide the choice of herbs and herbal formulas·Digression from either of the above guidence will lead to misuses of herbs, and will result in complications in patient6、·Randomized controlled trialsAdvantages:»Elimination of the potential bias in the allocation of participants to the intervention group or control group» Tendency to produce comparable groups» Guaranteed validity of statistical tests of significanceLimitations:» Difficulty in generalizing the results obtained from the selected sampling to the population as a whole» A poor choice for research where temporal factors are anissue»Extremely heavy resources, requiring very large samplegroups• Quasi-experimentsAdvantages:» Control group comparisons possible» Reduced threats to external validity as natural environments do notsuffer the same problems of artificiality as compared to awell-controlled laboratory setting.» Generalizations of the findings to be made about population since quasiexperiments are natural experimentsLimitations：» Potential for non-equivalent groups as quasi-experimental designsdo not use random sampling in constructing experimental and controlgroups.» Potential for low internal validity as a result of not using random sampling methods to construct the experimental and control groups• Cohort studiesAdvantages:»Clear indication of the temporal sequence between exposure andoutcome» Particular use for evaluating the effects of rare or unusual exposure» Ability to examine multiple outcomes of a single risk factorLimitations:» Larger, longer, and more expensive» Prone to certain types of bias» Not practical for rare outcomes• Case-control studiesAdvantages:»The only feasible method in the case of rare diseases and those with long periods between exposure and outcome»Time and cost effective with relatively fewer subjects as compared to other observational methodsLimitations：» Unable to provide the same level of evidence as randomized controlled trials as it is observational in nature» Difficult to establish the timeline of exposure to disease outcome• “N=1” trialsAdvantages» Easy to manage» InexpensiveLimitations：» Findings difficult to be generalized to the whole population» Weakest evidence due to the number of the subject7、• Synthesis of evidence is completely dependent on:» The completeness of the literature search (unavailable for foreign studies) » The accuracy of evaluation·There are situations in which no answer can be found for the questions of interest in RCTs and database analyses.·There's the requirement of using less stringent information rather than “hard data”8、·Assessment of the intrinsic value of traditional medicine in society·Research and education·Political, economic, and social factorsUnit51、·Dis-ease refers to the imbalance arising from：» Continuous stress» Pain» Hardships·Disease is a health crisis ascribable to various dis-eases.·Prompting elimination of dis-eases can alleviate some diseases.2、·Wellness is a state involving every aspect of our being: body, mind and spirit.·Manifestations of a healthy person:» Energy and vitality» A certain zip in gait» A warm feeling of peace of heart seen through behavior3、·Constant messages, positive and negative，are sent to our mind about the health of our body.·Physical symptoms are suppressed by people who go through life on automatic pilot.·Being well equals to being disease- or illness-free in the minds of them. ·They confused wellness with an absence of symptoms.4、·People's minds are infected by spin:» Half-truth» Fearful fictions» Blatant deceit: some as a form of self-deceit·Spin is a result of unconscious living.·The kind of falseness is pandemic.5·Our body intelligence is suppressed or dormant from a lack of use.·There are tremendous amount of stress on a daily basis.·Our bodies are easily ignored for years because of a lack of recreation time. ·Limiting, self-defeating and even self-destructive behaviors undermine our wellbeing and keep them from achieving our full potential.6·We grow more reluctant to take risks.·We lose the ability to feel and acknowledge our deepest feelings and the courage to speak our truth.·We continue to deny and repress our feelings to protect ourselves. ·Fear, denial and disconnection from our bodies and feelings become an unconscious, self-protective habit, a kind of default response to life.7·A multi-faceted process:» Looking for roots of and resolutions for the issues in different dimensions » Building our wellness toolbox slowly» Picturing our whole state of being·Attention to the little stuff:» Examining our lives honestly and setting clear intentions to change» Striving to maintain a balance of our mind, body and spirit» Taking small steps in the way to perceive and resolve conflict8·Try to awaken and evolve in order to live more consciously.·Get in touch with our genuine feelings and emotions.·Come to terms with the toxic emotionsUnit61、In the past, most people died at home. But now, more and more people arecared in hospitals and nursing homes at their end of life, which of course brings a new set of questions to consider.2、·Sixty-four years old with a history of congestive heart failure·Deciding to do everything medically possible to extend his life·Availability of around-the-clock medical services and a full range of treatment choices, tests, and other medical care·Relaxed visiting hours, and personal items from home3、Availability of around-the-clock medical resources, including doctors, nurses,and facility.4、·Taking on a job which is big physically, emotionally, and financially·Hiring a home nurse for additional help·Arranging for services (such as visiting nurses) and special equipment (like a hospital bed or bedside commode)5、·Health insurance·Planning by a professional, such as a hospital discharge plaimer or a social worker·Help from local governmental agencies·Doctor's supervision at home6、·Traditionally, it is only about symptom care.·Recently, it is a comprehensive approach to improving the quality of life for people who are living with potentially fatal diseases.7、·Stopping treatment specifically aimed at curing an illness equals discontinuing all treatment.·Choosing a hospice is a permanent decision.Unit71、·A dying patient·Decision whether to withdraw life-support machines and medication and start comfort measures·The family's refusal to make any decision or withdraw any treatments2、·The doctor as exclusive decision-maker·The patient as participant with little say in the final choice3、·Respect for the patient, especially the patient s autonomy·Patient-centered care·The patient as decision-maker based on the information provided by the doctor4、·Patients are forced to make decisions they never want to.·Patients, at least a large majority of them, prefer their doctors to make final decisions.·Shifting responsibility of decision-making to patients will bring about more stress to patients and their families, especially when the best option for the patient is uncertain.5、Doctors are very much cautious about committing some kind of ethicaltransgression.6、·Shouldering responsibility together with the patient may be better than having the patient make decisions on their own.·Balancing between paternalism and respect for patients autonomy constitutes a large part of medical practice.Unit81、·Research:An activity to test hypothesis, to permit conclusions to be drawn, and thereby to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge·Practice:Interventions solely to enhance the well-being of an individual patient or client and that have a reasonable expectation of success·Blurred distinction:»Cooccurrence of research and practice like in research designed to evaluate a therapy» Notable departures from standard practice being called “experimental”with the terms “experimenta l”and “research” carelessly defined2、·Autonomy：Individuals treated as autonomous agents .·Protection:Persons with diminished autonomy entitled to protection·A case in point:Prisoners involved in research3·“Do no harm” as the primary principle·Maximization of possible benefits and minimization of possible harms . ·Balance between benefits and potential risks involved in every step of seeding the benefits4、·“Do no harm” as a fundamental principle of medical ethics·Extension of it to the realm of research by Claude Bernard·Benefits and risks as a set “duet” in both medical practice and research5、·Unreasonable denial of entitled benefit and unduly imposed burden：Enrolment of patients in new drug trial: Who should be enrolled and who should not?·Equal treatment of equals:Determining factors of equality: age, sex, severity of the condition, financial status, social status6、·Definition:The opportunity to choose what shall or shall not happen to them ·Application:» A process rather than signing a written form» Adequate information as the premise» A well-informed decision as the expected result7、·Requirements for consent as entailed by the principle of respect for persons ·Risk/benefit assessment as entailed by the principle of beneficence·More requirements of fairness as entailed by the principle of justice: » At the individual level: fairness» At the social level: distinction between classesUnit 1 Text A神经过载与千头万绪的医生患者经常抱怨自己的医生不会聆听他们的诉说。
学术英语(医学)Unit1~4课文翻译汇总
Unit 1 Text A神经过载与千头万绪的医生患者经常抱怨自己的医生不会聆听他们的诉说。
虽然可能会有那么几个医生确实充耳不闻，但是大多数医生通情达理，还是能够感同身受的人。
我就纳闷为什么即使这些医生似乎成为批评的牺牲品。
我常常想这个问题的成因是不是就是医生所受的神经过载。
有时我感觉像变戏法，大脑千头万绪，事无巨细，不能挂一漏万。
如果病人冷不丁提个要求，即使所提要求十分中肯，也会让我那内心脆弱的平衡乱作一团，就像井然有序同时演出三台节目的大马戏场突然间崩塌了一样。
有一天，我算过一次常规就诊过程中我脑子里有多少想法在翻腾，试图据此弄清楚为了完满完成一项工作，一个医生的脑海机灵转动，需要处理多少个细节。
奥索里奥夫人 56 岁，是我的病人。
她有点超重。
她的糖尿病和高血压一直控制良好，恰到好处。
她的胆固醇偏高，但并没有服用任何药物。
她锻炼不够多，最后一次 DEXA 骨密度检测显示她的骨质变得有点疏松。
尽管她一直没有爽约，按时看病，并能按时做血液化验，但是她形容自己的生活还有压力。
总的说来，她健康良好，在医疗实践中很可能被描述为一个普通患者，并非过于复杂。
以下是整个 20 分钟看病的过程中我脑海中闪过的念头。
她做了血液化验，这是好事。
血糖好点了。
胆固醇不是很好。
可能需要考虑开始服用他汀类药物。
她的肝酶正常吗？她的体重有点增加。
我需要和她谈谈每天吃五种蔬果、每天步行 30 分钟的事。
糖尿病：她早上的血糖水平和晚上的比对结果如何？她最近是否和营养师谈过？她是否看过眼科医生？足科医生呢？她的血压还好，但不是很好。
我是不是应该再加一种降血压的药？药片多了是否让她困惑？更好地控制血压的益处和她可能什么药都不吃带来的风险孰重孰轻？骨密度 DEXA 扫描显示她的骨质有点疏松。
我是否应该让她服用二磷酸盐，因为这可以预防骨质疏松症？而我现在又要给她加一种药丸，而这种药需要详细说明。
也许留到下一次再说吧？她家里的情况怎么样呢？她现在是否有常见的生活压力？亦或她有可能有抑郁症或焦虑症？有没有时间让她做个抑郁问卷调查呢？健康保养：她最后一次乳房 X 光检查是什么时候做的？子宫颈抹片呢？ 50 岁之后是否做过结肠镜检查？过去 10 年间她是否注射过破伤风加强疫苗？她是否符合接种肺炎疫苗的条件？奥索里奥夫人打断了我的思路，告诉我过去的几个月里她一直背痛。
医学英语课文翻译
第一单元 A History of TCMText A A History of TCM1.通过考古发掘，中医药的历史可以追溯到数百万年前。
原始人们在基本生存方面花了大部分时间：狩猎、种植植物以获取食物、建造住所、保护自己。
很容易想象，随着时间的推移，他们会尝试大多数当地植物来寻找食物。
经过一段时间，随着口头记载的流传，可以确定哪些植物可以做美食，哪些可以用于建筑，哪些可以影响疾病，和哪些是有毒的。
通过试验和错误，一种原始的草药和饮食疗法在中国逐渐形成。
2.火作为一种取暖，燃料和光的资源在他们的生活中也发挥了关键作用。
他们围坐在火堆周围，我们的祖先发现热的治疗力量是很自然的。
这些力量对像关节炎这类寒湿病的作用特别明显，热量起到迅速缓解的作用。
这是艾灸的艺术的起源,热量的医疗应用适合于多种多样的条件。
3.在他们艰苦的生活中，这些古老的人们一定经历了各种各样的伤害。
痛苦的一个自然的反应是摩擦或按压病变部位。
这种动手的治疗逐渐演变成一个系统的治疗操作。
人们发现按压在身体上特定的穴位有广泛的影响。
他们开始使用磨骨碎片或石片增强感觉，针刺诞生了。
中国传统医学历史的记载4.中医的书面历史发展主要是在过去的3000年。
商朝的考古挖掘揭示了医学著作被刻在占卜的骨头上：早期的巫师，大多数是妇女，使用肩胛骨执行占卜仪式；后来这些骨头也被用于写作。
5.在1973年发现的11篇写在丝绸上的医学文献在某些方面阐明了中国历史早期的复杂实践。
追溯到公元前168年，这些文章讨论饮食、锻炼、艾灸和草药疗法。
,一本广泛混杂萨满魔法的文章（52病方）描述了草药和食物的药理作用。
这个时期还存在着神农的传说，农业的皇帝，他每天品尝100草药来评估他们的性能。
（据说他在调查的过程中已经中毒多次调）6.到公元400年，中国传统医学的基础已具有书面形式。
此时，医学中大多数魔法的方面已经落后；越来越相信自然的力量可以治愈疾病。
最重要的书籍是在公元前300年到公元400年之间编制的黄帝内经。
最新学术英语医学Unit1,3,7,9课文翻译
学术英语unit1,unit3,unit4,unit9课文翻译Unit 1 Text A神经过载与千头万绪的医生患者经常抱怨自己的医生不会聆听他们的诉说。
虽然可能会有那么几个医生确实充耳不闻，但是大多数医生通情达理，还是能够感同身受的人。
我就纳闷为什么即使这些医生似乎成为批评的牺牲品。
我常常想这个问题的成因是不是就是医生所受的神经过载。
有时我感觉像变戏法，大脑千头万绪，事无巨细，不能挂一漏万。
如果病人冷不丁提个要求，即使所提要求十分中肯，也会让我那内心脆弱的平衡乱作一团，就像井然有序同时演出三台节目的大马戏场突然间崩塌了一样。
有一天，我算过一次常规就诊过程中我脑子里有多少想法在翻腾，试图据此弄清楚为了完满完成一项工作，一个医生的脑海机灵转动，需要处理多少个细节。
奥索里奥夫人 56 岁，是我的病人。
她有点超重。
她的糖尿病和高血压一直控制良好，恰到好处。
她的胆固醇偏高，但并没有服用任何药物。
她锻炼不够多，最后一次DEXA 骨密度检测显示她的骨质变得有点疏松。
尽管她一直没有爽约，按时看病，并能按时做血液化验，但是她形容自己的生活还有压力。
总的说来，她健康良好，在医疗实践中很可能被描述为一个普通患者，并非过于复杂。
以下是整个 20 分钟看病的过程中我脑海中闪过的念头。
她做了血液化验，这是好事。
血糖好点了。
胆固醇不是很好。
可能需要考虑开始服用他汀类药物。
她的肝酶正常吗？她的体重有点增加。
我需要和她谈谈每天吃五种蔬果、每天步行30 分钟的事。
糖尿病：她早上的血糖水平和晚上的比对结果如何？她最近是否和营养师谈过？她是否看过眼科医生？足科医生呢？她的血压还好，但不是很好。
我是不是应该再加一种降血压的药？药片多了是否让她困惑？更好地控制血压的益处和她可能什么药都不吃带来的风险孰重孰轻？骨密度 DEXA 扫描显示她的骨质有点疏松。
我是否应该让她服用二磷酸盐，因为这可以预防骨质疏松症？而我现在又要给她加一种药丸，而这种药需要详细说明。
医学英语 课文翻译
Unit OneText A： Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人，尊重病人，尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。
作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的，虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。
根据医学历史权威的看法，这个宣言的内容是在公元前四世纪起草的，这使希波克拉底自己起草这个宣言成为可能。
无论如何，不管是否是希波克拉底自己起草的（希波克拉底宣言），这个宣言的内容都反映了他在医学伦理上的看法。
作为代表当时希腊观点的唯一一小部分，希波克拉底誓言首次被写时并没有受到很好的欢迎。
然而,在那远古时代结束时,医生们开始遵循誓言的条款。
当科学医学在罗马帝国衰亡后遭受一显而易见的衰退时，这个誓言,连同希波克拉底医学的指示命令，在西方都几乎被遗忘是有可能的。
正是通过东方坚持不懈的探索精神，使得希波克拉底医学信念和希波克拉底宣言得以在这一恶化的时期幸存下来，尤其是通过阿拉伯当局在医学上的著作。
希腊医学知识而后在西方基督教复活是通过了阿拉伯文论著和原始希腊文的拉丁文翻译。
到17世纪后期，专业行为标准已经在西方世界建立。
被专业组织通过的第一部医学伦理学的法典是由英国内科医生托马斯·珀西瓦尔(1740 - 1804)1794年编写的, 并在1846年被改编和通过了美国医学协会(AMA)。
学术英语(医学)-课后词组
学术英语（医学）课后词组Unit 11.neuron overload 神经过载2.a typical office visit 典型的诊所就诊3.DEXA scan DEXA扫描4.medical practice 行医5.blood pressure control 血压控制6.health maintenance 健康保持7.mammogram report 乳房X线检查报告8.physical examination 体检9.side effect of a medication 药物的副作用10.perpetual panic 永久的恐慌11.practicing physicians 职业医生12.transplant field 移植领域13.medical budget 医疗预算14.paracetamol tablet 扑热息痛药片15.childproof cap 防孩子打开的盖子16.randomized clinical trial 随机临床试验17.random allocation 随机分配18.patient prognosis 病人的预后19.control group 对照组20.a 10-year follow-up study 10年的跟踪研究21.a medical ward 内科病房22.infectious hepatitis 传染性肝炎23.Severe malaise 身体严重不适24.bilirubin metabolism 胆红素代谢25.permanent liver damage 永久的肝损伤26.exacerbate pathophysiology 加重病理生理状况27.medical literature 医学文献28.clinical investigation 临床调查29.incidence of relapse 复发率30.clinical epidemiology 临床流行病学31.strict bed rest 严格的卧床休息32.hospital stay 住院33.recurrent jaundice 反复发作的黄疸34.clinical course 临床病程35.intravenous morphine 静脉注射吗啡36.diastolic blood pressure 舒张压37.brain perfusion 大脑血灌输38.primary care初级保健39.aorto-coronary arterial bypass主动脉冠状动脉旁路rmed treatment decision知情治疗决41.an international humanitarian group一个国际人道组织42.the Red Cross 红十字会43.the first major relief effort第一次重大援助工作44.casualty of war 战争中的人员伤亡45.emergency relief efforts 紧急援助Unit 21.re-emerging/re-emergent/resurgent disease(再现疾病)2.new flu strain新流感变种3.antibiotics and vaccine抗生素和疫苗4.infectious disease传染病5.emergent/emergent disease新现疾病6.prevention strategy预防策略7.bubonic plague腺鼠疫8.pathogenic microbes病原微生物9.public heath authority公共卫生机构10.drug resistance抗药性11.an course of antibiotic therapy抗生素治疗疗程12.scarlet fever猩红热13.the level of virulence毒性水平14.flu pandemic流感大流行15.surface antigen 表面抗原16.genetic shift基因改变17.neurological complications 神经性并发症18.waning of immunity免疫力减弱19.public health infrastructure公共卫生基础设施20.a malaria case一个疟疾病例21.swine flu猪流感22.tuberculosis bacillus结核杆菌23.the level of morbidity/incident发病率水平24.health professional保健专业人士tent tuberculosis潜伏结核病26.tuberculin skin test结核素皮试27.screening programmes筛查计划28.interferon gamma tests γ干扰素测试29.drug toxicity药物毒性30.an curable disease一种可治愈的病31,intractable infectious disease难治的传染病32.an unknown pathogen一种未知的病原体33.chronic gastric ulcer慢性胃溃疡34.exposure to carries of disease接触带病者35,genetic recombination基因重组36.agent of bioterrorism生物恐怖活动病原37.foodborne infections通过食物传播的传染病Unit 31.the surge of adrenaline 肾上腺素激增2.an internal medicine residency 内科实习期3.an autoimmune disease 自体免疫4.loss of stamina 丧失持久力5.transient weakness 短暂的虚弱6.becoming bedridden 卧床不起7.a building block基本构件8.an animal model 动物模型9.to slow neurodegeneration减缓神经退化10.to excrete toxins排除毒素11.to optimize nutrition 优化营养12.toxic load毒素载量13.the risk of relapse 复发危险14.physician self-experimentation医生自我实验15.a clinical trial 临床试验16.neuromuscular electrical stimulation 神经肌肉电刺激17.physical therapist 理疗师18.the impact of micronutrient 微量营养素的影响19.brain function 脑功能20.track the emotional flow 跟踪情绪波动21.coordination of emotions 情绪协调22.cardiovascular reactions 心血管反应23.feeling of rapport 亲密感觉24.rapid synchronization 迅速同步25.emotional contagion 情绪传染26.to mutually regulate 互相调节27.a psychobiological unit生物心理单元28.emotional solace 情感慰藉29.functional magnetic resonance imaging功能性磁共振30.to activate brain zones激活该脑部区域31.to make it mandatory使之成为强制性32.a dubious project 无把握的项目33.medical background 医学背景34.proof of concept 概念验证35.dose regimen 剂量方案plication or concomitant conditions并发症与合并症37.anti-tumor agents 抗肿瘤的药剂38.standard therapy标准疗法39.pharmacological properties 药理学特性40.poor solubility 溶解性差41.in vivo pharmacology 体内药理学Unit 4plementary medicine 补充医学2.alternative medicine 替代医学3.a medical paradigm 医疗模式4.acupuncture and herbs 针灸和草药5.adjunct treatment 辅助治疗6.nausea and vomiting 恶心，呕吐7.post-operative dental pain 术后牙痛8.clinical trials 临床试验9.physical therapy 物理疗法，理疗10.therapeutic modalities 治疗方法11.a therapeutic intervention治疗干预12.research design 研究设计13.magnetic resonance 磁共振14.positron emission tomography 正电子发射型计算机断层成像15.analgesia effect 止痛效果16.biomedical establishment 生物医学界17.rehabilitation unit康复中心18.licensed acupuncturist 持照针灸师19.therapeutic strategy治疗策略20.herbal formula草药配方21.a wide array of complications 各式各样的并发症22.integrative East-West medicine 中西医结合23.acute abdominal pain 急性腹痛24.to administer medicines 施药，用药25.surgical procedure 外科手术26.scientific evaluation 科学评估27.prevalence statistics患病率统计28.conventional therapies 传统疗法29.evidence-based models of care询证医学模式30.stress management 压力处理31.peripheral nervous system 周围神经系统32.physiologic mechanism生理机制33.mechanistic and reductionistic studies 机制和还原式研究34.cost-effectiveness research 效益研究35.clinical outcomes 临床结果36.preclinical and clinical studies 临床前及临床研究37.plausible mechanisms可能的机制38.manipulative therapies 推拿治疗39.homeopathic medicine 顺势疗法40.naturopathic medicine 自然疗法41.meditation and yoga冥想与瑜伽Unit 51.a health crisis 健康危机2.physical symptom 身体症状3.energy and vitality 能量和活力4.be completely immune from sth.对某事完全免疫5.virus of falseness 虚假的病毒6.stressful lifestyle 有压力的生活方式7.robust emotion 健全的感情8.fragile health 脆弱的健康9.to balance our mind ,body and spirit平衡心理、身体和精神10.spiritual life精神生活11.the blockage to wellness 通向身心健康的“路障”12.repressed emotions 被压抑的感情13.genuine feelings and emotion真情实感14.physiological influences 心理影响15.fully integrated human beings 十全十美的人16.decaying teeth 蛀牙17.nutrition professor 营养教授18.burgeoning waistline 迅速膨胀的腰围19.bottled water 瓶装水20.caloric intake 热量摄入21.to curb appetite 节制食欲22.grains and protein 谷物和蛋白质23.childhood obesity 儿童肥胖症24.lean protein 精益蛋白质25.dietary habits 饮食习惯26.quality of life 生活质量27.diary category 乳制品类28.prevention of diabetes糖尿病的预防29.sodium content 钠的含量Unit 61.nursing homes养老院2.hospice/end-of-life care临终关怀3.congestive heart failure充血性心衰4.available around-the-clock 24小时随叫随到5.coronary care unit冠心病监护室6.to respond to treatment对治疗有反应7.skilled nursing facility专业护理机构8.end-of-life/hospice care生命终末期护理fort care舒适护理10.hospital discharge planner出院计划专员11.symptom care症状护理12.palliative care姑息疗法13.fatal illness绝症14.chronic obstructive pulmonary disease慢性阻塞性肺病15.experimental treatments实验性治疗16.spiritual advisor精神顾问17.to discontinue all treatment终止所有治疗18.to go through dialysis经历透析19.a PAP smear巴氏涂片检查20.patient-doctor relationship医患关系21.to provide care-as-usual提供常规医护22.preventive examinations预防性检查23.off the beaten path离开熟路，另辟蹊径24.to mold into a shape塑形25.To renew a prescription照旧处方再开药26.in vitro fertilization体外受精27.basic biology基础生物学28.embryonic stem cell research胚胎干细胞研究29.to collaborate with an outside与圈外人合作30.a test-tube baby试管婴儿31.reproductive sciences生殖科学32.to administer hormone施用激素33.to isolate immature eggs 分离未成熟卵子34.empirical observations经验观察35.pioneering work首创研究36.a fibre-optic endoscope光导纤维内窥镜37.ethical guidelines伦理原则38.societal concern社会关注39.infertile couples不孕不育夫妇40.inherited disease遗传疾病41.cystic fibrosis囊泡性纤维症42.ethical dilemma伦理困境Unit 71.a nursing station 护士站2.life-support machines 生命维持系统fort measure 舒适护理措施4.to withdraw treatments 停止治疗5.paternalistic decision-making process 家长式决策程序6.patient empowerment 给病人授权7.medical ethicist 医学伦理学家8.ethical principle 伦理准则9.clinical ideal 临床理念10.patient-centered care 以病人为中心的护理11.patient autonomy 病人自主权12.treatment option 治疗选择13.exclusive purview 专属领域14.emergency decisions 紧急状况下做的决定15.physician restraint 对医生的限制16.anxiety and confusion 焦虑与困惑17.ethical transgression 违背伦理18.family practice 家庭医疗19.widespread metastases 广泛转移20.aggressive treatment 积极治疗21.primary lesion 原发病灶22.to recommend follow-up 建议随访23.electronic record 电子病历24.pulmonary emboli 肺栓塞puterized tomography 计算机断层扫描CT26.bilateral infiltrates 双侧浸润27.a chest X-ray X线胸片28.left lower-lobe pneumonia 左下肺叶肺炎bored breathing 呼吸困难30.the hospice team 临终关怀团队31.chronic illness 慢性病32.psychosocial aspects 社会心理学领域33.evidence-based guideline 循证临床指南34.to implement a plan of care 实施治疗方案Unit 81.human subject 人体研究对象2.biomedical research 生物医学研究3.accepted therapy 公认的治疗4.a formal protocol 正式方案5.the principle of beneficence 有利原则6.the principle of justice 公正原则7.autonomous agents 有自主能力的行为者8.diminished autonomy 自主性减弱9.be exposed to risk of harm 使……面临受害危险10.Hippocratic Oath 希波克拉底誓言11.fairness in distribution 分配的公正性rmed consent 知情同意13.fair procedure and outcomes 公正的程序和结果14.the operating table 手术台15.an ethical obligation 伦理责任16.a pediatric neurosurgeon 儿科神经外科医生17.to perform the surgery 做手术18.blood flow 血流19.intensive care 重症监护20.adoptive father 义父21.biological father 生父22.psychological needs 心理需要23.medical judgment 医学判断24.occupational therapy 职业疗法25.to contract meningitis 感染脑膜炎26.to die of an infection 死于感染27.blood vessel 血管28.imbalances in circulation 循环的不平衡29.the welfare of human research subjects 人类研究对象的安宁30.to approve or disapprove all research activities 批准或不批准所有的研究活动31.to review a protocol 审查一个研究计划32.at risk of civil or criminal liability 有民事或刑事责任的危险Unit 91.medical school curriculum 医学院课程2.the medical education community 医学教育界3.to meet the public’s expectation 达到公众的期待4.personal attribute 个人品质5.to place value on 看重6.clinical malady 临床疾患7.diagnostic errors 诊断错误8.classic manifestation 典型临床表现9.the civic mindedness of physicians 医生的民本意识10.polite chatter 礼貌的闲谈11.bedside manner 医生对患者的态度，临床举止12.to scan hospital directory 搜索医院名录13.a integral part 不可分割的一部分14.underserved communities 服务匮乏的社区15.primary care shortage 初级保健缺乏16.certification evaluations 证书评估17.to address the needs 应对需要18.the basics of anatomy 解剖基础知识19.a teaching hospital 教学医院20.an academic medical center 学术医学中心21.to affiliate with teaching hospitals 隶属于教学医院22.continuing medical education credits 继续医学教育学分Unit 101.medical coverage 医疗保险支付范围2.Medicare and Medicaid 医疗保险和医疗救助3.a single-payer system 单一支付者系统4.to subsidize the uncovered 补贴无保险的人5.to deliver value care 提供医疗6.duplicative tests 重复的检查7.a sustained study 长期的研究8.vision deficit 视力缺陷9.a transesophageal echocardiogram （TEE）经食管超声心动图10.an trial thrombus 心房血栓11.a massive embolic stroke 大面积栓塞型脑中风mon carotid artery 颈总动脉13.intracranial branches 颅内段14.middle cerebral artery syndrome 大脑中动脉综合征15.intracranial bleeding 颅内出血16.brain-stem herniation 脑干脱疝17.neurologic recovery 神经功能恢复18.mechanical ventilation 机械通气19.anticoagulant treatment 抗凝血治疗20.intravenous infusion 静脉输液21.an academic surgeon 学术型外科医生22.hospital administrator 医院管理者23.inbound ambulance 入院的救护车24.elective surgery 可做可不做的手术25.acute myocardial infarction 急性心肌梗死26.time-critical conditions 对治疗时间要求紧迫的疾病27.cardiac arrest 心搏停止28.traumatic injuries 外伤，创伤29.percutaneous coronary intervention 经皮冠状动脉介入术30.a multi-payer model 多家支付者模式31.universal insurance programs 全民保险计划32.for-profit insurance 以盈利为目的的保险33.pharmaceutical companies 制药公司34.home-brewed remedy 自创的治疗方法35.pay the bill out-of-pocket 自掏腰包付费。
医学英语翻译技巧 Chapter 14
Translation of Long Sentences
原则
• 顺序或变序 • 分译或合译
英汉结构不同 翻译技巧
• 英译汉：许多词可以用汉语的动词来翻译；连 接词有时可以不译；介词短语、定语从句和独 立主格等在大多数情况下都被译为汉语的短语 或分句。 • 汉译英：把汉语内句子隐含的语法关系和逻辑 关系(如因果关系、连接关系、转折关系等)用 英语的连接词表达出来；把汉语的某些分句处 理成英语的名词、分词、介词短语、定语从句、 独立主格等；把汉语的众多动词分主次处理， 特别注意把一些次要动词变为英语的名词、介 词、非谓语形式等。
2. As can be seen from the wide variety of illness and conditions in which psychosis has been reported to arise (including for example, AIDS, leprosy, malaria and even mumps), there is no singular cause of a pyschotic episode. 引起所报道的精神病症的各种疾病和异 常情况(如艾滋病、麻风病、疟疾，甚 至腮腺炎)种类繁多。由此可见，没有 哪种疾病和异常情况是精神病症的唯一 原因。
English
Chinese
找框架，抓主干；逐层分析；按汉语特点和表达 方式翻译。 1. 弄清语法结构，抓住主语和谓语。 2. 注意标点，尤其是分号。 3. 注意连词，尤其是相关的连词。(such … that…, more … than…) 4. 注意代词，尤其是关系代词，能够将定语从 句转变为简单句。 5. 注意省略，能将省略补充出来。
学术英语(医学)重点翻译PPT45页
6、法律的基础有两个，而且只有两个……公平和实用。——伯克 7、有两种和平的暴力，那就是法律和礼节。——歌德
8、法律就是秩序，有好的法律才有好的秩序。——亚里士多德 9、上帝把法律和公平凑合在一起，可是人类却把它拆开。——查·科尔顿 10、一切法律都是无用的，因为好人用不着它们，而坏人又不会因为它们而变得规矩起奢侈是舒适的，否则就不是奢侈 。——CocoCha nel 62、少而好学，如日出之阳；壮而好学 ，如日 中之光 ；志而 好学， 如炳烛 之光。 ——刘 向 63、三军可夺帅也，匹夫不可夺志也。 ——孔 丘 64、人生就是学校。在那里，与其说好 的教师 是幸福 ，不如 说好的 教师是 不幸。 ——海 贝尔 65、接受挑战，就可以享受胜利的喜悦 。——杰纳勒 尔·乔治·S·巴顿
医学英文ch14
C H A P T E R14Lichen SclerosusLibby EdwardsLichen sclerosus is the classic, pruritic, chronic dermatosis of the postmenopausal vulva. Epidemiology and clinical manifestationsLichen sclerosus is recognized most often on the vulva of postmenopausal women, with prepubertal girls representing a significant minority. Lichen sclerosus is seen in all age groups, but it is often less symptomatic in premenopausal and postpubertal females who do not have the additive effect of an atrophic, hypoestrogenic vagina. Lichen sclerosus occurs very occasionally on the glans penis of men, and it occurs rarely as an isolated finding on extragenital skin in either gender.Lichen sclerosus is a common disease, reported in about 3% of incontinent women in a nursing-home environment1. Another survey discovered that 1.7% of women presenting to a gynecologist’s office were found to have lichen sclerosus2. In addition, a vulvar clinic in England found lichen sclerosus to be the most common disease evaluated and treated, occurring in 39% of those patients3. There is a slight familial tendency, but the risk for the development of lichen sclerosus in family members is not known.Itching is the most common presenting symptom of women with lichen sclerosus. Pruritus is frequently excruciating, and scratching often produces tearing and purpura because the affected skin is extremely fragile. The patient then experiences pain from the erosions, particularly with urination, sexual activity, or with attempted sexual activity. Pain with defecation due to fissured perianal lichen sclerosus, and resulting fecal retention and constipation are common, particularly in young girls.Classically, well-developed lichen sclerosus presents as sharply demarcated white plaques encompassing the modified mucous membranes of the vulva, perineal body, and perianal skin (Figure 14.1). Most often, lichen sclerosus begins around the clitoral hood but, despite prominent involvement of the perineal body and perianal skin, it does not generally affect the keratinized, hair-bearing labia majora (Figures 14.2 and 14.3). Distant extragenital disease has been reported in a minority of women. A series of 250 women examined in this author’s office showed 6% with extragenital disease of keratinized skin and no oral or vaginal lesions (abstract still in press; presented at XIX World Congress of International Society for the study of Vulvovaginal Disease, July 2007, Alaska). The most common locations for extragenital disease are upper arms, back, and chest (Figure 14.4). Lichen sclerosus usually, but not always, spares the mucous membrane of the vestibule, and it has been reported only rarely in the mouth4. There is only one report of vaginal lichen sclerosus5. Lesions of the mouth or the vagina suggest an alternative or additional diagnosis.Although many skin diseases present with white skin on moist mucous membranes or modified mucous membranes, the hallmark of lichen sclerosus is a characteristic texture change of the white plaques. Although the pathognomonic texture change is that of acrinkling or cellophane paper-type appearance, some lesions exhibit a smooth, waxy surface, and others manifest nonspecific irregular, hyperkeratotic white skin (Figures 14.5–14.7). Rubbing and scratching sometimes produce thickening of the skin (lichenification) and superimposed lichen simplex chronicus can obscure diagnostic texture changes of the lesions (Figure 14.8). Fragility is a hallmark of lichen sclerosus, manifested by purpura, erosions, and fissuring (Figures 14.9–14.12). Extragenital lesions show even more striking texture changes because of the dry nature of the skin. Sometimes, follicular plugging is visible in these lesions.Long-standing and severe disease is associated with resorption of vulvar architecture, with loss of the labia minora, and the clitoris is buried under the scarred clitoral hood (Figures 14.13 and 14.14). Sometimes, side-to-side anterior and/or posterior adhesions eventuate in narrowing of the introitus (Figure 14.15). Squamous cell carcinoma occurs in up to 5% of women with untreated lichen sclerosus (Figure 14.16)6. The primary risk factors for the development of squamous cell carcinoma are elderly age of patients (probably an indication of longer duration of disease) and the presence of hyperkeratotic lesions (Figure 14.17)7. Lichen sclerosus is sometimes associated with patchy hyperpigmentation of the modified mucous membranes and vestibule (Figure 14.18). This pigment change ranges from mild, poorly demarcated, tan patches to wild, irregular, variegate brown and black patches indistinguishable from malignant melanoma. Pigmentary changes are nearly always benign, but biopsy and follow-up are prudent, since case reports of atypical nevi and melanoma in the setting of lichen sclerosus suggest that there may be an association8–10. Also, benign pigmented lesions in the setting of vulvar lichen sclerosus sometimes appear atypical histologically, confounding the differentiation of benign from malignant11.Women with lichen sclerosus have an increased prevalence of hypothyroidism12, and many clinicians find that their lichen sclerosus patients appear to be more likely to exhibit concomitant vitiligo or lichen planus, although data are scant13,14.Diagnosis and differential diagnosisLichen sclerosus can be confused with other white diseases of the vulva as well as other diseases that exhibit tendency to scar. Lichen simplex chronicus and lichen planus are diseases that sometimes present with white vulvar plaques, and lichen planus produces resorption of vulvar landmarks indistinguishable from lichen sclerosus. The presence of prominent vestibular erosions and the common occurrence of accompanying oral and vaginal lesions suggest the diagnosis of lichen planus. Vitiligo is often mistaken for lichen sclerosus, but this disease presents with depigmentation only, with no symptoms, texture change, scale, erosions, or evidence of rubbing or scratching.Genital warts and vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia 3 are sometimes white, but these are -usually well-formed papules that are less symmetrical than lichen sclerosus. Cicatricial pemphigoid and pemphigus vulgaris are erosive diseases that produce resorption of vulvar architecture that is indistinguishable from lichen sclerosus, but white color and texture change are usually absent or subtle.Although white plaques of the vulva are relatively common and nonspecific, and although scarring of the vulva that is identical to lichen sclerosus can occur with other diseases, thediagnosis of lichen sclerosus can often be made on the grounds of morphology. The characteristic crinkled or cellophane paper change, when present, is diagnostic, particularly in the setting of hypopigmentation and agglutination. When the diagnosis is not perfectly clear, a biopsy is indicated.Laboratory findings and histologyThe classic histological changes of lichen sclerosus are most often found in areas of hypopigmentation and texture change. Lichen sclerosus of modified mucous membrane skin usually shows hyperkeratosis and thinning of the epidermis with loss of rete pegs. Early disease shows a lichenoid infiltrate of mononuclear cells at the dermal– epidermal junction with hydropic degeneration of the basal cell layer. The diagnostic histologic hallmark ofwell-established lichen sclerosus is hyalinization of the upper dermis; a hazy, acellular substance reminiscent of gelatin (Figure 14.19).The histology of hyperpigmented patches shows one of two different entities. The first is postinflammatory hyperpigmentation, with increased melanin both in the basal cell layer and within macrophages in the upper dermis. The second histologic pattern is that of genital melanosis, also called genital lentiginosis. Genital melanosis displays elongation of the rete pegs with increased melanin in the basal cell layer. Neither lesion should show melanocytic atypia.Early and mild lichen sclerosus can be harder to identify histologically. Findings are subtle, and abnormalities occur first around adnexal structures. These abnormalities typically show acanthosis and hyperkeratosis with hypergranulosis. Interfollicular epithelium sometimes shows acanthosis and areas of thickening of the basement membrane. The hyalinization of the dermis may be confined to the far upper dermis and may be accompanied by dilated vessels. The inflammatory response is variable, and dermal melanophages may be present. Because only some of these findings occur in each patient, and because they are generally focal and poorly developed, serial sections as well as periodic acid–Schiff staining may be required for identification15.Women with classic findings of lichen sclerosus may not require biopsy for diagnosis, but even these patients sometimes benefit from a diagnostic biopsy report in their records. Many women experience complete resolution of skin findings with therapy, and they or future physicians are prone to discontinue therapy inappropriately by mistakenly disbelieving the initial diagnosis.Otherwise, no other laboratory testing confirms this diagnosis, but patients should be evalu-ated for hypothyroidism, which is very common. Screening for autoantibodies shows higher titers in both patients and family members than the background population16,17. Patients with lichen sclerosus and family members are also more likely to exhibit human leukocyte antigen (HLA) DQ717.PathogenesisThe pathogenesis of lichen sclerosus is poorly understood but is probably multifactorial, including autoimmune, genetic, and environmental factors, and some have suggested an infectious cause as well. Autoimmune factors are indicated by several observations. First, the histology is similar to that of other autoimmune diseases, namely lupus erythematosus, lichen planus, and graft-versus-host disease. Second, patients with lichen sclerosus are more likely to exhibit other autoimmune diseases, including thyroid disease, vitiligo, lichen planus, and graft-versus-host disease, and several studies have shown an increase in autoantibodies in both affected patients and in their families16–19. Autoantibodies directed against the extracellular matrix and against the basement membrane have been identified in women with lichen sclerosus, and may be pathogenic or may be epiphenomena20,21. Evidence forcell-mediated autoimmunity has been reported. Immunohistological evidence exists for immune dysfunction at all levels of the skin; CD4 and CD8-type lymphocytes are found in inflammatory infiltrates and there is HLA DR expression around keratinocytes, suggesting that keratinocytes might be involved in antigen presentation22. However, some studies show no evidence for cellular or humoral immunological abnormalities23,24.Clustering of lichen sclerosus in family members suggests genetic factors, and there is a fairly strong and well-known correlation of lichen sclerosus and the presence of HLADQ717,18. More specific studies of HLA haplotypes show that HLA DR and DQ or some of their haplotypes are likely to confer risk for, or protection from, vulvar lichen sclerosus25. The fact that lichen sclerosus is most common in females, especially in prepubertal girls and postmenopausal women, indicates a likely role for hormones, and several studies show decreases in androgen receptors in vulvar skin affected with lichen sclerosus26.There have been reports of an association of lichen sclerosus with Borrelia bergdorferi in Europe, but not in the United States.Environmental factors probably play a role in the pathogenesis of lichen sclerosus. This disease is usually localized to the vulva, but has no predilection for other skin folds. Excision with grafting of extragenital skin regularly results in recurrence. One instance of lichen sclerosus of vulvar skin that was transplanted to the back resulted in resolution of the transplanted skin27. Lichen sclerosus exhibits the Koebner phenomenon, in which the disease is precipitated by local irritation or injury. Therefore, common irritants such as incontinence, infection such as candidiasis, irritant contact dermatitis due to overwashing, and sexual activity may help to precipitate and worsen the disease.Therapy and prognosisThe treatment of lichen sclerosus is a topical ultrapotent corticosteroid. Although topical compounded 2% testosterone was once first-line therapy, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials have shown no significant benefit to testosterone. One trial reported substantial improvement in 66.6% of 58 patients receiving topical testosterone compared to 75% of patients using petrolatum, which was not statistically significant28. In contrast to clobetasol, even when symptoms improve, the basic color and texture of the skin are not changed by topical testosterone29. Also, immunohistologic abnormalities do not change with testosterone therapy29,30. A three-armed controlled and blinded study showed clear superiority of clobetasol over testosterone and vehicle (Figure 14.20)31.These studies were performed with Temovate brand clobetasol propionate. Other ultrapotent corticosteroids that can be substituted are halobetasol (Ultravate), betamethasone dipropionate in optimized vehicle (Diprolene), and difluorasone diacetate (Psorcon). The ointment vehicle is preferred because the alcohols and preservatives in creams are often irritating and burn with application. This author, with no data to substantiate this opinion, finds that some forms of generic clobetasol are irritating to some patients, and preferentially prescribes Temovate ointment when women do not improve as expected.The corticosteroid is applied very sparingly to affected areas twice daily until the texture normalizes, which is generally 3–4 months, with the perineal body often clearing last. Symptoms generally clear quickly, but medication should not be administered according to symptoms, but rather according to the clinical appearance of the skin. As skin texture normalizes in different areas of the vulva, medication can be decreased to thrice weekly in those areas. Extragenital lichen sclerosus can be treated in the same fashion, but it responds less well to therapy.Occasionally, patients do not respond to corticosteroid therapy or develop side-effects to corticosteroid therapy. These women sometimes benefit from a change to a calcineurin inhibitor32,33. Tacrolimus (Protopic) and pimecrolimus (Elidel) have been reported in multiple small series as useful for some patients with lichen sclerosus, and one large trial of 84 patients showed that 43% treated with tacrolimus cleared their lichen sclerosus, and 34% improved33. These medications have several advantages over corticosteroids: calcineurin inhibitors do not produce atrophy, steroid dermatitis, or steroid rosacea. These medications are used regularly twice daily and careful application is not important; a regular schedule and no need to use a mirror and light in application contribute to ease of use and compliance. Disadvantages include the irritating nature of tacrolimus, which often burns with application, and the slower onset of action. Lichen sclerosus is less likely to respond to tacrolimus and pimecrolimus than to ultrapotent corticosteroids, but those patients who do well experience the same normalization of skin color. A final concern is the recent Food and Drug Administration warning regarding carcinogenesis. The prolonged use of systemic tacrolimus is known to predispose to lymphoreticular malignancies and skin cancers, but there are no reports of topical calcineurin inhibitors associated with malignancy in those not already at risk. However, clinicians should remember that lichen sclerosus carries an increased risk of vulvar squamous cell carcinoma and there is a possibility that the caregiver could be held responsible in that event. Patients should be carefully educated in this regard.Historical therapies whose effects have never been confirmed with controlled trials, and whose use have generally been abandoned, include oral retinoids, potassium aminobenzoate, and topical estrogen and progesterone. Excision and grafting, carbon dioxide laser, and cryotherapy have also been used and abandoned. Newer suggested therapies based on case reports or small open series include calcipotriene, mid-potency corticosteroids, and oral antibiotics34,35. Ultraviolet (UV) light, both UVA1 and psoralens with UVA, have been tried, primarily for extragenital disease due to practicality and the risk of increasing the risk of genital squamous cell carcinoma36,37. Small series have suggested laser-mediated photodynamic therapy and focused ultrasound therapy as possible therapies, and there are case reports of the use of pulsed-dye laser38–40.Special issuesEstrogen deficiencyPrepubertal girls and postmenopausal women not using estrogen replacement present the additional problem of estrogen deficiency and a superimposed second cause of atrophy, magnifying symptoms and fragility. Postmenopausal women generally benefit from the use of estradiol (Estrace) cream, 1 g, inserted in the vagina three nights a week, but intravaginal estrogen creams are not appropriate for young girls.Prepubertal girlsGenerally, ultrapotent topical corticosteroids are not indicated for children. However, ultrapotent topical corticosteroid ointments have been used successfully and safely for prepubertal vulvar lichen sclerosus. There is no evidence that topical estrogen or topical progesterone, previous standard therapies for girls, benefits lichen sclerosus beyond their moisturizing properties.The fragility that results in tearing and purpura is sometimes mistaken for sexual abuse. The careful clinician recognizes the white discoloration and the history of itching that indicate the correct diagnosis. However, the presence of lichen sclerosus does not exclude sexual abuse in children with other signs of mistreatment.Eroded, excoriated, macerated skinVulvar lichen sclerosus skin that exhibits erosions, excoriations, and maceration is likely to burn with the application of topical therapies, particularly creams, and the risk for secondary infection (especially candida) with the application of the corticosteroid is increased (Figure 14.21). Those patients with extreme irritation sometimes benefit from the addition of an oral antistaphylococcal/antistreptococcal antibiotic, bedtime sedation to prevent nighttime scratching, tepid tap-water soaks, and a bland emollient such as petrolatum as well as the initiation of a topical corticosteroid.Hyperkeratotic lesionsHyperkeratotic lesions of lichen sclerosus occur most often in older women and in those with long-standing disease. Hyperkeratotic lesions respond less well to topical corticosteroids, partly because the thickness inhibits absorption, and sometimes because these lesions are progressing down the pathway towards malignant transformation, even though routine biopsies may show no evidence of dysplasia (Figure 14.22).Hyperkeratotic lesions (and erosions) unresponsive to an ultrapotent topical corticosteroid applied regularly for 1 month require biopsy. Those lesions which show no evidence of dysplasia can be treated with 0.1–0.5 mL of an intralesional corticosteroid such as triamcinolone acetonide (Kenalog) 10 mg/mL, injected directly into the lesion. Alternatively, hyperkeratotic lesions have been reported to respond to topical tretinoin (Retin-A)41. Tretinoin cream 0.025% can be applied very, very sparingly to affected areas, but this agent is extremely irritating and usually poorly tolerated on the vulva. Keratotic lichen sclerosus is sometimes resistant to the above treatments as well as to topical corticosteroids. These areas are often best managed by conservative excision, both because this may be the onlysuccessful therapy, and because recalcitrant hyperkeratotic lesions may be malignant -precursors, even in the absence of histologic dysplasia.ComplianceSome patients have difficulty remembering to use medication three times a week long-term and some women are not able to apply medication carefully due to obesity or infirmity. Young girls may not be capable of applying an ultrapotent corticosteroid in the appropriate amount and to the appropriate area. In these patients, clinicians may be tempted to trylower-potency corticosteroids. However, daily use of a safer, lower-potency topical corticosteroid does not generally control lichen sclerosus sufficiently, and side-effects of less-than-exact application may occur nonetheless. These patients sometimes benefit from twice-daily ongoing tacrolimus, which produces no atrophy.Without ongoing therapy, most patients experience recurrence, with a recent study quoting 84% of women manifesting recurrent disease42. Early information from this study suggests that treatment of lichen sclerosus minimizes the risk of secondary squamous cell carcinoma42. This is a logical, although not yet proven, assumption, since well-controlled lichen sclerosus generally does not progress to the keratotic lesions most often associated with malignancy. Most patients with lichen sclerosus experience rapid resolution of symptoms with the use of an ultrapotent topical corticosteroid, and return of normal color and texture to the skin over weeks to months of daily therapy. Except for one report, clinicians find that scarring is permanent. Gradual dilation or surgical release of adhesions that produce narrowing of the introitus benefit some people after the skin disease is well controlled. Elderly women, those at most risk for hyperkeratotic disease at presentation, tend to experience partial but not complete resolution of signs and symptoms. All women should be followed every 6–12 months for recurrence of disease, side-effects of therapy, and the occurrence of a secondary malignancy, but elderly women, those who do not experience complete clearing with corticosteroids, and women with hyperkeratotic lesions should be followed more frequently.Lichen sclerosusSee Table 14.1.References1. Leibovitz, A., Kaplun, V., Saposhnicov, N., et al. Vulvovaginal examinations in elderly nursing home women residents. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 2000; 31: 1–4.2. Goldstein, A. T., Marinoff, S. C., and Stodon, C. K. Prevalence of vulvar lichen sclerosus in a general gynecology practice. J. Reprod. Med. 2005; 50: 477–480.3. Cheung, S. T., Gach, J. E., and Lewis, F. M. A retrospective study of the referral patterns to a vulval clinic: highlighting educational needs in this subspecialty. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2006; 26: 435–437.4. Mendonoca, E. F., Ribeiro-Rotta, R. F., Silva, M. A., et al. Lichen sclerosus atrophicus of the oral mucosa. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 2004; 33: 637–640.5. Longinotti, M., Schieffer, Y. M. and Kaufman, R. H. Lichen sclerosus involving the vagina. Obstet. Gynecol. 2005; 106:1217–1219.6. Tasker, G. L. and Wojnarowska, F. Lichen sclerosus. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 2003; 28: 128–133.7. Jones, R. W., Sadler, L., Grant, S., et al. Clinically identifying women with vulvar lichen sclerosus at increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma: a case-controlled study. J. Reprod. Med. 2004; 49: 808–811.8. Rosamilia, L. L., Schwartz, J. L., Lowe, L., et al. Vulvar melanoma in a 10-year-old girl in association with lichen sclerosus. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2006; 54: S52–S53.9. Hassanein, A. M., Mrstik, M. E., Hardt, N. S., et al. Malignant melanoma associated with lichen sclerosus in the vulva of a 10-year-old. Pediatr. Dermatol. 2004; 21: 473–476.10. Carlson, J. A., Mu, X. C., Slominski, A., et al. Melanocytic proliferations associated with lichen sclerosus. Arch. Dermatol. 2002; 138: 77–87.11. El Shabrawi-Caelen, L., Soyer, H. P., Schaepppi, H., et al. Genital lentigines and melanocytic nevi with superimposed lichen sclerosus: a diagnostic challenge. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2004; 50: 690–694.12. Birenbaum, D. L. and Young, R. C. High prevalence of thyroid disease in patients with lichen sclerosus. J. Reprod. Med. 2007; 52: 28–30.13. Carli, P., De Magnis, A., Mannone, F., et al. Vulvar carcinoma associated with lichen sclerosus. Experience at the Florence, Italy, Vulvar Clinic. J. Reprod. Med. 2003; 48: 313–318.14. Di Fede, O., Belfiore, P., and Cabibi, D. Unexpectedly high frequency of genital involvement in women with clinical and histological features of oral lichen planus. Acta Dermatol. Venereol. 2006; 86: 433–438.15. Regauer, S., Liegl, B., and Reich, O. Early vulvar lichen sclerosus: a histopathological challenge, Histopathology, 2005; 47: 340–347.16. Meyrick, R. H., Ridley, C. M., McGibbon, D. H., et al. Lichen sclerosus at atrophicus and autoimmunity – a study of 350 women. Br. J. Dermatol. 1988; 118: 41–46.17. Powell, J., Wojnarowska, F., Winsey, S., et al. Lichen sclerosus premenarche: autoimmunity and immunogenetics. Br. J. Dermatol. 2000; 142: 481–484.18. Aslanian, F. M., Marques, M. T., Matos, H. J., et al. HLA markers in familial lichen sclerosus. J. Dtsch Dermatol. Ges. 2006; 4: 842–847.19. Shaffer, J. P., McNiff, J. M., Seropian, S., et al. Lichen sclerosus and eosinophilic fasciitis as manifestations of chronic graft-versus-host disease: expanding the sclerodermoid spectrum. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2005; 53: 591–601.20. Howard, A., Dean, D., Cooper, S., et al. Circulating basement membrane zone antibodies are found in lichen sclerosus of the vulva. Australas. J. Dermatol. 2004; 45: 12–15.21. Chan, I., Oyama, N., Neill, S. M., et al. Characterization of IgG autoantibodies to extracellular matrix protein 1 in lichen sclerosus. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 2004; 29: 499–504.22. Farrell, A. M., Marion, P., Dean, D., et al. Lichen sclerosus: evidence that immunological changes occur at all levels of the skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 1999; 140: 1087–1092.23. Scrimin, F., Rustja, S., Radillo, O. C., et al. Vulvar lichen sclerosus: an immunologic study. Obstet. Gynecol. 2000; 95: 147–150.24. Foldes-Papp, Z., Reich, O., Demel, U., et al. Lack of specific immunological disease pattern in vulvar lichen sclerosus. Exp. Mol. Pathol. 2005; 79: 176–185.25. Gao, X. H., Bardnardo, M. C., Winsey, S., et al. The association between HLA DR, DQ antigens, and vulval lichen sclerosus in the UK: HLA DRB112 and its associated DRB112/DQB 10301/04/09/010 haplotype confers susceptibility to vulval lichen sclerosus, and HLA DRB10301/04 and its associated DRB10301/04/DQB10201/02/03 haplotype protects from vulva lichen sclerosus. J. Invest. Dermatol. 2005; 125: 895–899.26. Clifton., M. M., Garner, I. B., Kohler, S., et al. Immunohistochemical evaluation of androgen receptors in genital and extragenital lichen sclerosus: evidence for loss of androgen receptors in lesional epidermis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 1999; 41:43–46.27. Whimster, L. W. Personal communication. In Jeffcoate, T.N.A. The dermatology of the vulva. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Commonw. 1962; 68: 888.28. Sideri, M., Origoni, M., Spinaci, L., et al. Topical testosterone in the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 1994; 46: 53–56.29. Cattaneo, A., De Marco, A., Sonni, L., et al. [Clobetasol versus testosterone in the treatment of lichen sclerosus of the vulvar region.] Minerva Ginecol. 1992; 44: 567–571.30. Carli, P., Bracco, G., Taddei, G., et al. Vulvar lichen sclerosus. Immunohistologic evaluation before and after therapy. J. -Reprod. Med. 1994; 39: 110–114.31. Bracco, G. L., Carli, P., Sonni, L., et al. Clinical and histologic effects of topical treatments of vulval lichen sclerosus. A critical evaluation. J. Reprod. Med. 1993; 38: 37–40.32. Stritmatter, H. J., Hengge, U. R., and Blecken, S. R. Calcineurin antagonists in vulvar lichen sclerosus. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 2006; 274: 266–270.33. Hengge, U. R., Krause, W., Hofmann, H., et al. Multicentre, phase II trial on the safety and efficacy of topical tacrolimus ointment for the treatment of lichen sclerosus. Br. J. Dermatol. 2006; 155: 1021–1029.34. Ronger, S., Viallard, A. M., Meunier-Mure, F., et al. Oral calcitriol: a new therapeutic agent in cutaneous lichen sclerosis. J. Drugs Dermatol. 2003; 3: 23–28.35. Cattaneo, A., De Magnis, A., Botti, E., et al. Topical mometasone furoate for vulvar lichen sclerosus. J. Reprod. Med. 2003; 48: 444–448.36. Beattie, P. E., Dawe, R. S., Ferguson, J., et al. UVA1 therapy for genital lichen sclerosus. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 2006; 31: 343–347.37. Brenner, M., Herzinger, T., Berking, C., et al. Phototherapy and photochemotherapy of sclerosing skin diseases. Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed. 2005; 21: 157–165.38. Alexiades-Amenakas, M. Laser-mediated photodynamic therapy. Clin. Dermatol. 2006; 24: 16–25.39. Li, C., Bian, D., Chen, W., et al. Focused ultrasound therapy of vulvar dystrophies: a feasibility study. Obstet. Gynecol. 2004; 104: 915–921.40. Greve, B., Hartschuh, W., and Raulin, C. [Extragenital lichen sclerosus and atrophicus-treatment with pulsed dye laser.] Hautarzt 1999; 50: 805–808.41. Virgili, A., Corazza, M., Bianchi, A., et al. Open study of topical 0.025% tretinoin in the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus. One year of therapy. J. Reprod. Med. 1995; 40: 614–618.42. Renaud-Vilmer, C., Cavelier-Balloy, B., Porcher, R., et al. Vulvar lichen sclerosus: effect of long-term topical application of a potent steroid on the course of the disease. Arch. Dermatol. 2004; 140: 709–712.Further readingFunaro, D. Lichen sclerosus; a review and practical approach. Dermatol. Ther. 2004; 17: 28–37.Powell, J. J. and Wojnarowska, F. Lichen sclerosus. Lancet 1999; 353: 1777–1783.Smith, Y. R. and Haefner, H. K. Vulvar lichen sclerosus: pathophysiology and treatment. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 2004; 5:105–125.Figure 14.1Classic lichen sclerosus manifested by a white, sharply demarcated plaque encompassing the modified mucous membranes as well as the perineal body; the skin is shiny and crinkled with loss of the labia minora and partial agglutination of the clitoral hood.Figure 14.2Lichen sclerosus preferentially affecting the periclitoral skin and the perineal body.。
学术英语(医学)重点翻译
Unit 1 Doctors’ Life
Text A
Suggested answers – language building-up
Task 1. 2 Match each of the following definitions with its corresponding English term and Chinese equivalent.
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Unit 1 Doctors’ Life
Text B
Language building-up
Vocabulary test
• __ra_n_d_o_m__iz_e_d__ clinical trial（随机临床试验） • random _a_ll_o_c_a_ti_o_n_（随机分配） • patient _p_ro_g_n_o_s_i_s_（病人的预后） • __co_n_t_r_o_l __group（对照组） • a 10-year _f_o_ll_o_w_-_u_p_ study（10年的跟踪研究）
• “战争胜利了” ，最近有位科学家嘲弄道。”是对方（传染病 ）获胜。”
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Text A
Suggested Answers
Task 1. 2 Match each of the following definitions with its corresponding English term and Chinese equivalent.
pneumonia podiatrist
肺炎 足病医生
refill transplant
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Unit 1
Doctors’ Life TБайду номын сангаасxt B
医学英语原文翻译1至5单元
医学英语原文翻译1至5单元1. 生理学是研究生物体正常功能的一门科学。
它研究生物体如何进行各种活动，如何饮食，如何运动，如何适应不断改变的环境，如何繁殖后代。
这门学科包罗万象，涵盖了生物体整个生命过程。
生理学成功地解释了生物体如何进行日常活动，基于的观点是生物体好比是结构复杂而灵巧的机器，其操作受物理和化学规律控制。
尽管从生物学整个范畴看，生物体某些活动过程是相似的，如基因编码的复制，但许多过程还是某些生物体群组特有的。
鉴于此，将这门学科分成不同部分研究如细菌生理学，植物生理学和动物生理学是有必要的。
Physiology is the study of thefunctions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism per forms its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it ada pts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations. The sub ject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiol ogy in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based o n the notion that they are intricate and exquisite machines whose op eration is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry. Although s ome processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the r eplication of the genetic code for example—many are specific to part icular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divid e the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology. 2.正如要了解一个动物如何活动，首先需要了解它的构成，要充分了解一个生物体的生理学活动就必须掌握全面的解剖学知识。
学术英语(医学)unit14课文翻译讲解学习
Unit 1 Text A神经过载与千头万绪的医生患者经常抱怨自己的医生不会聆听他们的诉说。
虽然可能会有那么几个医生确实充耳不闻，但是大多数医生通情达理，还是能够感同身受的人。
我就纳闷为什么即使这些医生似乎成为批评的牺牲品。
我常常想这个问题的成因是不是就是医生所受的神经过载。
有时我感觉像变戏法，大脑千头万绪，事无巨细，不能挂一漏万。
如果病人冷不丁提个要求，即使所提要求十分中肯，也会让我那内心脆弱的平衡乱作一团，就像井然有序同时演出三台节目的大马戏场突然间崩塌了一样。
有一天，我算过一次常规就诊过程中我脑子里有多少想法在翻腾，试图据此弄清楚为了完满完成一项工作，一个医生的脑海机灵转动，需要处理多少个细节。
奥索里奥夫人 56 岁，是我的病人。
她有点超重。
她的糖尿病和高血压一直控制良好，恰到好处。
她的胆固醇偏高，但并没有服用任何药物。
她锻炼不够多，最后一次 DEXA 骨密度检测显示她的骨质变得有点疏松。
尽管她一直没有爽约，按时看病，并能按时做血液化验，但是她形容自己的生活还有压力。
总的说来，她健康良好，在医疗实践中很可能被描述为一个普通患者，并非过于复杂。
以下是整个 20 分钟看病的过程中我脑海中闪过的念头。
她做了血液化验，这是好事。
血糖好点了。
胆固醇不是很好。
可能需要考虑开始服用他汀类药物。
她的肝酶正常吗？她的体重有点增加。
我需要和她谈谈每天吃五种蔬果、每天步行 30 分钟的事。
糖尿病：她早上的血糖水平和晚上的比对结果如何？她最近是否和营养师谈过？她是否看过眼科医生？足科医生呢？她的血压还好，但不是很好。
我是不是应该再加一种降血压的药？药片多了是否让她困惑？更好地控制血压的益处和她可能什么药都不吃带来的风险孰重孰轻？骨密度 DEXA 扫描显示她的骨质有点疏松。
我是否应该让她服用二磷酸盐，因为这可以预防骨质疏松症？而我现在又要给她加一种药丸，而这种药需要详细说明。
也许留到下一次再说吧？她家里的情况怎么样呢？她现在是否有常见的生活压力？亦或她有可能有抑郁症或焦虑症？有没有时间让她做个抑郁问卷调查呢？健康保养：她最后一次乳房 X 光检查是什么时候做的？子宫颈抹片呢？ 50 岁之后是否做过结肠镜检查？过去 10 年间她是否注射过破伤风加强疫苗？她是否符合接种肺炎疫苗的条件？奥索里奥夫人打断了我的思路，告诉我过去的几个月里她一直背痛。
医学学术英语课文翻译
医学学术英语课文翻译医学是用英语来医学，下面请看特地为大家收集的医学学术英语课文翻译！欢送阅读！1NBA超级巨星姚明决定回中国寻求传统中医方法治疗他的应力性骨折，这一决定使医生和中医专家们就中医疗法是否有效争论不休。
2这位27岁，7.6英尺高的休斯顿火箭队全明星中锋，因为左脚的应力性骨折被迫退出了这个赛季。
特别是在连接脚踝和脚掌的足舟骨上有一道裂缝。
3姚明在上个月初进展了手术，手术时植入了一颗固定骨骼的钢钉。
施行手术的医生表示，手术十分成功。
姚明术后一旦能行走，将会进展积极的康复治疗。
4这项手术通常需要4个月的术后休息。
但似乎姚明也想借助传统中医方法（中医是一种包括针灸和草药在内的医学体系）加快治疗进度。
周五，美联社报道称姚明已经回到了他的祖国，和中国顶级的中医专家进展了探讨。
5—些美国医生，比方位于华盛顿特区的乔治•华盛顿大学中的整形外科医生Robert.J.Neviaser,对这种额外的举动是否会有任何益处表示疑心。
6“我很清楚没有任何的科学证据说明，中医疗法能对应力性骨折有明显的效果。
”Neviaser说，“我们不太了解针灸，他的价值似乎在对手术麻醉的一种替代，但没有任何数据说明它对医治骨折有好处。
”7但有些中医专家声称，尽管没有文献证据证明，但中医的方法似乎可以成功的解决姚明的伤痛。
8“这么做毫无问题，如果我是姚明我也会这样做的。
因为传统西方医学中，除了被动地恢复也没有好的方法来治疗应力性骨折。
”RaymondChang博士说，他是位于纽约的“中西药研究院”的院长。
9“尽管只凭经历没有研究，传统中医在这种情况下是有用的，作为我们所受教育的一部分，在几乎所有的眼里，它是常见的，且享有盛誉，姚明选择这种疗法实在正常不过。
”Chang博士补充道。
10应力性骨折十分疼痛，并且难以治愈。
11和骨折不同，应力性骨折并不是一下子发生的。
相反，它是承重骨中脆弱的部分在机械性应力反复作用的的产物，比方那些足部骨骼。
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Unit 1 Text A神经过载与千头万绪的医生患者经常抱怨自己的医生不会聆听他们的诉说。
虽然可能会有那么几个医生确实充耳不闻，但是大多数医生通情达理，还是能够感同身受的人。
我就纳闷为什么即使这些医生似乎成为批评的牺牲品。
我常常想这个问题的成因是不是就是医生所受的神经过载。
有时我感觉像变戏法，大脑千头万绪，事无巨细，不能挂一漏万。
如果病人冷不丁提个要求，即使所提要求十分中肯，也会让我那内心脆弱的平衡乱作一团，就像井然有序同时演出三台节目的大马戏场突然间崩塌了一样。
有一天，我算过一次常规就诊过程中我脑子里有多少想法在翻腾，试图据此弄清楚为了完满完成一项工作，一个医生的脑海机灵转动，需要处理多少个细节。
奥索里奥夫人 56 岁，是我的病人。
她有点超重。
她的糖尿病和高血压一直控制良好，恰到好处。
她的胆固醇偏高，但并没有服用任何药物。
她锻炼不够多，最后一次 DEXA 骨密度检测显示她的骨质变得有点疏松。
尽管她一直没有爽约，按时看病，并能按时做血液化验，但是她形容自己的生活还有压力。
总的说来，她健康良好，在医疗实践中很可能被描述为一个普通患者，并非过于复杂。
以下是整个 20 分钟看病的过程中我脑海中闪过的念头。
她做了血液化验，这是好事。
血糖好点了。
胆固醇不是很好。
可能需要考虑开始服用他汀类药物。
她的肝酶正常吗？她的体重有点增加。
我需要和她谈谈每天吃五种蔬果、每天步行 30 分钟的事。
糖尿病：她早上的血糖水平和晚上的比对结果如何？她最近是否和营养师谈过？她是否看过眼科医生？足科医生呢？她的血压还好，但不是很好。
我是不是应该再加一种降血压的药？药片多了是否让她困惑？更好地控制血压的益处和她可能什么药都不吃带来的风险孰重孰轻？骨密度 DEXA 扫描显示她的骨质有点疏松。
我是否应该让她服用二磷酸盐，因为这可以预防骨质疏松症？而我现在又要给她加一种药丸，而这种药需要详细说明。
也许留到下一次再说吧？她家里的情况怎么样呢？她现在是否有常见的生活压力？亦或她有可能有抑郁症或焦虑症？有没有时间让她做个抑郁问卷调查呢？健康保养：她最后一次乳房 X 光检查是什么时候做的？子宫颈抹片呢？ 50 岁之后是否做过结肠镜检查？过去 10 年间她是否注射过破伤风加强疫苗？她是否符合接种肺炎疫苗的条件？奥索里奥夫人打断了我的思路，告诉我过去的几个月里她一直背痛。
从她的角度来看，这可能是她此次就诊最要紧的事。
但事实是，她让我如火如荼的思绪戛然而止（当时我正在考虑她的血糖问题，继而又有了一个念头，准备和她讨论饮食和锻炼的事，这时又跳出了另一个想法，要和她探讨是否开始服用他汀类药物）。
我的本能反应是举手，阻止她打断我的思路。
这并不是说我不想听她一定要说的话，而是我千头万绪，在到点前需要解决所有这些问题，这种感受使我处于中度恐慌状态。
万一我顾此失彼，落下一个怎么办？当我在处理一件关切时另外一个念头转瞬即逝怎么办？正是为了不让任何想法遁逃，我试图尽可能快地打字输入，而我每次转向电脑书写时，我和奥索里奥太太没有目光接触。
我不希望我的病人认为计算机要比她更重要，但我不得不一直伸长脖子，盯着屏幕，找寻她的实验室结果、查看她的乳房 X 线检查报告、记录她的各种病情的进展、处方各种检测、给她补开处方等等。
此时，她从包里翻出一张表格：不知道什么原因，她的保险公司需要这个表格。
这是个单纯但是完全合乎情理的请求，但我觉得这可能是压垮骆驼背的那根稻草，因为我小心翼翼保持的这种毫不设防的平衡会被完全打乱，让我乱了方寸。
我点点头，但示意我们需要先给她做身体检查。
我迅速梳理了一下一些要点，然后很快查验有没有危险信号可以说明她背痛不仅仅是普通的肌肉拉伤。
我回到电脑旁，输入了所有信息，把事情一件件快速地捋一遍，生怕千虑一失，漏掉什么重要的情况。
我想把一切办的妥妥当当，不留任何死角，但是我要准确、完整进行记录，越是用心，我与病人实际进行互动的时间就越少。
我瞥了一眼钟表，知道我们远远超过了给我们规定的时间。
我起身把处方递给了奥索里奥夫人。
而她问道：“那我的保险表格怎么办？它需要在星期五之前提交，否则我有可能会失去这个保险。
”我拍了拍额头；我把保险表格的事已经忘得一干二净了，这事她刚刚问过，就在几分钟的事。
有些研究已经揭露了人类多任务的神话。
多任务概念是计算机领域发展起来，来解释微处理器同时完成两项工作的想法。
事实证明，微处理器实际上是线性的，实际上一次只能执行一个任务。
电脑给我们同时行动的错觉，根据是微处理器能够在一个复杂的综合算法中“安排”几个相互竞争的活动。
和微处理器一样，我们人类在完全相同的时间内不能真正集中注意两个想法。
我们人类只是在两个想法之间来回快速转换，通常情况下，在转换的过程中丢失了精准。
我们充其量能用这种方式应付区区几个想法而已。
我们要应付的头绪越多，我们越是力不从心，不能对那个想法考虑周全。
对我来说，这会酿成灾难。
今天我只是忘了一个保险表格。
但是，要是我忘了给她处方乳房 X 光检查怎么办？亦或是她要六种药而我只开五种怎么办？要是她的药物中有一种药的副作用我忘了充分说明怎么办？此类例子不胜枚举，而我的焦虑也绵延不休。
到一天结束的时候，当我试着去回忆是否有遗漏时，我头昏脑涨。
奥索里奥太太有七个医疗问题需要考虑，每个问题至少需要五个独立的想法：这就是 35 个想法。
那天下午我看了 10 个病人：这就是 350 个想法。
那天早上，我指导 5 个住院医师，每个住院医师看 4 个病人，每个病人需要产生至少 10 个想法。
这又是 200 个想法。
这并不是说我们在一个工作日内应付不了 550 个想法，但是这些想法中的每一个如果考虑不周，则可能带来很大的风险。
即使98％的时间里我能应对自如，没有应接不暇，仍有 10 个想法在整个过程中不知所踪。
这些不知所踪的想法中的任何一个都可能转化为一个灾难性的结局，更别提可能还要吃官司。
我们有理由相信，大多数医生是称职的，是富有爱心的人。
但是医生要时刻注意的想法像漩涡一样，来势凶猛，让许多医生永远处于恐慌之中，生怕遗漏什么大事。
这让我们彻夜难眠。
提出的解决方案有许多，如利用计算机生成的提醒、配备个案干事、建立配套服务等。
对我来说，最简单的解决方法是时间。
如果每个病人我都有一小时，我会是一个了不起的医生。
如果可以让我单线思考，一次考虑一个问题，而不是多线作战，无序乱想，我就不会害怕顾此失彼。
我猜这样的效率实际上会更高，因为我的病人也许就不必频繁来就诊。
但现实的情况是没有人会给每个病人这黄金般的一小时，让我给他们看病。
我的选择似乎归结为马马虎虎少应付几个想法，并接受降低每一个想法的精准度，放弃事无巨细全面记录，要不然就要常常承受因神经过载而导致的头痛。
这些都是执业医师每天面对每一位患者时的选择。
大多数情况下，我们依靠临床判断确定轻重缓急，排定优先顺序，权衡利弊后接受折衷，在任何妥协中这不可避免。
我们要集中精力关顾那些权重最大的医疗问题，而那些权重较轻的问题则顾及不了，只能听之任之，希望这些不起眼的小问题后面并没有隐藏严重大事。
有些计算机通过配备多个微处理器的方式确实已经实现了真正的多任务处理的目标。
在实践中，这就像多了一个大脑，功能独立，的确能够实现一心多用。
除非移植领域取得巨大进步，这种“添心置脑”的奇迹希望渺茫。
有些情况下，有个专注、出色的临床搭档，如一对一的护士，就如同有了第二个大脑，不过大多数医疗预算不会如此大方，允许这样配备人员。
既然这样，我们似乎还不得不继续这种艰难行为，在心理走钢丝，几十件临床事务在大脑里七上八下，惶惶不安，唯恐在关键档口掉链子。
由此产生神经过载，我们的神情继而让患者觉得我们心有旁骛，心不在焉，这可能被理解为我们没有用心聆听，或者对他们漠不关心。
当我的电脑发生过载，它以崩溃了之。
通常情况下，我在愤怒中重启电脑，愤怒是因为我丢失了所有的工作。
但是现在，我对我的电脑心生几份妒意。
电脑能够崩溃，然后会有一只可靠放心、无所不知的手按下重启按钮，电脑有这样的奢侈，而医生不允许有这种奢华。
我拉开办公桌抽屉，取出乙酰氨基酚片的药瓶，开始弄掉儿童安全盖。
对此我能够真正掌控，仅此而已。
Unit 2 Text A再现疾病：今天遁形无踪，明日卷土重来？桑塔亚纳有句格言：“不能铭记过去的人注定要重蹈覆辙”，这句话用在生物学上就有这样一个推论：人们相信我们已经征服了古老的微生物这个敌人，这种信念让我们惊人地脆弱，很易受他们的攻击。
“宿敌不死。
”我们有两个选择。
按照第一种选择去做，10 年之后头条新闻要么报道国会里你死我活的争吵，要么报道哪位运动员签了几百万的合约。
而另一方面，第二种选择的结果是出现这样的标题：“新型流感变种在蔓延：死亡人数已达五十万”1969 年，美国卫生局局长威廉·斯图尔特在国会听证时说，我们可以“给传染病画上句号了。
”抗生素和疫苗带来了一个接一个了不起的胜利，从青霉素的发现到脊髓灰质炎的防治等凡此种种，让医学界欣喜不已。
他们认为这场战争几乎结束了。
今天，当我们面对各种已经被称为新现疾病和再现疾病时，我们认识更加透彻。
在《美国医学协会杂志》传染病的一期特刊中，诺贝尔奖得主，哥伦比亚生物学家约书亚·莱德伯格写道：“‘出现’其实是回归，回到上个世纪普遍盛行的水平。
”就在这期特刊中，有个报告对日益严重的传染病构成的威胁进行了量化：1980 年到 1992 年间，美国传染病的死亡率增加了 58％，其中艾滋病占了一半略多一点，而其他一些疾病，特别是呼吸道感染，也有显著贡献。
宣布胜利的日子里，人们飘飘然起来，然而后来突然出现了像艾滋病和埃博拉之类的各种新型疾病，虽然人们认为那些已有的病魔已经被降服，但是他们已经再次暴发。
白喉在前苏联正卷土重来。
虽然上层社会的歌剧迷们也许觉得结核病只是歌剧《波西米亚人》中的创作，而事实上，结核病就从来没有消失过，再次成为包括纽约市在内的城市中心的威胁。
甲型链球菌传染病正在增多，这意味着猩红热可能再次为大家熟知。
每一位在传染病领域的工作者都害怕，终有一日一种强大的新型流感菌株会席卷全球。
“战争胜利了，” 最近有位科学家嘲弄道，“是对方（传染病）获胜。
”紧盯活动目标事实上，那种敌死我胜的情绪所反映的狂妄自大可能和美国前卫生局局长威廉·斯图尔特所表达的意思并无二致。
也许并肩作战是对目前情况更为确切的快照。
世界卫生组织（世卫组织）和美国疾病控制和预防中心（疾控中心）已经大大增加了控制传染病（包括那些再现疾病）的力度。
1995 年 10 月，世卫组织成立了一个新部门，专门致力于监测和控制世界范围内出现的新型疾病。
1994 年，疾控中心提出一项预防策略。
1995 年国会为这项工作拨给 CDC 的资助只有 670万美元，这比达斯汀·霍夫曼在电影《恐怖地带》中扮演一名传染病斗士得到的片酬还少。