《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册(打印版)_戴炜栋
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（音位学）【圣才出品】
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（⾳位学）【圣才出品】第2章⾳位学2.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech Organs发⾳器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅⾳和元⾳的区别、分类及描写规则3. Phonemes and Allophones⾳位和⾳位变体4. Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features⾳系规则和区别特征5. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation⾳节结构、重⾳和语调本章考点：1. 语⾳学语⾳学的定义；发⾳器官的英⽂名称；英语辅⾳的定义、发⾳部位、发⾳⽅法和分类；英语元⾳的定义和分类、基本元⾳；发⾳语⾳学；听觉语⾳学；声学语⾳学；语⾳标记，国际⾳标；严式与宽式标⾳法。
2. ⾳系学⾳系学的定义；⾳系学与语⾳学的联系和区别；⾳素、⾳位、⾳位变体、最⼩对⽴体、⾃由变体的定义；⾃由变体；⾳位的对⽴分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段⾳位学；⾳节；重⾳(词重⾳、句⼦重⾳)；⾳⾼和语调。
本章内容索引：I. The phonic medium of languageII. Phonetics1. The definition of phonetics2. Three research fields3. Organs of speech▼4. Voiceless sounds▼5. Voiced sounds6. Orthographic representations of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions7. Classification of English speech sounds(1) Definition(2) Classification of English consonants(3) Classification of English vowelsIII. Phonology1. Relationship between Phonology and phonetics2. Phone, phoneme3. Allophone4. Some rules in phonology(1) Sequential rules(2) Assimilation rule(3) Deletion rule5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonation(1) Stress(2) Tone(3) IntonationI. The phonic medium of language（语⾔的语⾳媒介）II. Phonetics（语⾳学）1. The definition of phonetics（语⾳学的定义）Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语⾳学被定义为对语⾔的语⾳媒介的研究；它涉及所有出现在世界语⾔中的声⾳。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋7 Language Change
Meaning shift
inn: a small, old hotel or pub well-known, nice hotel nice: ignorant (1000 years ago) good, fine lust: pleasure with negative and sexual overtones silly: happy naï ve, foolish
Some recent trends
Moving towards greater பைடு நூலகம்nformality The influence of American English
The influence of science and technology
The influence of science and technology
Changes in the meaning of words
Widening of meaning Narrowing of meaning Meaning shift
Widening of meaning
holiday: [+specific] holy day [+general] any rest day [+specific] tail of a horse [+general] tail of any animal
Simplification & elaboration/ complication coexist, e.g. The disappearing of case ending results in rigid sentence structure.
Syntactic change
戴炜栋_新编简明语言学教程文档版
linguistic communication.Phone, phoneme, allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phonemePhoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phonemePhoneA phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ b t ] & [ b t ], [sp t] & [sp t].PhonemeA phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [p t],[t p] and [sp t].AllophoneAllophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.Phonemic contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g./b/ and /p/ in [ b t ] and [p t].Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].Minimal pairMinimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.Some rules of phonologySequential rulesAssimilation ruleDeletion ruleSequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.a) the first phoneme must be /s/,b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.* [ ] never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantonese: “牛肉，我，俄语……”Assimilation rule----assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:indiscreet alveolar [ n]inconceivable velar [ ]input bilabial [ ]Assimilation in Mandarin好啊hao wa海啊hai ya看啊kan na唱啊chang跳啊tiao waDeletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.Syllable (what is syllable?)Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. [m n].The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, communism”.Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme):Stress: word stress and sentence stressWord stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:verb: im port;in crease;re bel;re cord …noun: import; increase; rebel; record …Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements: compound: blackbird; greenhouse; hotdog…noun phrase: black bird;green house;hot dog…The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns: modifier: dining-room; readingroom; sleepingbag…doer: sleeping baby;swimming fish;flying plane…Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.ToneTones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.ma 妈(level)ma 麻(the second rise)ma 马(the third rise)ma 骂(the fourth fall)IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.”Grammatical functions of intonations----Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units, e.g. “John didn’t come because of Marry”Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry.With two intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John didn’t come.Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations:“Those who bought quickly made a profit.”c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus on it, e.g.Jack came yesterday by train.d) Its attitudinal functions.Falling tone ---- matter-of-fact statement,downright assertion, commands.Rising tone ----politeness, encouragement,pleading.Note: these can only be very general indications. The specific attitudinal meaning of an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.Summary:Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.These features are distinctive features.StressStress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress.If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.IntonationWhen we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.ToneTone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.Chinese is a typical tone language.Discovering phonemesContrastive distribution – phonemesIf sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.Complementary distribution – allophonesSounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in complementary distribution.If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme. Free variationIf segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.Distinctive and non-distinctive featuresFeatures that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.本章重点：Phonology is a major branch of linguistics. It is the study of the sound systems of languages and of the general properties of sound systems.The differences between phonetics and phonologyPhonetics is regarded as the linguistic study to identify and describe the characteristics of all the speech sounds that occur in all human languages, whereas phonology is the description of the sound systems and patterns of individual languages. Phonetics provides the means for phonological description. And in a sense, phonology is really the application of phonetics to the process of communication in a particular language or languages. Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.Speaker’s mind---------mouth---------- ear-------- listener’s mindPhonology phoneticsPhonetics PhonologySounds of language functioning of sounds as part of a languageParole, speech act language, language systemUniversal language-specificConcrete abstractPhone [ ] phoneme / /Although both are related to the study of sounds, phonetics studies the production, transmission, and reception of sounds while phonology focuses on the linguistic patterns of speech sounds and how they are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.A phone is A phoneme isOne of many possible sounds in the languages of the world A distinctive unit in the sound system of a particular language The smallest identifiable unit found in a stream of speech A minimal unit that serves to distinguish between meanings of wordsPronounced in a defined way Pronounced in one or more ways, depending on the number of allophonesRepresented between brackets by convention Represented between slashed by conventionExample: , [l] Example: /b/, /l/A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called its allophones (音位变体)The definitions of phone, phoneme, allophone, minimal pair and free variation, theories on phoneme, phonemic contrast and complementary distribution, feature on phonetic similarity and distinction; assimilation rule, deletion rule, suprasegmetnal features (syllables, stress, tone, intonation, pitch, etc.)How do you find a phoneme?You know something is a phoneme if it is a distinctive sound in the languageHow do you find the sounds distinctive?If you find a minimal pair, you know the sounds are distinctiveWhat is minimal pair?If you have two words which are exactly identical with respect to sounds except for one sound, and the different sounds are at the same position, and the two words have different meanings, then you have a minimal pair. Phonetics-----the study of speech soundsPhonology-----the study of sounds systemsPhoneme vs. phone/ allophone/ phoneme/ ----------------------abstractActual sound/t/ ---------------------phonemePhoneTwo phones never occur in the same environment -------complementary distributionAlthough we generalize some rules for word stress, it should be born in mind that sometimes the exceptions may well make one give up the ideal of rules.Exercises from our school:1. Complementary distribution2. what is articulatory phonetics, explain the primacy of speech over writing,3. divide the following words into morphemes. For each morpheme, identify the type (lexical or grammatical, free or bound, prefix or suffix, inflectional or derivational), where applicable.1) restate2) strongest4. what is illustrated with the following pronunciations?1) cap [kap] can2) tent, tenthanswer: 1) restate={re}+{state}{re}=grammatical, bound, prefix,derivational{state}=lexical, free3) strongest={strong}+{SUP}{strong}=lexical, free{SUP}=grammatical, bound, suffix, inflectional1) nasalization 2) dentalizationthey are examples of regressive assimilation (逆同化) Page 60 by Hu5. the phrase French literature teacher constitutes a case of lexical ambiguity6. syntax is made up of one morpheme.7. artificial satellite is a case of loanblending. (P102 by Hu)8. a single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, so they are identical9. derivational affixes often change the lexical meaningFFFFT10. for each of the following words transcribe phonetically and account for the allomorphs of the past tense morpheme: waited, waved, waded, wiped11. illustrate assimilation with two examples.12. describe the initial sounds of the following words: toe, chin, thank, goat, moon13. what are the terms used to describe the word-formation processes of the following words? Vaseline, carelessness, football, car-phone, AIDSAnswers: 10. /id/ (/d/ would merge with another alveolar plosive if not separated by a vowel)/d/ (voiced /v/ is followed by voiced /d/)/t/ ( voiceless /p/ is followed by voiceless /t/)11. assimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sounds12. voiceless alveolar stop, voiceless palato-alveolar stop, voiceless dental fricative, voiced velar stop, voiced bilabial nasal.13. invention, derivation, compounding, clipping and compounding, acronym14. the phonology or pronunciation of a specific regional dialect is called_____15. ___________is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds16. phones which never occur in the same phonetic environment are said to be in_____17. A bound grammatical morpheme is called_____18. the word formation process, _______is exemplified by the word “brunch”19. the IPA chart contains a set of _____ for the purpose of transcribing the minute difference between variations of the same soundAccent, acoustic phonetics, complementary distribution, inflectional morpheme, blending, diacritics20. compare the two terms: morpheme and allomorph, distinctive features and semantic featuresA phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. It is just because of its distinctive features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. On the analogy of distinctive features in phonology, some linguists suggest that there are semantic features. The meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.[l] voiced alveolar lateral; [v] voiced labiodental fricative; [e] central front lax ungrounded vowel; [u:] high back tense rounded vowel22. Is stress a phonological property? Why?Stress is one of suprasegmental features which are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress plays the meaning-distinctive role.23. Affricates consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation24. the assimilation rule doesn’t account for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations25. prefixes not only modify the meaning of a stem but also change the part of speech of the original wordT F F26. in what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes27. what kind of evidence could be used to argue that action and package each contain two morphemes: {act}+ {ion} and {pack}+ {age}?(hint: a morpheme can appear independently in other words.)Answers: {act} occurs in act, actor, active, react{ion} occurs in construction, projection,, inflection, rejection{pack} occurs in pack, packs, packed, packing, packer{age} occurs in wreckage, baggage, breakage28. a(n)_____ is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity29. in the production of _____sounds, such as [p], the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction.30. ______is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sound.31. all syllables must have a ____ but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. ( 核心，节首辅音，结尾音节) （page 69 by Hu）Root, bilabial, assimilation, nucleus32. compare phonology and phonetics.33. account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost, boast mostthe words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter. Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, /b/ being bilabial, /m/ being nasal.34. what are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and whyWhat are three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sounds.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differWhat criteria are used to classify the English vowels?Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptionsGive the phonetic features of each of the following soundsWhat is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language? Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?Supplementary ExercisesChapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular lan¬guage are called s ____ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voiced37.__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone48. international phonetic alphabet49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex¬amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?Suggested answers to supplementary exercisesIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear¬er.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex¬amples for illustration if necessary: 57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.”for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋4 Syntax
Word-level categories
Major lexical categories: p. 43 N, V, Adj, Prep. Minor Lexical categories: p.43 Det（限定 词）, Deg, Qual（修饰语）, Auxi, Conj.
The criteria on which categories are determined
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG) Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works: (1957) Syntactic Structure; (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax; (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding; (1986) Barriers (1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory; (1995) The Minimalist Program; (1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……
Coordination rule
Coordinate structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc. ----Coordination has four important properties: no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be of the same type; the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册(打印版)_戴炜栋(word文档良心出品)
《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have, which can notbe found in animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority to writtenlanguage in modern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册簿(打印版)_戴炜栋
《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have,which can not be found in animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority towritten language in modern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的容。
新编简明英语语言学教程戴炜栋第1-3章课后练习题答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案Chapter 1 IntroductionP131. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study oflanguage答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combinedto form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissiblesentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages intoa Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competenceand performance答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition oflanguage答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system（2．2语言的识别性特征）美国语言学家 C. Hockett提出了人类语言的 12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。
06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋
06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程, 戴炜栋ContentsChapter 1 Introduction (1)Chapter 2 Phonology (5)Chapter 3 Morphology (8)Chapter 4 Syntax (9)Chapter 5 Semantics (12)Chapter 6 Pragmatics (16)Chapter 7 Historical linguistics (19)Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics (24)Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics (29)Chapter 10 Language Acquisition (32)Chapter 1 Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
戴炜栋_新编简明语言学教程文档版
Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication..(语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学)如何在组成语法上可接受的句子Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction语言是用来传达意义的。
Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use用来研究上下文的意义跨学科分支Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究Some important distinctions in linguistic s语言学中一些基本区分1. Descriptive or PrescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。
(完整版)戴炜栋_新编简明语言学教程文档版(可编辑修改word版)
Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. 普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.. (语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学) 如何在组成语法上可接受的句子Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction 语言是用来传达意义的。
Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use 用来研究上下文的意义跨学科分支Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. 社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. 应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究Some important distinctions in linguistic s 语言学中一些基本区分1.Descriptive or PrescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. 描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋4 Syntax
Criteria on good grammar
Observational adequacy Descriptive adequacy Explanatory adequacy The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain. TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation.
Chapter 4 Syntax
What is syntax?
----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG) Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works: (1957) Syntactic Structure; (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax; (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding; (1986) Barriers (1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory; (1995) The Minimalist Program; (1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……
(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程 戴伟栋版(word文档良心出品)
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题考研真题
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解完整版>精研学习䋞>无偿试用20％资料
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第1章导言
1.1复习笔记
1.2课后习题详解
1.3考研真题与典型题详解
第2章音位学
2.1复习笔记
2.2课后习题详解
2.3考研真题与典型题详解
第3章形态学
3.1复习笔记
3.2课后习题详解
3.3考研真题与典型题详解
第4章句法学
4.1复习笔记
4.2课后习题详解
4.3考研真题与典型题详解
第5章语义学
5.1复习笔记
5.2课后习题详解
5.3考研真题与典型题详解
第6章语用学
6.1复习笔记
6.2课后习题详解
6.3考研真题与典型题详解
第7章语言变化
7.1复习笔记
7.2课后习题详解
7.3考研真题与典型题详解
第8章语言与社会
8.1复习笔记
8.2课后习题详解
8.3考研真题与典型题详解
第9章语言与文化
9.1复习笔记
9.2课后习题详解
9.3考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言习得
10.1复习笔记
10.2课后习题详解
10.3考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言习得
11.1复习笔记
11.2课后习题详解
11.3考研真题与典型题详解第12章语言与大脑
12.1复习笔记
12.2课后习题详解
12.3考研真题与典型题详解。
(完整word版)戴炜栋_新编简明语言学教程文档版
Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication..(语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学)如何在组成语法上可接受的句子Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction语言是用来传达意义的。
Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use用来研究上下文的意义跨学科分支Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究Some important distinctions in linguistic s语言学中一些基本区分1. Descriptive or PrescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。