语言学第七章讲义
语言学内容讲义 Chapter Seven Pragmatics
Chapter Eight PragmaticsTeaching aims: enable the students to have a better understanding of pragmatics andpragmatic theoriesFocal points: the difference between pragmatics and semantics; speech act theory; the cooperative principle and its four maxims Teaching difficulties: speech act theory; the theory of conversational implicatureTeaching procedures：The outline of the chapter:1 Introduction to pragmatics1.1 Definition of pragmatics1.1.1 Context1.1.2 Meaning in use or context1.1.3 concept1.2 Dissimilarity between Semantics and Pragmatics2 Theories2.1. Speech act theory proposed by Austin2.1. 1 Origin of Austin’s theory2.1. 2 What is speech act2.1. 3 Key arguments in his theory2.2 Grice’s theory: The theory of conversational implicature2.2.1 Origin of Grice’s theory P1902.2.2 implicature P1912.2.3 Key arguments in his theoryChapter Eight Pragmatics Teaching aims: enable the students to have a better understanding of pragmatics andpragmatic theoriesFocal points: the difference between pragmatics and semantics; speech act theory; the cooperative principle and its four maxims Teaching difficulties: speech act theory; the theory of conversational implicatureTeaching procedures：1 Introduction to pragmatics1.1 Definition of pragmaticsPragmatics refers to the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.Pragmatics is the study of the aspects of meaning and language use that are dependent on the speaker, the addressee and other features of the context of utterance.Pragmatics studies how people comprehend and produce a communicative act or speech act in a concrete speech situation which is usually a conversation (hence *conversation analysis).1.1.1 ContextIt would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning without considering the context of language use. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.According to Jack Richards context is the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used. Context includes the background knowledge,i.e., knowledge of the world, knowledgespecific in the situation of communication, as well as knowledge of the language we use.1.1.2 Meaning in use or contextMeaning in use is referred to asspeaker’s meaning, utterance meaning,or contextual meaning. It differs from the kinds of meaning we studied in semantics in that its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hear is, when and where it is used. In a word ,it depends more on the context.In other words , meaning in use is based on sentence meaning, but it is the realization of sentence meaning in a context of situation, which means something more than the conceptual meaning or literal meanning. Let’s take the following famous English advertisements for example, think not only about what the words might mean, but also about what the advertiser intended them to mean. In fact the advertisers mean to advertise products for them.Good to the last drop．滴滴香浓，意犹未尽。
语言学教程Chapter7精要
upon its occurrence in a given context. 2. Language functions as a link in human
activity, a mode of action.
Loan words in Japanese, Chinese, English.
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Loan words
肥皂剧、卡通、布丁、苹果派、雀巢、耐克、 因特网、KTV、E-MAIL
Typhoon, gongfu, etc.
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netspeak
滴(的、地)
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“2006年中国主流报纸十大流行语”
和谐社会、社会主义新农村、青藏铁路、自 主创新、社会主义荣辱观（八荣八耻）、中 非合作论坛、长征精神、消费税、非物质文 化遗产、倒扁
文博会、文化创意产业、孔子、原生态、百 家讲坛、于丹、潜规则、易中天、草根文化、 恶搞
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people who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner.
Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.
what end”
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《英语语言学导论》(第四版)课件Chapter 7 Pragmatics
world; 3) the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of
Contents
1 Introduction to Pragmatics 2 Deixis and Reference
3 Speech Acts 4 Pragmatic Presupposition
5 The Cooperative Principle and Implicature
6
Apply PP to teaching in future Politeness
7.2.6 Social deixis
the encoding of social distinctions, or the use of deictic expressions to indicate social status of the interlocutors
● honorifics e.g. tu/vous (in French) du/sie (in German) nǐ/nín (in Chinese)
--- the addressees being audio-visually present during the utterances to be able to understand these expressions
e.g. I like that one, not this one.
7.2 Deixis and reference
语言学第七章知识点总结
语言学第七章知识点总结Language is an essential part of a given culture. It is an indispensable carrier of culture. It is regarded as a mirror of society.In primitive culture, the meaning of a word greatly depended on its occurrence in a given context.Firth-Context of Situation -illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrence factors.1.The relevant features of the participants, persons, and personalitiesThe verbal action of the participants; the non-verbal action of the participant2.The relevant objects3.The effects of the verbal actionSpeech CommunityIt refers to a group of people share the same rules of speaking and one linguistic variety as well.Sapir-Whorf HypothesisOur language helps mould our way of thinking. Different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world.nguage may determine our thinking patterns2.Similarity between languages is relative. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse of their conceptualization of the world will beThis hypothesis has a strong version and a weak version The strong version: It refers to the claim that the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak version: It is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorial.If a language has two basic color terms, it is identified as staying in the first stage of evolution.Modla-warm color mili-cold color3 objectives for us to teach culture in our language class* to get the students familiar with cultural differences* to get the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will* to emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroompractices.Women Register-Robin Lakoff1.Women use more fancy color terms such as "mauve, beige"2.Women use less powerful curse words.3.Women use more intensifiers such as "terrible, awful"4.Women use more tag questions5.Women use more statement questions. "Dinners will be ready at 5 o'clock?"6.Women's linguistic behavior is more indirect and more polite*It is not language itself but women's place in society that makes people linguistically behave in that way Communicative CompetenceIt refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.。
语言学概论,讲义第七章 语言的书写符号——文字
第七章语言的属性符号──文字教学目的与要求：了解文字的性质和作用，区别文字和语言、文字和书面语的关系；明确文字的形式和文字的类型；了解文字的起源、文字的演变和关于文字发展规律的不同观点；了解汉字的特点、汉字的演变过程的造字法，明确汉字改革的任务第一节文字概说一、文字的性质和作用1、文字的性质：文字是语言“写”和“看”的符号形式，文字是“符号的符号”，是语言的书写符号2、文字的作用★（1）弥补了语音的时空局限（2）保存了人类的宝贵经验（3）是语言学习的重要工具，促进了语言的发展二、文字和语言的关系1、文字是在语言的基础上产生的，是记录语言的工具，而不是语言本身2、文字的特点和语言的特点有一定的关系三、文字和书面语（1）文字：文字是语言的书写符号，文字并不等同于书面语（2）书面语：是用文字符号记录的语言形式，只是一种符号或者一种工具第二节文字的形式和类型一、文字的形式字符就是文字的符号的总称，是文字的最基本单位1、单纯字符和复合字符（1）单纯字符：不能再分解的字符。
如：十、人（2）复合字符：由单纯字符组合而成的字符，也包括有单纯字符和复合字符在组合而成的字符。
如：张2、意符、声符和记号（1）意符：文字系统中的字符跟文字所代表的语言单位在意义上有联系的字符（2）声符：在语音上有联系的字符（3）记号：跟语音、意义都没有联系的字符二、文字的类型1、划分文字类型的标准根据字符跟语言单位的语义还是语音相联系，文字分为表意文字、表音文字和意音文字。
2、表音文字：全部字符都是音符的文字。
也叫拼音文字。
如：阿拉伯文字、希腊文字3、表意文字：实际上指音义结合层的各级语言单位，理论上可以包括“语素、词语、词组、句子”四级。
4、意音文字：一部分字符是意符，一部分字符是音符的文字。
因为它们原来都是词语文字，只表意，不表音，后来才发展出表音符号来。
如：汉语的“其”字。
第三节文字的起源和演变一、文字的起源文字起源于图画和契刻。
语言学第七章chapter-7-1Meaning ppt
connotative meaning: 内涵意义
• Connotative refers to some additional, especially emotive meaning. • Woman: housewife, cry, fragile…… • Pig: fat, lazy, dirty, greedy……. • The difference between politician and statesman, for example, is connotative in that the former is derogatory while the latter is favorable.
reflecWhat is communicated through association with an other sense of the same expression.
• Comforter ( 圣灵，安慰者) [comfort] • Intercourse, cock • Bottom up
collocative meaning: 搭配意义
What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.
Color terms 绿色食品，绿色通道，白色恋歌，红色旅游 猫步，秋波，
• Word – thing
• Many words in the language have no referents in the real world. • Abstract entities • Imagined entities • Entities not at now and here
语言学教程Chapter Seven
• • • • • •
Some examples: fever Bill Animal (expect….) Praise Japan (thanks)
• Sub-culture: Texas Macho
1.2 (7.1.1)The heritage concerning the study of language and culture
• 从英汉关于狗的习语看中西文化差异 • 根据Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis • Love me, love my dog.
• Chinese: character, linear thought pattern, human-centered, 意合语 • I got up at 6, went to class at eight, had lunch at 12, took a nap, studied in the classroom, went to bed at 10….. • 总用人 I , we 做主语 • 病了，没去。 Ill, not go. • English corner; • Four-character idioms; poem
• In Hopi, there is something very special about its grammar. • One of the features that separate it from other languages is that it does not use the same means to express time, and hence is called as a “timeless language”(没有时间的 语言). • Do not recognize time as a linear dimension. • Hopi verbs do not have tenses of time and no concept of speed. • He runs fast.----- He very runs.
语言学第七章讲义
Chapter 7 Language change⏹Sound change⏹Morphological and syntactic change⏹V ocabulary changeMorphological and syntactic change⏹Change in “agreement” rule⏹Change in negation rule⏹Process of simplification⏹Loss of inflectionsV ocabulary change⏹Addition of new words⏹Loss of words⏹Changes in the meaning of wordsAddition of new words⏹coinage(创新词)⏹clipped words(缩略词)⏹blending(紧缩法)⏹acronyms(词首字母缩略词)⏹back-formation(逆构词法)⏹functional shift⏹borrowingCoinage----A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e.g.⏹walkman⏹Kodak⏹Xerox⏹Ford⏹Benz⏹ToyotaClipped words----The abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g.⏹gym—gymnasium⏹memo—memorandum⏹disco—discotheque⏹fridge—refrigeratorBlending----A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e.g.⏹smog—smoke + fog⏹motel—motor + hotel⏹camcorder—camera + recorderAcronyms----Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words, e.g.⏹CBS---- Columbia Broad casting system⏹ISBN----International Standard Book Number⏹WTO WHO PLA AIDS UNESCO APEC OPEC CAD SARSBack-formation----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word.⏹edit ← editor⏹hawk ← hawker⏹beg ← beggar⏹baby-sit ← baby-sitterFunctional shift----Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g.⏹Noun→verb: to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake…⏹Verb→noun: a hold, a flyby, a reject, a retreat…⏹Adj.→verb: to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow…⏹Adj.→noun: a daily, a Christian, the rich, the impossible…Borrowing⏹----When different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. The following are some of the loan words in English (see more in P100-101).⏹Latin bonus education exit⏹German beer waltz quartz⏹Chinese tea kowtow sampan⏹Russian sputnik commissar vodka⏹Arabic zero algebra alcoholLoss of words⏹Words can be lost from a language as time goes by. The following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language.⏹Beseem →to be suitable⏹Wot →to know⏹Gyve → a fetter⏹Wherefore →whyChanges in the meaning of words⏹Widening of meaning⏹Narrowing of meaning⏹Meaning shiftWidening of meaning⏹Holiday: [+specific] holy day[+general] any rest day⏹Tail: [+specific] tail of a horse[+general] tail of any animalOther examples: virtue, quarantine, companionNarrowing of meaning⏹hound: any doga special kind of dog⏹girl: young person of either sexyoung people of female sex⏹deer: any animala particular kind of animal⏹meat: foodedible part of an animal⏹corn: graina particular grainOther examples: knight, wifeMeaning shift⏹inn: a small, old hotel or pubwell-known, nice hotel⏹nice: ignorant (1000 years ago)good, fine⏹lust: pleasurewith negative and sexual overtones⏹silly: happynaïve, foolishOther example: gay, CadillacSome recent trends⏹Moving towards greater informality⏹The influence of American English⏹The influence of science and technologyThe influence of science and technology⏹Space travel⏹Computer and internet language⏹EcologyCauses of the language change⏹The rapid development of science and technology;⏹More and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created;⏹“ Economy of memory” results in grammar simplification;⏹Regularization of exceptional plural forms provides another example for analogical change.Causes of Lexical Change1. PoliticsGround Zero, Osamaniac, Blairism, CIS, Hamas, Tamil Tiger2. Science and TechnologyDVD, PDA, squark, hacker, cursor3. Economic DevelopmentBushnomics, Blairnomics, Blairnomicsdownsize, human resource, electronic commerce4. Social lifeYuppies, DINK, SOHO, physically challenged,5. Environmentbio-diversity, ecosystem, ecocide, green consumer, green speech, tree houses, twigloo, intensive farming, pesticide6. Health and Fitnessmad cow disease, bird flu, foot and mouth disease, SAD, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)7. Other Aspects: extreme skiing, bungee jumping, hydrospeeding。
语言学Chapter 7
Chapter 7 Language, Culture & Society
7.1 Language and culture 7.1.1 How does language relate to culture? An anthropological orientation in the study of language was developed. The orientation characterized its study of language in a socio-cultural context. Now many researches have proved that there is a close relationship between language and culture. Language is the carrier of culture and also one of the component of culture.
Language, Culture & Society 5
Chapter 7 Language, Culture & Society
7.1 Language and culture The word “culture” originated from Latin word “cultum”. It means the cultivation of soil, i.e. tillage. It also means the breeding of animals or growing of plants, especially to produce improved stock, the growing of microorganisms, tissue cells, or other living matter in a specially prepared nutrient medium, such a growth or colony, as of bacteria. Language, Culture & Society 6
语言学教案Chapter7Language
语言学教案Chapter7LanguageChapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society7.1 Language and culture7.1.1 How does language relate to culture?AN ANTHROPOLIGICAL ORIENTATION(人类学转向) in the early 20th century ●England: Bronislaw Malinowski, John. P. Firth●North America: Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, Benjamin Lee Whorf1920sa school of ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDY OF LINGUISTICS, England Representatives:●MalinowskiIn the primitive culture the meaning of a word greatly depended upon a real language situation.“In its primitive uses, language functions a s a link in concerted human activity….It is a mode of action and not an instrument of reflection.” (1923: 312)●Firth (a leading figure in the London School)CONTEXT OF SITUATION (情景语境理论)A. The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities:(i) The verbal action of the participants.(ii)The non-verbal action of the participants.B. The relevant objects.C. The effects of the verbal action. (Firth 1950: 43-44)He seems to suggest the creativity and diversity of linguistic idiosyncrasy in language use.——Sapir“Who speaks (or writes) what language (or what language variety) to whom and when and to what end.”——HallidayEarly 1920sNorth American linguistics, the relations between language and culture (the American Indian culture)1920s—1940sBoas, Sapir, and Whorf: to reconstruct American Native languageThe culture is significant in the study of language.●SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESISThe language helps mould the way of thinking and, consequently, different language may probably express the unique ways of understanding the world.Language may determine the thinking patterns.LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM (语言决定论)Similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY (语言相对论)●Eugene NidaFive types of sub-culture in CROSS-CULTURALCOMMUNICATION1) ecological culture; 2) linguistic culture; 3) religious culture;4) material culture; 5) social culture7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf hypothesisThe language helps mould the view of the world.A strong version(强式说)and a weak version(弱式说)The strong version: the claim that the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizingthe decisive role of language as the shaper of the thinking patternsThe weak version: a modified type of its original theory,suggesting that there is acorrelation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in the ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.Example 1: to prove that languages may differ from each otherHopi in Arizona: timeless language (Pp229)Question : Is it possible to compare different linguistic representations?Criticism : The hypothesis is based on establishing European languages as a model against which all comparisons are made. Similarities are more important than differences when LINGUISTIC UNIVERSALITY(语言的普遍性) is concerned. ? Example 2：to prove that the assumption that language is culturally determinedand hence absolutely different from one another is wrong Dugum DaniColor terms are not culturally determined and hence absolutely different from one another. Different language might undergo a universal evolutionary process of development which, in turn, made the basic color system in one language different from that in another only in terms of the stages of their evolution.< [red] < < [blue]<[brown]< Evolutionary Stages of Basic Color Words(Berlin & Kay 1969: 4)7.1.3 Case Study (See Pp 232-233)7.1.4 To which extent do we need culture in our linguistic study?Watergate, Billy gate , Debate gate , Cattle gate , Rice gate1) Watergate as a word taking on a pejorative implicature torefer to any political scandal at the high rank, will stay in English for quite a long time;2) Its structural status in the language becomes rather stable through the rich derivational process it has undergone in word-formation.3) The semantic implicature it has will say with the word for quite a long time.7.1.5 Culture in language teaching classroom1) To get the students familiar with cultural differences;2) To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target language;3) To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices.7.2 Language and society7.2.1 How does language relate to society?the whole 20th centuryWhite black green yellow purple pink orange graya MONSTIC or AUTONOMOUS PURSUIT of an independent language1960sDUALISTIC VIEW7.2.2 A situationally and socially variationist perspective“You are what you say”(Lakoff 1991).Factors influencing the language behaviors1) class; 2) gender; 3) age; 4) ethnic identity;5) education background; 6) occupation; 7) religious beliefExample 1: Class factorThe middle of 1960s, William Labov, phonological variants Example 2: Gender factor (1970s Robin Lakoff)1) Women use more “fancy ” color terms such as mauve and beige;2) Women use less powerful curse words;3) Women use more intensifiers such as terrible and awful;4) Women use more tag questions;5) Women use more statement questions like “Dinner will be ready at seveno’clock?”(with a rising i ntonation at the end);6) Women’s linguistic behaviour is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men. LINGUISTIC SEXISM (语言性别歧视): It is the not the language itself but women’s place in society that influences linguistically behave.7.2.3 What should we know more about sociolinguistics?7.2.4 What implications we can get from sociolinguistics?Classroom teaching: grammarians or active language users? COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE (Hyme 1970s)Law courts; clinical settings7.3 Summary。
语言学教程Chapter 7. Language, Culture, and Society(课堂PPT)
Anthropological linguistics
A branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between language and culture in a community, e.g. its tradition, beliefs, and family structure. 语言学的一个分支，研究一个社团的语 言和文化之间的关系，如传统、信仰和 家庭结构。
22
Prediction
Linguistic studies in the new century will become more fruitful if an evolutionary, cognitive, and interdisciplinary perspective is taken in its theoretic pursuit.
Paved the way for a cultural, rather, a contextual study of language use in Britain.
10
His influence
Under his anthropological view of language and being fully aware of the importance of the context in the study of language use, Firth, a leading figure in a linguistic tradition later known as the London school, tried to set up a model for illustrating the close relationships between language use and its co-occurrent factors. He developed
语言学教程Chapter Seven
language and culture, Language and society,
and language and cross-cultural communication.
2
7.1 language and culture What is culture? Broadly speaking, it means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language. In a narrow sense, it refers to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs. 7.1.1 The relationship between L & C There exists a close relationship between language and culture, generally, a relation of part to whole, for L is part of C. Language is an indispensible carrier of culture. The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in L. Culture finds a better representation through language use. Language and culture correlate with each other at different levels of linguistic structure.
语言学教程 胡壮麟Chapter7
Users of the same language in a sense all
speak differently. What each of them chooses
to use is in part determined by his social
background. When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about our origin and our background.
people who claim to be users of the same
language do not speak the language in the
same manner.
Varieties related to the user are normally
known as dialects and varieties related to use
around.
Time in Hopi language ---a ―timeless language‖ An example from the Dani language: evolutionary stages of basic color words
Hale Waihona Puke English: horseshoe
Anthropological study of linguistics: study of language in a socio-cultural context. Bronislaw Malinowski:
The meaning of a word greatly depends upon its occurrence in a given context. Language functions as a link in human activity, a mode of action.
语法讲义：第七章 复句
第七章复句一．复句的含义复句，是包含两个或者两个以上小句的句子。
1.包含两个或者两个以上小句（1）内容上有联系。
下边是一个反例：小王来了，天上有一只鸟。
（2）结构上互不包含，即互相不作句子成分。
下边是两个相关的例子：他告诉我，但不许告诉你。
他告诉我：不许告诉你。
2.全句只有一个句调：通常情况下，如果只说出其中的一句，就会让人感到意尤未尽——语气不完整。
下边是几个相关的例子：是小王呢，还是小张?或者你去，或者他去。
要是他去，我就去。
3.小句，又叫做单句形式，即结构上和单句相同，但语气上或者意义上不是独立的分句。
第七章复句二．复句中的关系词语（一）关系词语的含义关系词语，是复句内部用来联结各小句，标明语义关系的词语。
其主要特性是：衔接性和标志性——实际上，标志性和衔接性的功能是同时发生的。
（二）关系词语的范围和性质1.关系词语的范围汉语复句中的关系词语，指的是能够发挥衔接、表示复句语义关系的词语，只要具有上述作用、性质的词语，都是关系词语。
从这一点出发，汉语的关系词语包括以下几种。
（1）连词：连接分句，不充当句子成分。
单用的：所以因此或者甚至但是……两两套用的：因为Ａ，所以Ｂ如果Ａ，那么Ｂ虽然Ａ，但是Ｂ第七章复句第七章复句2.从上边的讨论中可以发现，关系词语有以下几个方面的性质。
（1）从功能类别上来看，关系词语不固定属于某一个类别：可以是连词，也可以是副词等等。
（2）从长度上来看，可以是词，也可以是短语。
（3）在句法职能上，不具有专职性：有的只发挥关联作用，有的则在发挥关联作用的同时，充当句子成分。
比如：不论Ａ，都Ｂ。
→不论情况如何变化，都要完成任务。
第七章复句3.关系词语的作用关系词语的作用主要有以下方面。
（1）衔接、标示某种关系：两个小句之间原本存在某种关系，用Ｘ关系词语来衔接、标示这种特定的语义关系。
如：他三下两下穿好一件衣服，然后，大步流星地走出院子。
他去了，而且去得最早。
（2）显化某种关系：各小句之间本来隐含某种或几种关系，用特定的关系词语使特定的语义关系得到明显的标示。
《语言学教程》第 7 章 语言文化与社会【ppt】
The view was first clearly expressed by 19th century thinkers, such as Wilhelm von Humboldt, who saw language as the expression of the spirit of a nation.
Currently, a balanced view of linguistic relativity is espoused by most linguists holding that language influences certain kinds of cognitive processes in nontrivial ways, but that other processes are better seen as subject to universal factors.
7.1.1 语言与文化的关系
③自18世纪初以来，语言研究先后有：历史比较 取向、结构主义与形式主义取向。
④二十世纪初以来，语言研究又出现了人类学取 向，即在社会文化语境中研究语言。
⑤以Malinowski、Firth 为先驱和代表的英国传统 ⑥以Boas、Sapir、Whorf 为先驱和代表的美国传统
④The strong version refers to the claim the original
hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.
个 个 个 个 个 个 个 个 个 ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ 个 个 个 个 个个
语言学讲义 考研 7 Sociolinguistics
• Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. What each of them chooses to use is in part determined by one’s social background.
– When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about our origin and our background.
– 肥皂剧、卡通、布丁、苹果派、雀巢、巴士、 排挡、耐克、因特网、KTV、EMAIL – Typhoon, gongfu, etc.
15
Netspeak 网络语言
• • • • • • • • • • 顶(支持) 555(呜呜呜) ding(顶) mm/MM(妹妹) LZ(楼主) DD/dd(弟弟) 88(拜拜) 偶(我) 马甲(ID) ID • • • • • • • • • • 斑竹(版主) 恩(嗯) 汗或寒(敬畏) 晕(非常惊异) ps/PS(photoshop的简称) 灌水(发帖子) ddd(顶顶顶) bs/BS(鄙视) 楼猪(楼主) 滴(的、地) 16
9
• Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
– Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)
• Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.
语言学概论第七章知识点
语言学概论第七章知识点第七章：意义与句子在语言学概论的第七章中，我们将深入探讨意义和句子之间的关系。
意义是语言的核心要素之一，它使我们能够理解和表达信息。
句子则是语言中的基本单位，准确地传递意义。
首先，我们需要了解意义是如何构建的。
语言中的词汇和语法结构通过组合和组织来产生具体的意义。
意义可以分为两个层面：词义和句义。
词义是指词汇本身所带有的基本含义，而句义则是指句子所表达的整体意义。
句义不仅仅是词义的简单叠加，还包括词语之间的关联和句子结构的影响。
句子的意义也可以通过语境来进一步确定。
语境是指句子所处的特定环境，包括上下文、发言者和听众的背景知识等因素。
语境对于句子的解释和理解至关重要。
同样的句子在不同的语境下可以产生不同的意义。
除了词义和句义，我们还需要了解逻辑语义和语用语义的区别。
逻辑语义是指句子的字面意义，它与逻辑关系和推理有关。
而语用语义则是指句子在实际交际中所达到的效果和目的。
语用语义包括语境、语气、语调等方面的影响。
在分析句子意义时，我们也需要考虑到歧义和语义的多样性。
歧义是指一个句子有多个可能的解释。
语义的多样性则是指一个句子在不同的语境下可以具有不同的意义。
理解和解决歧义和语义多样性是语言处理的重要任务之一。
总而言之，第七章主要介绍了意义与句子之间的关系及其相关的概念。
意义构建涉及词义和句义，以及词汇和句子的组合和组织。
句子的意义可以通过语境来进一步确定，同时还需要考虑逻辑语义和语用语义的区别。
此外，歧义和语义的多样性也是需要注意的问题。
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Chapter 7 Language change⏹Sound change⏹Morphological and syntactic change⏹V ocabulary changeMorphological and syntactic change⏹Change in “agreement” rule⏹Change in negation rule⏹Process of simplification⏹Loss of inflectionsV ocabulary change⏹Addition of new words⏹Loss of words⏹Changes in the meaning of wordsAddition of new words⏹coinage(创新词)⏹clipped words(缩略词)⏹blending(紧缩法)⏹acronyms(词首字母缩略词)⏹back-formation(逆构词法)⏹functional shift⏹borrowingCoinage----A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e.g.⏹walkman⏹Kodak⏹Xerox⏹Ford⏹Benz⏹ToyotaClipped words----The abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g.⏹gym—gymnasium⏹memo—memorandum⏹disco—discotheque⏹fridge—refrigeratorBlending----A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e.g.⏹smog—smoke + fog⏹motel—motor + hotel⏹camcorder—camera + recorderAcronyms----Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words, e.g.⏹CBS---- Columbia Broad casting system⏹ISBN----International Standard Book Number⏹WTO WHO PLA AIDS UNESCO APEC OPEC CAD SARSBack-formation----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word.⏹edit ← editor⏹hawk ← hawker⏹beg ← beggar⏹baby-sit ← baby-sitterFunctional shift----Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g.⏹Noun→verb: to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake…⏹Verb→noun: a hold, a flyby, a reject, a retreat…⏹Adj.→verb: to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow…⏹Adj.→noun: a daily, a Christian, the rich, the impossible…Borrowing⏹----When different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. The following are some of the loan words in English (see more in P100-101).⏹Latin bonus education exit⏹German beer waltz quartz⏹Chinese tea kowtow sampan⏹Russian sputnik commissar vodka⏹Arabic zero algebra alcoholLoss of words⏹Words can be lost from a language as time goes by. The following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language.⏹Beseem →to be suitable⏹Wot →to know⏹Gyve → a fetter⏹Wherefore →whyChanges in the meaning of words⏹Widening of meaning⏹Narrowing of meaning⏹Meaning shiftWidening of meaning⏹Holiday: [+specific] holy day[+general] any rest day⏹Tail: [+specific] tail of a horse[+general] tail of any animalOther examples: virtue, quarantine, companionNarrowing of meaning⏹hound: any doga special kind of dog⏹girl: young person of either sexyoung people of female sex⏹deer: any animala particular kind of animal⏹meat: foodedible part of an animal⏹corn: graina particular grainOther examples: knight, wifeMeaning shift⏹inn: a small, old hotel or pubwell-known, nice hotel⏹nice: ignorant (1000 years ago)good, fine⏹lust: pleasurewith negative and sexual overtones⏹silly: happynaïve, foolishOther example: gay, CadillacSome recent trends⏹Moving towards greater informality⏹The influence of American English⏹The influence of science and technologyThe influence of science and technology⏹Space travel⏹Computer and internet language⏹EcologyCauses of the language change⏹The rapid development of science and technology;⏹More and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created;⏹“ Economy of memory” results in grammar simplification;⏹Regularization of exceptional plural forms provides another example for analogical change.Causes of Lexical Change1. PoliticsGround Zero, Osamaniac, Blairism, CIS, Hamas, Tamil Tiger2. Science and TechnologyDVD, PDA, squark, hacker, cursor3. Economic DevelopmentBushnomics, Blairnomics, Blairnomicsdownsize, human resource, electronic commerce4. Social lifeYuppies, DINK, SOHO, physically challenged,5. Environmentbio-diversity, ecosystem, ecocide, green consumer, green speech, tree houses, twigloo, intensive farming, pesticide6. Health and Fitnessmad cow disease, bird flu, foot and mouth disease, SAD, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)7. Other Aspects: extreme skiing, bungee jumping, hydrospeeding。