WTO反倾销协议

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什么是反倾销

案例五：中国出口节能灯企业应诉欧盟出口节能灯反倾销案
• 1998年，中国销往欧洲市场的节能灯数约3500万支左右，1999年增
至7500万支左右，约占欧盟市场的60%，其中厦门出口量占全国30%。显然大大降低了世界电光源两大巨头——飞利浦与欧思郎公司在欧洲市场的利益。在2000年5月，飞利浦公司与欧思郎公司这两大世界灯具商业巨头联合起来，通过欧洲的照明协会对中国的一些主要节能灯生产厂家提出反倾销案，认为中国出口节能灯是用低于成本价格倾销至欧洲并用来扼制和扰乱欧洲的照明工作体系。2000年5月17日，欧盟根据德国欧司朗、SLI和荷兰飞利浦3家公司的起诉，宣布对中国节能灯进行反倾销立案调查，此案涉及中国100多家节能灯企业几千万美元出口金额。如果被控倾销成立，欧盟市场对中国关闭，则上百家相关生产企业将面临困境。欧盟宣布对中国的节能灯反倾销调查后，有9家公司进行了上诉。
反倾销协议
• 反倾销协议（Anti-dumping Agreement)，即
《关于执行1994年关贸总协定第六条的协议》（Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of GATT 1994），是世界贸易组织管辖的一项多边贸易协议，是在关贸总协定东京回合《反倾销守则》的基础上修改和补充的。协议由三个部分18个条款和2个附件组成。第一部分包括原则、倾销的确定、损害的确定、国内产业的定义、发起和随后进行调查、证据、临时措施、价格承诺、反倾销税的征收、追溯效力，反倾销税和价格承诺的期限及复审、公告和裁定的说明、司法审查、代表第三成员的反倾销行动、发展中国家成员，共15条，是该协议的实质性条款。第二部分包括反倾销措施委员会、协商、争端解决。第三部分为最后条款。协议的宗旨是规范各成员的反倾销措施与行为。协议规定了：如何认定进口产品存在倾销；如何认定倾销的进口产品正在对国内产业造成损害或造成损害威胁；在发起和进行调查、收集信息、征收反倾销税或价格承诺、审议认定以及终止征收反倾销税方面应遵循的程序。协议比较明确详细地规定了倾销和损害的定义，确定产品倾销的方法，反倾销调查申请人的资格及国内产业的界定，确定国内产业受损害时考虑的标准、反倾销调查的机制和程序，反倾销措施的实施与时限（包括价格承诺、临时反倾销措施、反倾销税的征收），行政复审与司法审议。此外，协议还规定了反倾销措施委员会的职能和争端解决专家组在涉及反倾销行动

第6章 WTO的多边贸易协定

第6章与关贸总协定有关的多边贸易协议第一节有关货物检验、检疫方面的协议一、《卫生与植物检疫措施协议》1993年12月7日签署。

是国际市场农产品和食品贸易中卫生和植物检疫的国际规范。

由导言、决定条款和附录三部分组成。

(一) 导言阐明制定《协议》的目的。

核心内容是推进各缔约方在卫生和植物检疫方面，使用国际组织制定的标准。

(二) 条款的主要内容共46项条。

主要内容可概括为如下几点：1．各缔约方有权采取为保护人类、动植物生命或健康所必需的卫生、检疫措施。

但应以科学为基础，不得构成对国际贸易的变相限制。

2．鼓励以相关国际组织制定的国际标准作为本国措施的依据。

3．出口可以向进口方提出本国的措施，若该进口国接受，其他缔约方应予等同接受。

4．规定了卫生、检疫措施的透明度条件。

包括对有关规定及其变化的公布、建立国家级的咨询点和通告程序。

5．规定发达国家进口方应给予发展中国家出口方的优惠待遇。

如提供相关的技术援助、给予一定的适应期限和免除承担相应的义务等等。

6．规定设立一个协调和管理性质的卫生和植物卫生措施委员会。

(三) 附录本协议包括A、B、C、D四个附录。

二、《装船前检验协议》装运前检验是国际商品贸易中经常被采用的一种检验方式。

主要是根据进口商在贸易合同条款中规定的要求，委托或授权独立的第三方检验机构，对进口商品在出口国领土上进行货物发运前的检验。

1965年扎伊尔政府颁布法令，宣布对扎伊尔进口商品强制实施装运前检验。

不但装运前检验的内容有了扩充和发展，而且实施的方式也由买卖双方自由选择约定转为政府强制执行。

后来被越来越多的发展中国家采用。

GA TT为减少不必要的延误或不平等待遇，以免发生贸易障碍和争端，在乌拉圭回合中经过多年谈判，达成了《装运前检验协议》。

基本内容共九条，主要涉及：1．进口方政府的权利和义务的规定。

2．出口方政府的权利和义务的规定。

3．解决装运前检验中出现的争议的程序。

第二节关于贸易壁垒方面的协议一、《贸易技术壁垒协议》又称《标准守则》，1974年4月东京回合中达成，1980年1月1日起正式实施，乌拉圭回合又进一步修订。

国际贸易规则下的反垄断与反不正当竞争

国际贸易规则下的反垄断与反不正当竞争在国际贸易规则下，反垄断与反不正当竞争是保护市场秩序和促进公平竞争的重要手段。

国际贸易实践中的反垄断和反不正当竞争法律与规则，主要由国际组织和国家单独制定。

本文将分析国际贸易规则下的反垄断与反不正当竞争措施，探讨其对经济发展和市场竞争的影响，并提出相关建议。

一、国际贸易规则下的反垄断措施反垄断是指防止垄断者利用市场支配地位，通过限制竞争、损害消费者利益的行为。

国际贸易规则下的反垄断措施主要体现在世界贸易组织(WTO)的《反倾销协议》、《反补贴协议》以及《竞争政策协定》等文件中。

首先，《反倾销协议》规定了针对倾销行为的惩罚性关税措施，以确保在市场经济条件下进行贸易的公平性。

该协议要求成员国对于倾销行为的调查具有透明度和公正性，对于倾销产品可以采取临时关税保护措施等。

这样一方面，反倾销协议保障了国内产业的利益，同时也防止了垄断企业通过倾销手段破坏市场竞争。

其次，《反补贴协议》规定了处理贸易补贴的程序和原则，以促进国际市场的公平竞争。

该协议主要针对政府对于出口企业提供的补贴措施，要求成员国对于补贴情况进行调查，并采取必要措施进行补贴的反倾销行动。

这样一来，不仅可以防止不正当的补贴导致市场扭曲，同时也保护了其他成员国的利益。

再次，WTO的《竞争政策协定》鼓励成员国建立和加强反垄断法律和机构，以维护市场竞争的公正性和透明度。

该协定强调消除垄断和反竞争行为的重要性，要求成员国建立适当的反垄断机构，并加强对于垄断行为的打击。

通过反垄断机制的建立和运作，可以遏制垄断行为对于市场和消费者的不利影响，同时保持市场的活力和竞争力。

二、国际贸易规则下的反不正当竞争措施反不正当竞争是指保护商业秩序和公平竞争的法律制度和措施。

国际贸易规则下的反不正当竞争主要包括世界知识产权组织(WIPO)的《不正当竞争协定》和相关国家单独制定的法规。

首先，《不正当竞争协定》旨在保护商业主体的知识产权和经营秩序，防止他们在经营活动中受到不正当影响。

wto原产地规则协议与反倾销措施

wto原产地规则协议与反倾销措施WTO原产地规则协议与反倾销措施之间存在一定的关联。

WTO原产地规则协议包括以下内容：1.原产地规则的定义和分类。

原产地规则分为非优惠原产地规则和优惠原产地规则，前者适用于为确定货物的原产国而实行的普遍适用的法律、法规和行政管理决定，后者则适用于为实施各种优惠贸易协定所规定的特殊原产地规则。

2.原产地规则的适用范围。

原产地规则适用于货物的进出口，包括进口商品和出口商品。

3.原产地规则的实施规定。

各成员应保证原产地规则的实施符合国际标准，并避免对贸易造成扭曲或限制。

原产地规则的实施应始终以统一、公正和合理的方式进行。

4.原产地规则的争议解决程序。

如果成员之间就原产地规则的实施发生争议，可以通过WTO的争端解决机制进行解决。

此外，WTO原产地规则协议还规定了原产地规则的豁免和修改，以及在过渡期间原产地规定不得用来影响贸易或造成贸易的扭曲或限制。

如果成员方要对原产地规则进行修改或豁免，应在修改或豁免生效前至少60天将其通知其他成员并予以公布。

原产地规则的核心是确定原生产国的判定标准。

在WTO原产地规则协议中，应当依照“完全获得”和“实质性改变”两种标准确定货物的原生产国，其中“实质性改变”应当是各国确定货物原生产国的主要标准。

美国的“实质性改变”标准确立于1886年Hartranft V.Wiegmann一案。

反倾销措施是进口方主管机构在初步认定被诉产品存在倾销，并对国内同类产业造成损害的情况下，可以采取的临时性措施。

这些措施包括征收临时反倾销税或要求进口商自裁决之日起提供与临时反倾销税数额相等的现金保证金或保函。

如果全部调查结束后，进口方主管机构认定达到了倾销要件，可以采取最终反倾销措施，即征收反倾销税。

反倾销税的征收应自决定征收之日起不超过5年。

在反倾销措施的实施过程中，原产地规则的应用十分重要。

根据原产地规则，进口方主管机构可以确定被诉产品的原生产国，从而决定是否采取反倾销措施。

WTO概论中,反倾销课件

分难。
由于中国有关应诉企业的协调一致,在替代国价格的选取、有关答卷的准备方面都比较充分,使中国占据了较为主动的地位。尽管我方在应诉过程中面临种种不利因素,但在中国政府有力支持下,在商会的有效组织下,在2019年9月的初裁中,应诉企业仍得到了明显低于诉方要求的税率:我一家应诉企业得到了零税率,其他应诉企业的税率为9.85%一 54.55%由于商会和应诉公司对实地核查的准备工作十分重视,在我方律师的精心辅导下,顺利地通过了美国商务部官员进行的实地核查。与此同时,认为并未达到预期目的的美国诉方,又施出“重手”一一在美国商务部终裁听证会前,
▪ 确定实质性损害必须综合考虑以下因素：
➢倾销进口产品的数量是否大量增加；
➢是否造成进口方境内相同产品大幅降价销售或产生价格严重抑制；
➢对进口方境内相同产业的影响：对销售、利润、产量、市场份额、设备利用率、库存、就业、工资等诸多因素的实际或潜在影响及其程度。
▪ 实质损害威胁指进口方的有关产业虽尚未受到实质损害，但可以明显预见倾销将对相关产业造成实质性损害，且这种情形非常迫近。
诉方又向商务部提交了更高的印度榨汁苹果价格。如果商务部接受此价格,中国应诉企业的税率将会大幅度提高。对于这个问题的解决,中国律师发挥了重要作用。律师通过其在印度的合作方,到印度德里市场进行实地考察,并拍摄了大量照片。
在随后的美国商务部听证会上,中国律师出示了照片等证据,强有力证明了诉方提出的印度替代价格毫无根据。2000年6月5日,美国商务部对中国浓缩苹果汁反倾销调查做出了终裁,结果对我而言好于初裁:中国应诉企业税率为0至27.57%,其中一家为零税率;应诉企业加权平均税率为14.88%;全国未应诉企业税率为 51.74%。
3.因果关系的认定

wto反倾销协议

wto反倾销协议WTO 反倾销协议（Anti-Dumping Agreement）是世界贸易组织下达成的一个重要协议，旨在防止国家或地区对彼此进行倾销，确保公平的国际贸易体系。

本文将从以下几个方面详细介绍 WTO 反倾销协议的相关内容。

一、什么是倾销？倾销是指某个国家或地区的出口商以低于正常价值出售产品，导致其他国家或地区的本地产业遭受损失的一种贸易行为。

这种贸易行为不仅会扰乱国际市场秩序，而且还会严重影响其他国家或地区的产业和就业。

二、反倾销协议的主要内容WTO 反倾销协议主要包括三个方面的内容，分别是“定义”、“程序规则”和“惩罚措施”。

（一）定义WTO 反倾销协议定义了什么可以被归类为倾销行为。

“倾销”必须满足三个主要条件：1.该产品的出口价格低于其“一般贸易价值”，也就是该产品在主要市场出售没有进行倾销的价格。

2.倾销产品的出口会导致进口国家产业受到损害。

3.被损害的产业证明出口产品的倾销行为是导致本地产业受到损害的原因之一。

（二）程序规则WTO 反倾销协议明确了规则和程序，以确保反映真实情况并保护应受保护的产业。

具体规则包括：1.进口国必须证明国外出口商确实存在倾销行为。

2.倾销对进口国产业造成实际伤害的证明必须提供。

3.必须证明进口处理程序确实存在。

4.对于任何决定，都必须允许复审和上诉。

（三）惩罚措施如果反倾销程序确认了倾销行为，进口国可以采取相应措施保护本地产业。

这些惩罚措施包括：1.征收反倾销税或关税增加额。

2.对倾销产品征收反倾销税，这可以使出口产品售价变得更加接近正常水平。

3.出售反倾销产品的措施以及其它。

三、WTO反倾销协议的意义WTO 反倾销协议的实施对国际贸易有着非常重要的意义。

它有助于避免不公平竞争、防止其他国家或地区的经济遭受损失，并维护了公平的贸易体系。

此外，它也使企业在全球范围内更加知晓国际市场环境，并激励他们提高产品质量和效果。

总之，WTO 反倾销协议是维护公平贸易的重要规定，只有每个国家顺应规则，依据协议处理贸易纠纷，才能更好地发展国际贸易，为全球经济发展做出应有贡献。

世贸组织反倾销协议(中文)

WTO反倾销协议各成员协议如下：第一条总则反倾销措施应仅在1994年关贸总协定第六条规定的情况下实施，并按照本协议的规定发起和进行调查。

根据反倾销法或者条例采取行动而适用1994年关贸总协定第六条时，适用下列规定：第二条倾销的确定1.本协议之目的，如果一项产品从一国出口到另一国，该产品的出口价格在正常的贸易过程中，低于出口国旨在用于本国消费的同类产品的可比价格，也即以低于其正常价值进入另一国的商业，则该产品即被认为是倾销。

2.在出口国国内市场在正常贸易过程中不存在该同类产品的销售时，或者该项销售由于该市场的特定情况，或在出口国国内市场的销售量太少，而不能用于适当的比较时，则倾销幅度应通过与向一个合适的第三国出口的同类产品的可比价格(如果该价格是有代表性的话)，进行比较而确定，或者与原产地国的生产成本，加上合理数额的管理费、销售费和一般成本并加利润进行比较而确定:(a)在出口国国内市场上同类产品的销售，或者向一个第三国销售，其价格低于每单位(固定的和可变的)生产成本加上行政管理费、销售费和一般费用，其销售可作为不是由于价格原因而处在正常贸易过程中，并且只有由当局决定该项销售的很大部分是在持续的长时期间内作出的，且该项销售的价格未能预订可以在一段合理期间内收回其全部成本的，则在确定正常价值时可不予考虑。

如果在销售时，其价格低于单项成本；但高于其在调查期间的平均单项成本，则该价格应被认为是在一段合理的期间内收回了成本；(b)本条第2款规定的成本费用，通常应根据受调查的出口商或生产商存有的记录计算，如果该记录是符合出口国普遍接受的会计原则，合理反映与生产有关的成本以及有关产品的销售。

当局应考虑全部现有的成本适当分配的证据，包括出口商或生产商在调查过程中作出的分配证据，其前提是该分配在历史上一直被出口商或生产商所使用，特别应对有关确立适当的分期付款和折旧期限、按资费用以及其它开发成本的补助费加以考虑，除非根据本款项规定已在成本分配中得到反映，否则成本应对那些有利于将来或当前生产的非经常性项目成本作出适当的调整，或者对在调查期间成本费用因刚开始生产而受到影响的情况作出适当的调整。

wto反倾销协议原文

wto反倾销协议原文AGREEMENT ON IMPLEMENTATION OF ARTICLE AGREEMENT ON IMPLEMENTATION OF ARTICLEVI OF THE GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE 199Members hereby agree as follows:PART IArticle ArticlePrinciplesAn anti-dumping measure shall be applied only under the circumstancesprovided for in Article Article VI of GATT 1994 and pursuant toinvestigations initiat and conducted in accordance with the provisions of this Agreement. The following provisions govern the application of Article andconducted in accordance with the provisions of this Agreement. The following provisions govern the application of Article VI of GATT 1994 in so far asaction is taken under anti-dumpg legislation or regulations.Article ArticleDetermination of Dumping2.1 For the purpose of this Agreement, a product is to be considered as being dumped, i.e. introduced into the commerce of another country at less than its normal value, if the export price of the product exportedfrom one country to another is less than the comparable price, in the ordinary course of trade, for the like product when destined for consumption in the exporting country.2.2 When there are no sales of the like product in the ordinary course of trade in the domestic market of the exporting country or when, because of theparticular market situation or the low volume of the sales in the domestic market of the exporting country, such sales do not permit a proper comparison, the margin of dumping shall be determined by comparison with a comparable price ofthe like product when exported to an appropriate third country, provided that this price is representative, or with the cost of production in the country of origin plus a reasonable amount for administrative, selling and general costs and for profits.2.2.1 Sales of the like product in the domestic market of the exporting country or sales to a third country at prices below per unit (fixed and variable) costs of production plus administrative, selling and general costs may be treated as not being in the ordinary course of trade by reason of price and may be disregarded in determining normal value only if the authorities determinethat such sales are made within an extended period of time in substantial quantities and are at prices which do not provide for the recovery of all costswithin a reasonable period of time. If prices which are below perunit costs at the time of sale are above weighted average per unit costs for the period of investigation, such prices shall be considered to provide for recovery ofcosts within a reasonable period of time.2.2.1.1 For the purpose of paragraph 2.2.1.1 For the purpose of paragraph2, costs shall normally be calculated on the basis of records keptby the exporter or oducer under investigation, provided that such records are in accordance withthe generally accepted accounting principles of the exportingcountry and reasonably reflect the costs associated with the production and sale of the product under consideration. Authorities shall consider all available evidenceon the proper allocation of costs, including that which is made available by the exporter or producer in the course of the investigation provided that such allocations have been historically utilized by the exporter or producer, in particular in relation to establishing appropriate amortization and depreciation periods and allowances for capital expenditures and other development costs. Unless already reflected in the cost allocations under this sub-paragraph, costs shall be adjusted appropriately for those non-recurringitems of cost which benefit future and/or current production, or for circumstances in which costs during the period of investigation are affected by start-up operations.2.2.2 For the purpose of paragraph 2, the amounts for administrative, selling and general costs and for profits shall be based on actual data pertaining to production and sales in the ordinary course of trade ofthe like product by the exporter or producer under investigation. When such amountscannot be determined on this basis, the amounts may be determined on the basis of:(i) the actual amounts incurred and realized by the exporter or producer in question in respect of production and sales in the domestic market of thecountry of origin of the same general category of products;(ii) the weighted average of the actual amounts incurred andrealized by other exporters or producers subject to investigation in respect of production and sales of the like product in the domestic market of the country of origin;(iii) any other reasonable method, provided that the amount forprofit so established shall not exceed the profit normally realized by other exporters or producers on sales of products of the same general category in the domesticmarket of the country of origin.2.3 In cases where there is no export price or where it appears to the authorities concerned that the export price is unreliable because of association or a compensatory arrangement between the exporter and the importer or a third party, the export price may be constructed on the basis of the price at which the imported products are first resold to an independent buyer, or if the products are not resold to an independent buyer, or not resold in the conditionas imported, on such reasonable basis as the authorities may determine.2.4 A fair comparison shall be made between the export price and the normal value. This comparison shall be made at the same level of trade, normally at the ex-factory level, and in respect of sales made at as nearly as possible the same time. Due allowance shall be made in each case, on its merits, fordifferences which affect price comparability, including differences in conditions and terms of sale, taxation, levels of trade, quantities, physical characteristics, and any other differences which are also demonstrated to affectprice comparability. In the cases referred to in paragraph 3, allowances forcosts, including duties and taxes, incurred between impoation and resale, and for profits accruing, should also be made. If in these cases price comparability has been affected, the authorities shall establish the normal value at a levelof trade equivalent to the level of trade of the constructed export price, or shall make due allowance as warranted under this paragraph. The authorities shall indicate to the parties in question what information is necessary to ensurea fair comparison and shall not impose an unreasonable burden of proof on those parties.2.4.1 When the comparison under paragraph 4 requires a conversion of currencies, such conversion should be made using the rate of exchange on the date of sale, provided that when a sale of foreign currency on forward markets is directly linked to the export sale involved, the rate of exchange in theforward sale shall be used. Fluctuations in exchange rates shall be ignored and in an investigation the authorities shall allow exporters at least 60 ort saleinvolved, the rate of exchange in the forward sale shall be used. Fluctuationsin exchange rates shall be ignored and in an investigation the authorities shall allow exporters at least 60 days to have adjustedtheir export prices to reflect stained movements in exchange rates during the period of investigation.2.4.2 Subject to the provisions governing fair comparison in paragraph2.4.2 Subject to the provisions governing fair comparison in paragraph 4, theexistence of margins of dumping during the investigation phase shall normally be established on the basisf a comparison of a weighted average normal value with a weighted average of prices of all comparable export transactions or by a comparison of normal value and export prices on a transaction-to-transactionbasis. A normal value established on a weighted average basis may be comparedto prices of individual export transactions if the authorities find a patternof export prices which differ significantly among different purchasers, regions or time periods, and if an explanation is provided as to why such differencescannot be taken into account appropriately by the use of a weighted average-to-weighted average or transaction-to-transaction comparison.2.5 In the case where products are not imported directly from the country of origin but are exported to the importing Member from an intermediate country, the price at which the products are sold from the country of export to the importing Member shall normally be compared with the comparable price in the country of export. However, comparison may be made with the price in the countryof origin, if, for example, the products are merely transshipped through the country of export, or such products are not produced in the country of export, or there is no comparable price for them in the country of export.2.6 Throughout this Agreement the term "like product" ("produit similaire") shall be interpreted to mean a product which is identical, i.e. alike in all respects to the product under consideration, or in the absence of such a product, another product which, although not alike in all respects, has characteristics closely resembling those of the product under consideration.2.7 This Article is without prejudice to the second Supplementary Provision to paragraph 2.7 This Article is without prejudice to the second SupplementaryProvision to paragraph 1 of Article VI in Annex I to GATT 199Article ArticleDetermination of Injury3.1 A determination of injury for purposes of Article VI of GATT 1994shall be based on positive evidence and involve an objective examination ofbot(a) the volume of the dumped imports and the effect of the dumped imports on prices in the domestic market for like products, and (b) the consequentimpact of these imports on domestic producers of such products.3.2 With regard to the volume of the dumped imports, theinvestigating authorities shall consider whether there has been a significant increase in dumped imports, either in absolute terms orrelative to production or consumption in the importing Member. With regard to the effect of the dumpedimports on prices, the investigating authorities shall consider whether there has been a significant price undercutting by the dumped imports as compared with the price of a like product of the importing Member, or whether the effect ofsuch imports is otherwise to depress prices to a significant degree or prevent price increases, which otherwise would have occurred, to a significant degree. No one or several of these factors can necessarily give decisive guidance.3.3 Where imports of a product from more than one country are simultaneously subject to anti-dumping investigations, the investigating authorities may cumulatively assess the effects of such imports only if they determine that (a) the margin of dumping established in relation to the imports from each countryis more than de minimis as defined in paragraph 8 Article 5 and the volumeof imports from each country is not negligible an(b) a cumulative assessment of the effects of the imports is appropriate in light of the conditions of competition between the imported products and the conditions of competitionbetween the imported products and the like domestic product.3.4 The examination of the impact of the dumped imports on the domestic industry concerned shall include an evaluation of all relevanteconomic factors and indices having a bearing on the state of the industry, including actual and potential decline in sales, profits, output, market share, productivity, return on investments, orutilization of capacity; factors affecting domestic prices; the magnitude of the margin of dumping; actual and potential negative effectson cash flow, inventories, employment, wages, growth, ability to raise capital or investments. This list is not exhaustive, nor can one or several of thesefactors necessarily give decisive guidance.3.5 It must be demonstrated that the dumped imports are, through the effects of dumping, as set forth in paragraphs 2 and 4, causing injury within themeaning of this Agreement. The demonstration of a causalrelationship between the dumped imports and the injury to the domestic industry shall be based onan examination of all relevant evidence before the authorities. The authorities shall also examine any known factors other than the dumped imports which at thesame time are injuring the domestic industry, and the injuries caused by these other factors must not be attributed to the dumped imports. Factors which may be relevant in this respect include, inter inter al, the volume and pricesof imports not sold at dumping prices, contraction in demand or changes in the patterns of consumption, trade-restrictive practices of and competition between the foreign and domestic producers, developments in technology and the exportperformance and productivity of the domestic industry.3.6 The effect of the dumped imports shall be assessed in relationto the domestic production of the like product when available data permit the separate identification of that production on the basis of such criteria as the productionprocess, producers' sales and profits. If such separateidentification of that production is not possible, the effects of the dumped imports shall be assessed by the examination of the production of the narrowest group or range of products,which includes the like product, for which the necessary information can be provided.3.7 A determination of a threat of material injury shall be based on facts and not merely on allegation, conjecture or remote possibility. The change in circumstances which would create a situation in which the dumping would cause injury must be clearly foreseen and imminent. In making a determinationregarding the existence of a threat of material injury, the authorities should consider, inter inter al, such factors as:(i) a significant rate of increase of dumped imports into the domestic market indicating the likelihood of substantially increased importation;(ii) sufficient freely disposable, or an imminent, substantial increase in, capacity of the exporter indicating the likelihood of substantially increased dumped exports to the importing Member's market, taking into accountthe availability of other export markets to absorb any additional exports;(iii) whether imports are entering at prices that will have a significant depressing or suppressing effect on domestic prices, and would likely increasedemand for further imports; and(iv) inventories of the product being investigated.No one of these factors by itself can necessarily give decisive guidance but the totality of the factors considered must lead to the conclusion that further dumped exports are imminent and that, unless protective action is taken, material injury would occur.3.8 With respect to cases where injury is threatened by dumped imports, the application of anti-dumping measures shall be considered and decided with special care.Article ArticleDefinition of Domestic Industry4.1 For the purposes of this Agreement, the term "domestic industry" shall be interpreted as referring to the domestic producers as a wholeof the like products or to those of them whose collective output of the products constitutes a major proportion of the total domestic production of those products, except that:(i) when producers are related to the exporters or importers or are themselves importers of the allegedly dumped product, the term "domestic industry" may be interpreted as referring to the rest of the producers;(ii) in exceptional circumstances the territory of a Member may, for the production in question, be divided into two or more competitive markets and the producers within each market may be regarded as a separate industry if (a)the producers within such market sell all or almost all of their production of the product in question in that market, and (b) (bthe demand in that marketis not to any substantial degree supplied by producers of theproduct in question located elsewhere in the territory. In such circumstances, injury may be found to exist even where a major portionof the total domestic industry is not injured, provided there is a concentration of dumped imports into such an isolated market and provided further that the dumped imports are causing injury tothe producers of all or almost all of the production within such market.4.2 When the domestic industry has been interpreted as referring to the producers in a certain area, i.e. a market as defined in paragraph s definedin paragraph 1(ii), anti-dumping duties shall be levi only on the products in question consigned for final consumption to that area. When the constitutional law of the importing Member does not permit the levying of anti-dumping dutieson such a basis, the importing Member may levy the anti-dumping duties withoutlimitation only if (a) the exporters shall have been given an opportunity tocease exporting at dumped prices to the area concerned or otherwise give assurances pursuant to Article the exporters shall have been given anopportunity to cease exporting at dumped prices to the area concerned or otherwise give assurances pursuant to Articl8 and adequate assurances in this regard have not been promptly given, and (b) such duties cannot be levied onlyon products of specific producers which supply the area in question.4.3 Where two or more countries have reached under the provisions ofparagraph graph 8(a) of Article XXIV of GATT 1994 such a level of integration that they have the characteristics of a single, unified market, the industry in the entire area of integration shall be taken to be the domestic industry referred to in paragraph4.4 The provisions of paragraph The provisions of paragraph 6 of Article3 shall be applicable to this ArticlArticle 5Initiation and Subsequent Investigation. 5.1 Except as provided for in paragraph 6, an investigation to determinethe existence, degree and effect of any alleged dumping shall be initiated upona written application by or on behalf of the domestic industry.5.2 An application under paragraph 1 shall include evidence o(a) dumping,(b) injury within the meaning of Article injury within the meaningof ArticleVI of GATT 1994 as interpreted by this Agrment and (c) a causal link betweenthe dumped imports and the alleged injury. Simple assertion, unsubstantiated by relevant evidence, cannot be considered sufficient to meet the requirementsof this paragraph. The application shall contain such information as is reasonably available to the applicant on the following:(i) the identity of the applicant and a description of the volume and value of the domestic production of the like product by the applicant. Where a written application is made on behalf of the domesticindustry, the application shall identify the industry on behalf of which the application is made by a list of all known domestic producers of the like product (or associations of domestic producers of the like product) and, to the extent possible, a description of the volume and value of domestic production of the like product accounted forby such producers;(ii) a complete description of the allegedly dumped product, the names of the country or countries of origin or export in question, the identity of each known exporter or foreign producer and a list of known persons importing theproduct in question;(iii) information on prices at which the product in question is sold when destined for consumption in the domestic markets of the country or countries of origin or export (or, where appropriate, information on the prices at whichthe product is sold from the country or countries of origin orexport to a third country or countries, or on the constructed value of the product) and information on export prices or, where appropriate, on the prices at which the product isfirst resold to an independent buyer in the territory of the importing Member;(iv) information on the evolution of the volume of the allegedly dumped imports, the effect of these imports on prices of the like product in the domestic market and the consequent impact of the importson the domestic industry, as demonstrated by relevant factors and indices having a bearing on the state of the domestic industry, such as those listed in paragraphs listed in paragraphs2 and 4 of Article5.3 The authorities shall examine the accuracy and adequacy of the evidence provided in the application to determine whether there is sufficient evidence to justify the initiation of an investigation.5.4 An investigation shall not be initiated pursuant to paragraph 1 unlessthe authorities have determined, on the basis of an examination of the degreeof support for, or opposition to, the application express by domestic producers of the like product, The application shall be considered to have been made "byor on behalf of the domestic industry" if it is supported by those domestic producers whose collective output constitutes more than 50 per cent of thetotal production of the like product produced by that portion of the domestic industry expressing either support for or opposition to the application. However, no investigation shall be initiated when domestic producers expresssupporting the application account for less than 25 percent of total production of the like product produced by the domestic industry.5.5 The authorities shall avoid, unless a decision has been made to initiate an investigation, any publicizing of the application for the initiation of an investigation. However, after receipt of a properly documented application and before proceeding to initiate an investigation, the authorities shall notify the government of the exporting Member concerned.5.6 in special circumstances, the authorities concerned decide to initiate an investigation without having received a written application by or on behalf of a domestic industry for the initiation of such investigation, they shall proceed only if they have sufficient evidence of dumping, injury and a causal link, as described in paragraph nt evidence of dumping, injury and a causallink, as described in paragraph 2, to justify the initiation of an investigatio5.7 The evidence of both dumping and injury shall be consideredsimultaneously (a) in the decision whether or not to initiate an investigation, and (b) thereafter, during the course of the investigation, starting on a date not later than the earliest date on which in accordance with the provisions ofthis Agreement provisional measures may be applied.5.8 An application under paragraph raph 1 shall be rejected and aninvestigation shall be terminated promptly as soon as theauthorities concerned are satisfied that there is not sufficient evidence of either dumping or ofinjury to justify proceeding with the case. There shall be immedie termination in cases where the authorities determine that the margin of dumping is de deminim, or that the volume of dumped imports, actual or potential, or the injury,is negligible. The margin of dumping shall be considered to be de de minimif this margin is less than 2 per cent, expressed as a percentage of the export price. The volume of dumped imports shall normally be regarded as negligibleif the volume of dumped imports from a particular country is found to account for less than 3 per cent of ports of the like product in the importing Member, unless countries which individually account for less than 3 orts of the likeproduct in the importing Member, unless countries which individually account for less than 3 per cent of the imports of the like product in the importing Member collectively account for more than 7 per cent of imports of the likeprodt in the importing Member.5.9 An anti-dumping proceeding shall not hinder the procedures of customs clearance.5.10 Investigations shall, except in special circumstances, be concluded within one year, and in no case more than 18 months, after their initiation.Article 6Evidence6.1 All interested parties in an anti-dumping investigation shall be givennotice of the information which the authorities require and ample opportunity to present in writing all evidence which they consider relevant in respect of the investigation in question.6.1.1 Exporters or foreign producers receiving questionnaires usedin an anti-dumping investigation shall be given at least 30 days for reply. Due consideration should be given to any request for an extension of the 30-dayperiod and, upon cause shown, such an extension should be granted whenever practicable.6.1.2 Subject to the requirement to protect confidential information, evidence presented in writing by one interested party shall be made available promptly to other interested parties participating in the investigation.6.1.3 As soon as an investigation has been initiated, theauthorities shall provide the full text of the written application received under paragraph 6.1.3As soon as an investigation has been initiated, the authoritiesshall providethe full text of the written application received under paragraph 1of Article5 to the known exporte and to the authorities of the exporting Member and shall make it available, upon request, to other interested parties involved. Due regard shall be paid to the requirement for the protection of confidential information, as provided for in paragraph ved. Due regard shall be paid to therequirement for the protection of confidential information, as provided for in paragraph6.2 Throughout the anti-dumping investigation all interested parties shall have a full opportunity for the defence of their interests. Tothis end, the authorities shall, on request, provide opportunities forall interested parties to meet those parties with adverse interests, so that opposing views may bepresented and rebuttal arguments offered. Provision of such opportunities must take account of the need to preserve confidentiality and of the convenience to the parties. There shall be no obligation on any party to attend a meeting, andfailure to do so shall not be prejudicial to that party's case. Interestedparties shall also have the right, on justification, to presentother information orally.6.3 Oral information provided under paragraph 6.3 Oral informationprovided under paragraph 2 shall beaken into account by theauthorities only in so far as it is subsequently reproduced in writingand made available to other interested parties, as provided for in subparagraph aken into account by theauthorities only in so far as it is subsequently reproduced inwriting and made available to other interested parties, as provided for in subparagraph 1.6.4 The authorities shall whenever practicable provide timely opportunities for all interested parties to see all information that is relevant to thepresentation of their cases, that is not confidential as defined in paragraphes for all interested parties to see all information that isrelevant to the presentation of their cases, that is not confidential as defined in paragraph5, and that is used by the authorities in an anti-dumping investigation, andto prepare presentatis on the basis of this information.6.5 Any information which is by nature confidential (for example, because its disclosure would be of significant competitive advantage to a competitoror because its disclosure would have a significantly adverse effect upon a person supplying the information or upon a person from whom that person acquired the information), or which is provided on a confidential basis by parties to an。

4反倾销措施协议PPT课件

▪ 申请必须以书面形式提出，内容应包括倾销、损害及因果关系的证据，以及其他相关材料。
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step2.审查、立案与调查
▪ 审查反倾销申请的国内产业资格、代表性、申请材料的准确性和充分性。缺乏证据的简单判断不能满足立案的要求。
☺如何确认申请者的产业代表性？
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▪ 为保证申请人的产业代表性，《反倾销协议》除了规定对国内产业的一般理解外，还规定了进口方主管机构应对产业的代表性进行审核。
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举例
▪ 如果一家外国出口商出口到中国的板材价格为1200美元/吨（发票价），假设其间的环节包括：保险费、运费、港口费等200美元；我们了解到这家出口商在其国内的板材售价为1100美元/吨（发票价），假设其间的环节包括运费50美元/吨。
▪ 该出口商存在倾销行为吗？如果存在，倾销幅度是多大？
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出口价格的确定
▪ 《反倾销协议》把出口价格界定为：被指控倾销产品首次转售给某一独立买主的价格，若无此类转售，则由进口方政府在合理基础上加以推定。
▪ 出口价格的推定，依据《海关估价协议》给出的参考方法进行。
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正常价值的确认
《反倾销协议》给出了确定正常价值的三种方法：
▪ 第一，采用被指控产品或与其相同或相似产品在调查期间在出口方市场上已付或约定应付的价格。
▪ 限制：
进口方主管机构应自反倾销案件正式立案调查之日起60天后，才能采取临时反倾销措施。这种措施的实施时间应尽可能短，一般情况下不得超过4个月，特定情况下可以延长到6个月至9个月。
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2.最终反倾销措施
含义：在全部调查结束后，如果有充分的证据证明被调查的产品存在倾销，国内生产同类产品的产业受到损害，且倾销与损害之间有因果关系，则进口方主管机构可以采取最终反倾销措施。

比较反倾销、反补贴、337条款与301条款的区别系

7.比较反倾销、反补贴、337条款与301条款的区别反倾销、反补贴是WTO规则下的三大贸易救济措施中的两大措施，他们是在国际贸易领域，WTO成员通常采取的贸易制裁方式。

337条款和301条款均是美国的制裁条款。

反倾销是指：对被认定为倾销的产品在对其他正常税收之外征收反倾销税，反倾销税的税额为该产品正常价值超过出口价格（或推定价格）的差额。

反补贴是指：出口商品在生产、运输、买卖的过程中接受的来自政府或同业协会的直接或间接的补助、奖金，如果对其他成员造成负面影响，可采取两种措施予以补救：一是向世界贸易组织争端解决机构提出援用争端解决程序的要求；二是启动征收反补贴税调查程序，并在经过了规定的程序后征收反补贴税。

337条款：因其最早见于《1930年美国关税法》第337条而得名，主要是用来反对进口贸易中的不公平竞争行为，特别是保护美国知识产权人的权益不受涉嫌侵权进口产品的侵害。

3O1报复条款：始设于1974年贸易法中，该条款授权总统决定外国是否实施不正当（unjustifiable），不合理（unreasonable），或歧视性（discriminatory）之措施以使美国商业（United States commerce）受到限制。

倘若总统认定外国确有上述情事之一者，得暂停或终止美国对该国货物依照贸易协定暂停之减让，而对其课以额外关税或采取其他进口限制。

其区别主要有：1.规则体系不同：前两者是wto规则下的贸易救济措施，后两者是美国制裁措施。

2.保护对象和报复对象不同。

反倾销和反补贴针对的产品面较广，保护本国产业。

337条款重点对美国的知识产权提供有效保护。

从“337条款”实践来看，绝大多数案件都涉及知识产权而非一般的不公平贸易行为。

3O1条款保护之客体保护范围较337条款较广，主要有：(1)产业（制造业及农业）；未列举，但从历年之案例来看，有稻米、丝产品、皮革产品、雪茄、烟产品、钢铁及半导体等产品。

(2)服务业；只要属于贸易的标的即可，而不问其服务的发生是否与特定货物贸易有关。

国际反倾销法第二章

• （5）第6条没有规定正常价值与出口价格进行比较的适当日期。这对于在不同日期进行的国内与出口销售格外重要。 • （6）对于影响价格可比性因素的“适当的 6 扣除”，尽管第6条并没有封顶，但也没有规定详细的扣除项目和幅度。扣除哪些项目，扣除的幅度是多少，完全由调查部门自行决定。
• （二）专家组的报告 • 1、作为原则，专家组认为，正常价值和出口价格应该建立在可比的水平上。确定出口价格的目的应该是“达到一种真正能与出口国的国内价格进行比较的价格”。 • 2、专家组首次把出口价格定义为同类产品离开出口国的价格，而不是进入进口国的价格。
• 3、通过给方法二和方法三的适用设定条件，两个《反倾销协议》为这两种方法的适用提供了指导规则。 • 当向第三国的出口价格作为正常价值的基础时，两个《反倾销协议》要求，这种价格“应该是具有代表性的价格”。如果采用生产成本加利润作为正常价值，“附加的利润不应超过同类产品在原产国国内市场销售正常情况下实现的利润” 。
• 在欧共体确定正常价值的实践中，5%规则适用两次。第一次适用检测的是出口企业在本国销售的总量是否达到了出口量的5%。在反倾销程序涉及的产品具有不同类型的情况下，欧共体调查部门第二次适用5%规则，检测每一类型的产品在本国的销售量是否达到了同类型出口产品量的5%。
• 2、同类产品规则 • 在确定倾销的过程中，进口国调查部门适用同类产品规则的目的是确定向进口国市场出口产品的外国出口企业是否在本国市场也出售与在进口国市场销售的同类产品。一个企业可能生产若干种类的产品，既用于出口销售，也在本国市场销售。如果出口产品与在本国市场销售的产品不是同类，即使二者价格存在着差异，也不具有可比性。
• 4、两个《反倾销协议》广泛详细地规定了适用GATT1947第6条中“适当扣除”条款的规则。 • 5、两个《反倾销协议》为“同类产品”规定了定义。同类产品被解释为： • “一致的产品，即与考虑中的产品在所有方面都相同，或者，这种产品不存在的情况下，另一种产品，虽然不是在所有方面都相同，但却具有与考虑中产品特性极其相似的特性。”

反倾销作为世界贸易组织认定和许可的贸易保护措施

第一章绪论反倾销作为世界贸易组织认定和许可的贸易保护措施，是国际通行的保护国内产业的手段，也是用来对付不公平竞争的必要工具。

它具有形式合法、容易实施、能够有效保护国内产业且不容易招致报复的特点。

近年来，我国产品在国际市场上屡屡遭到反倾销投诉，认清国外对我国产品反倾销指控的原因，并采取相应对策，已成为我国企业进一步拓宽国际市场的当务之急。

1.1基本概念在深入讨论反倾销问题之前，我们首先来系统地认识一下什么是倾销和反倾销以及它们的发展历史。

这样更有助于我们认识反倾销作为当今世界重要的贸易保护手段而普遍存在的理论基础和现实意义。

1.1.1什么是倾销（1）字典解释：倾销（Dumping），根据词典解释，它的意思是抛弃自己不需要的东西。

（2）经济学解释：首次将倾销概念引入经济学领域的，是著名经济学家英国人亚当·斯密(Adam Smith)1。

1776年，其在名著《国富论》2中论述当时各国官方对出口贸易进行奖励时用了“倾销”一词。

但是，此书提及的“倾销”有别于现代意义上的倾销，其含义更接近于国际贸易法中的“补贴”。

到了1884年，英国议会在一次关税问题辩论时使用了“倾销”一词。

此时所涉及的倾销一词才具有“低价抛售商品”的意思。

但是，当时倾销还不能专门理解为一种国际贸易领域的竞争手段，而是一种普通意义上的价格战略。

从词性角度而言，仅属于中性词，不带有褒贬之义。

到1922年，国际联盟也对倾销问题进行探讨，在一份备忘录中首次对倾销下了如下定义：如果出口产品的销售价格低于出口国国内市场价格或低于生产成本即构成倾销。

这一官方的定义对“倾销”一词的发展有着意义深远的影响。

我们看到，该词的含义从那时起已具有现代意义的影子。

1923年，在美国国际贸易学家雅各布·瓦伊纳(Jacob Viner)出版的名著《倾销----国际贸易中的一个问题》中，把倾销定义为：在不同国家市场上实施价格歧视。

这种将倾销定义为“价格歧视”的学说被当时的理论界普遍接受。

WTO规则--新版(13)

上提供优于内销企业的减免或其它优惠；
（8）在按生产流程分级征收的间接税上，给予出口企业
的减免或其它优惠高于内销企业。
（9）对出口企业所使用的进口原材料实行的进口税退还超过进口税实际征收额；
（10）政府机构以比内销生产更为优惠的条件向出口生产企业提供信贷担保或保险；（11）政府机构为出口企业提供的信贷利率低于市场实际利率；（12）出口补贴的其它公共开支。
案例：加拿大诉巴西飞机出口补贴
五、协议的影响
1、依据协议调整我国的补贴政策，不符合
WTO规范的补贴将逐步取消。
2、制定我国的《反补贴法》合法保护本国企
业。
第十二节《保障措施协议》 Agreement on Safeguards，SA
一、什么是保障措施
保障措施是世界贸易组织规则允许的保护国内产业的一种行政措施，是各成员方政府依法维护本国产业利益的重要手段。保障措施的目的是允许任何一个成员方在特定紧急情况下，为保障本国经济利益解除关贸总协定规定的
（2）确定产业损害存在的标准。（3）损害的累计评估。微量忽略原则
3、倾销与损害的因果关系。
(二)、反倾销程序规则 1、申请（申请人资格、书面申请）
2、立案和公告
3、反倾销调查（问卷调查、听证会、实地核查）调查的终止 4、初裁临时反倾销措施。价格承诺。 5、终裁反倾销措施。
反倾销锐的征收反倾销的征收额可以小于或等于倾销幅度，但不得大于倾销幅。反倾销超出合理范围成为贸易保护措施。
第十节《反倾销协议》 Agreement on Implementation of Article VI（Anti-Dumping），ADA
正式名称为《关于执行1994年关税与贸易总协定第6条的协议》

WTO必考简答题

一、反倾销规则秩序，对倾销行为进行限制和调整的法律规范的总称。

反倾销协议约束了成员方的反倾销行为，以保证采取反倾销措施的规范性。

2. ：倾销&损害①正常价值的确定(通过国内市场销售价格、向第三国出口价格和结构价格，结构价是非市场经济国家适用，中国用的是结构价格)②出口价格的确定(通过实际出口价格、进口产品首次转手给独立买方的价格和推定价格---强制按照顺序)③价格比较④同类产品①损害的确定；②损害的累积评估；③国内产业3. 申请---立案---调查---初裁---终裁 (反倾销税 ) ---复审---审查4. 美国和欧盟在反倾销实践中对呗其认定为非市场经济国家的出口产品正常价值的确定通常采用替代国价格、结构价格或是同类产品在进口方的销售价格等做法。

美欧在实践中也承认有一些非市场经济国家出口企业的出口活动不受政府控制，可以根据他们各自产品的倾销幅度征收单独的反倾销税率二、补贴与反补贴措施规则1 )禁止性补贴 --- (红灯补贴)比如出口补贴和进口替代性补贴2 )可诉补贴 ---- (黄灯补贴)指那些不是疑虑被禁止但又不能自动免于受质疑的补贴，即使用相关允许的补贴对但是对他国造成国内产业严重损害、利益的严重丧失或减损3 )不可诉补贴 ---- (绿灯补贴)免于受责(绿箱补贴就是不可诉补贴)红灯和黄灯补贴的救济措施可以通过世贸组织争端解决机制或者通过国内反补贴法律程序：1)通过 WTO ：磋商程序、专家组程序、上诉程序2) 国内：反补贴调查、补贴，损害与国内产业的界定、反补贴措施绿灯补贴的救济措施：通知及仲裁程序、争端解决机制三、保障措施1 )某产品进口激增2) 进口激增是由于不可预见的情况和成员方履行世贸组织义务的结果3 )进口产品对国内产业造成严重损害或严重威胁指有关国家根据双边达成的非正式协定，实施与世界贸易组织规则不符的进口限制措施。

因为这些协议的透明度低，被称为灰色区域措施。

WTO的基本法律架构

WTO基本法律框架《1994年关贸总协定》的主要容《1994年关税与贸易总协定》是世界贸易组织法律框架的重要组成部分，也是货物贸易领域其他协议的原则与法律基础。

它由四部分组成：(1)《1947年关税与贸易总协定》的各项条款，不包括《临时使用议定书》；(2)世界贸易组织成立前的关税减让议定书，各缔约方的加入议定书，根据《1947年关税与贸易总协定》所给予的且仍然有效的豁免，以及缔约方全体作出的其他决定；(3)1994年关贸总协定作出的谅解；(4)《1994年关贸总协定马拉喀什议定书》。

《农业协议》的主要容《农业协议》包括适用的产品围，农产品贸易规则，给予发展中成员特殊和差别待遇，以及在世界贸易组织中建立农业委员会等容。

有关农产品贸易的规则，主要约束农产品市场准入、国支持和出口补贴及实施卫生与植物卫生等方面。

市场准入方面：取消非关税措施，将其关税化，再削减（发达国家95年起的6年削减36%，发展中国家10年削减24%），并制定了保证一定程度进口量的“最低市场准入机会”规则。

国支持方面：“绿箱”措施，指由政府提供的、其费用不转嫁给消费者，且对生产者不具有价格支持作用的政府服务计划，可免于削减义务；“黄箱”措施，指政府对农产品的直接价格干预和补贴，须削减（发达国家6年削减综合支持量20%，发展中国家10年削减13%），协议规定了微量允许，即综合量不超过该产品生产总值或农业生产总值的5%（发展中国家为10%），不须削减；“蓝箱”措施，指按面积与产量给予的补贴，成员方无须削减。

出口补贴方面，不仅要削减用于补贴的资金金额（发达国家6年削减36%，发展中国家10年削减24%），而且还要削减接受出口补贴的产品数量（发达国家6年削减21%，发展中国家10年削减21%）。

卫生与植物卫生方面，应遵循世贸组织有关规定。

《纺织品和服装贸易协议》的主要容《纺织品和服装贸易协议》主要包括适用产品围，分阶段取消配额限制，过渡性保障措施，非法转口处理，设立纺织品监督机构等。

反倾销法规则

反倾销法规则“倾销”（DUNMPING）一词，实际上是经济学中的概念。

是指出口商在海外市场的波动导致了该市场上其他竞争者的销售困难，并以掠夺性的价格消灭进口国的竞争对手，进而图谋垄断进口国市场。

作为法律上的名词，《布莱克法律辞典》（Black''''sLawDictionary）是这样定义倾销的：倾销是以低于国内市场的价格在海外市场大量销售商品的行为。

经济学家根据维纳（VINER）的理论将倾销分成三类：偶然性倾销、掠夺性倾销和连续性倾销。

对于第一种，不必介意。

对于第二种，各国是一致反对。

因为这是超贸易保护的工具，具有侵略性，自然不“公平”，应予惩罚。

对于第三种持续性的倾销，有人认为该倾销行为对进口国工业的损害就只有一次，即受到冲击抑或被迫转产，而进口国消费者从中却可以长期获利，此消彼长，无须抵制。

有一部分专家却认为，在现代国际贸易中，由于各国都采取以出口带动经济发展的战略，使其生产能力大大超过了国内需求。

过剩的生产能力在全球各国已经比较普遍，因此生产商为了扩大或保持生产规模，在维持国内高价水平的情况下，也常常在国外市场进行长期性的倾销。

这种倾销会造成全球资源分配和使用上的误导，从而给进口国产业造成损害。

据反倾销专家帕米特（PALMETER）统计，1980―1986 年，澳大利亚、加拿大、欧共体和美国所发起的767 起反倾销诉讼案中，没有一起是掠夺性倾销，而绝大部分为长期或连续性倾销。

①因此，我们下面讨论的反倾销指的就是反长期或连续性倾销。

一、反倾销的立法概述（一）WTO 反倾销规则的形成十九世纪末，二十世纪初，一些欧洲国家就制订了反倾销协议。

当时以英国、荷兰为首的欧洲国家不满来自其他国家的食糖倾销，于1920 年签定了关于反倾销的国际条约。

并先后有10 个欧洲国家加入，首开反倾销先河。

美国反倾销法是世界上较为完备的反倾销法。

以该法为蓝本，产生了1948 年《关税和贸易总协定》第六条“反倾销和反补贴税”的规定，把各国反倾销法纳入国际统一化轨道，为各国制订反倾销法设立了基本框架。

WTO与农产品协议、反倾销协议和补贴与反补贴协议

WTO与农产品协议、反倾销协议和补贴与反补贴协议黄向红
【期刊名称】《国际商务财会》
【年(卷),期】2001(000)004
【摘要】@@ 一、农产品协议rnWTO农产品贸易规则分为下面3个方面:rn(一)将非关税措施关税化.即计算出拟取消的非关税措施的关税等量,将这些关税等量加到已有固定关税上.非关税措施关税化后的关税税率不得随意提高.该项规则不适用于国际收支困难的发展中国家.
【总页数】2页(P29-30)
【作者】黄向红
【作者单位】中国矿业大学
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】F7
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