词汇名词解释

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词汇名词解释

词汇名词解释1. 民主（Democracy）：一种政治体制，由人民通过参与选举和政治决策来推选和监督政府的形式。

民主制度通常强调政府应代表人民的意愿，并保障人民的基本权利和自由。

2. 污染（Pollution）：指有害物质的释放进入环境，对空气、水、土壤和生物等造成破坏的过程。

主要污染源包括工业废弃物、汽车尾气、农业化学品和废水等。

3. 科技（Technology）：指以应用科学知识和技能来解决问题或满足人类需求的方法、工具和设备。

科技的不断发展改善了人类生活水平，推动了社会的进步与发展。

4. 全球化（Globalization）：指经济、政治、文化和信息等方面的全球互联互通和相互依赖的过程。

全球化使得经济交流更加紧密，国家与国家之间的界限变得模糊，但也带来了一些挑战和不平等问题。

5. 犯罪（Crime）：指违反法律规定的行为或活动。

犯罪行为可以包括盗窃、抢劫、谋杀、诈骗和贩毒等。

为了维护社会安全和公正，社会通过制定法律来对犯罪行为进行惩罚。

6. 教育（Education）：指通过学习和教导来获得知识、技能和价值观的过程。

教育不仅包括学校教育，还包括家庭教育、社会教育和职业培训等。

7. 福利（Welfare）：指社会为了保障人民基本生活需要而提供的各种福利措施。

福利包括社会保障、医疗保险、失业救济和公共住房等。

8. 媒体（Media）：指将信息传播给大众的各种媒介形式，如报纸、电视、广播和互联网等。

媒体扮演着传递新闻、观点和娱乐的角色，对公众舆论和社会文化起着重要影响。

9. 创新（Innovation）：指在现有的知识和技术基础上，通过改进和研发新的产品、服务或思维方式，创造新的价值和解决方案的过程。

创新是推动社会和经济发展的重要动力。

10. 可持续发展（Sustainable Development）：指在满足当前需求的同时，不损害做出妥善利用有限资源保护环境的能力，使未来世代也能满足其需求的发展方式。

现代汉语重要名词解释及概念要点

现代汉语重要名词解释及概念要点绪论现代汉语：现代汉语是现代汉民族所使用的语言，包括多种方言和民族共同语。

现代汉民族共同语：现代汉民族共同语是以北京语音为标准音，以北方话为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的普通话。

现代汉语的特点：语音：1.没有复辅音2.元音占优势3.音节整齐简洁4.有声调词汇：1.单音节语素多，双音节词占优势2.构词广泛运用词根复合法3.同音语素多语法：1.汉语表示语法意义的手段不大用形态，主要用语序和虚词。

2.词、短语和句子的结构原则基本一致。

3.词类和句法成分关系复杂。

4.量词和语气词十分丰富。

语音语音的物理属性：音高：音高指的是声音的高低，它决定于发音体振动的快慢。

音强：音强指的是声音的强弱，它与发音体振动幅度的大小有关。

音长：音长指的是声音的长短，它决定于发音体振动时间的久暂。

音色：音色又叫“音质”，指的是声音的特色。

音色的差别主要决定于物体振动所形成的音波波纹的曲折形式不同。

音素：音素是最小的语音单位。

它是从音色的角度划分出来的。

辅音：辅音是气流经过口腔或咽头受阻碍而形成的音素。

元音：元音是气流振动声带发出声音，经过口腔、咽头不受阻碍而形成的音素。

音节（字音？）：音节是由音素构成的语音片段，是听话时自然感到的最小的语音单位。

声母：声母位于音节前段，主要由辅音构成。

韵母：韵母位于音节的后段，由元音或元音加辅音构成。

声调：声调指的是依附在声韵结构中具有区别意义作用的音高形式。

声调是指依附在音节上的超音段成分，主要由音高构成。

声调是整个音节的音高格式。

音位：音位是一个语音系统中能够区别意义的最小语音单位。

调类：调类是声调的种类，就是把调值相同的字归纳在一起所建立的类。

调值：调值指依附在音节里高低升降的音高变化的固定格式，也就是声调的实际音值或读法。

变调：变调是指有些音节的声调在语流中连着念会起一定的变化，与单念时调值不同。

轻声：轻声是指因语流音变而形成的又轻又短的调子。

自考英语词汇学名词解释(54个全)

词汇学名词解释1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. T ake -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word- formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenationRadiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning。

现代汉语名词解释大全

现代汉语名词解释大全汉语是世界上使用人数最多的语言之一，拥有丰富的名词词汇。

本文将为读者提供一份现代汉语名词解释大全，帮助读者更好地理解和运用这些名词。

一、人物类名词1. 英雄：指在战争、事业或其他方面有杰出成就或突出贡献的人物。

2. 名人：指在某个领域内具有突出地位和威望的人物。

3. 学者：指具有高深知识和丰富学问的人。

4. 科学家：指从事科学研究并取得显著成就的人。

5. 政治家：指从事政治活动、具有一定影响力和权力的人。

6. 艺术家：指在艺术创作领域有独到才华和造诣的人。

7. 运动员：指从事体育运动，并在竞技中取得优异成绩的人。

8. 导演：指指导电影或戏剧等艺术作品创作和演出的人。

二、地理类名词1. 国家：指具有独立主权的地区或民族聚居的领土区域。

2. 省份：指在中国行政区划中，属于第一级行政区划的地方行政单位。

3. 城市：指人口聚集、社会经济发达的市区。

4. 河流：指地表上水流的主要通道，具有一定长度和宽度的自然水道。

5. 山脉：指陡峭、连绵不断的大山系统。

6. 海洋：指连接着世界各大洲的广阔水体。

7. 湖泊：指较大的淡水或咸水水域。

三、文化类名词1. 文学：指运用语言文字进行创作表达的艺术形式和作品。

2. 戏剧：指通过演员表演、舞台搭建等手段来展示故事情节和人物形象的艺术形式。

3. 诗歌：指用韵律和节奏进行创作表达的文学形式。

4. 绘画：指用线条和色彩表现事物形象的艺术形式。

5. 音乐：指用声音和乐器演奏创作的艺术形式。

6. 建筑：指设计、建造建筑物的艺术和技术。

7. 雕塑：指用各种材料创作立体艺术品的艺术形式。

四、科技类名词1. 互联网：指通过计算机网络进行信息交流和资源共享的全球性网络系统。

2. 移动设备：指便携式的电子设备，如手机、平板电脑等。

3. 人工智能：指计算机系统具有模拟和模仿人类智能的能力。

4. 生物技术：指利用生物体或其组成部分进行科学研究和应用的技术。

5. 绿色能源：指对环境友好且可再生的能源形式，如太阳能、风能等。

英语词汇学名词解释

英语词汇学名词解释英语词汇学在英语学习和教学中，词汇是非常重要的一部分。

英语词汇学研究的是英语词汇的形成、分类、演变和使用等方面的知识。

下面是一些与英语词汇学相关的名词及其解释：1. 词汇（Vocabulary）•词汇是指某一语言系统中的全部词语的总称。

•例子：英语中的词汇包括单词（words），短语（phrases），习语（idioms）等。

2. 词义（Semantics）•词义是指词语所表示的意义或概念。

•例子：单词”apple”表示一种水果。

3. 词根（Root）•词根是构成单词的核心部分，具有词义的基本含义。

•例子：词根“tele-”表示“远程”，如单词”television”表示“远距离看”。

4. 词形（Morphology）•词形是指词语形态上的变化，包括词根的变化、词缀的添加和词语形式的变化等。

•例子：单词”run”经过词形变化可以有”running”（进行时态）和”ran”（过去时态）等形式。

5. 词汇量（Vocabulary Size）•词汇量是指一个人掌握或理解的词汇数量。

•例子：一般来说，英语水平高的人词汇量会相对较大。

6. 同义词（Synonym）•同义词是指语义相近的两个或多个词语。

•例子：“happy”和”glad”都是表示“高兴”的同义词。

7. 反义词（Antonym）•反义词是指意义相对立的两个词语。

•例子：“big”和”small”是表示“大”和“小”的反义词。

8. 多词性（Polysemy）•多词性是指一个词语具有多个不同但相关的词义。

•例子：单词”bank”可以表示“银行”或“河岸”。

9. 词汇补偿（Vocabulary Compensation）•词汇补偿是指在理解语言时，通过上下文和其他线索来推测未知词汇的意义。

•例子：如果不认识单词”obscure”，可以通过上下文来猜测它的意义是“不清楚的”。

这些名词和概念在英语词汇学中起着重要的作用，了解它们可以帮助我们更好地学习和使用英语词汇。

《词汇学》名词解释总汇

《词汇学》名词解释总汇1.Conversion（转换）is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted intoa word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation.2.Neologisms（新词用法）are newly coined words or words that are given new meaning to fit new situation because of social, economic, political, cultural, scientific and technological changes in human society.3. Lexicology（词汇学）is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary ofa given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage.4.the elevation of meaning（词义的升格）refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.5.Acronyms（首字母拼音词）words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. They differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequencesof letters.6.Hyponymy(上下义关系)deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus (general lexical item)and the species(specific lexical items).7.Analogy（类比）is a process by which words or phrases are created or re-formed according to the existing patterns in the language.8.Motivation（理据）deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning.9.Metaphor（隐喻）is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison. It is a simile without like or as.10.Antonymy (反义关系)is concerned with semantic opposition. It can be defined as wordswhich are opposite in meaning.11.Suffix（后缀）: an affix attached to the end of a base (root or stem)12. synecdoche（提喻）means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material fora thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part.13. prefix（前缀）: an affix attached to the beginning of a base (root or stem)14. initialism（首字母连写词）: a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; it is pronounced letter by letter.15.morpheme(词素): the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not dividable oranalyzable into smaller forms.16.the degradation of meaning（词义的降格）: is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.17.Derivational affixes(派生词缀)Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes。

基本词汇名词解释

基本词汇名词解释
基本词汇名词解释是整个词汇系统的核心。

词汇中最主要、最稳定的部分。

以所有的根词即词汇中最原始、最单纯、最基本的词为核心，例如“人”、“天”、“地”、“树”、“山”、“水”、“火”、“一”、“二”、“三”、“好”、“坏”、“笑”、“走”等名词、代词、基数词、形容词、动词，以及所有常用的起语法作用的虚词，如“和”、“在”、“的”、“了”等等。

基本词汇名词解释是基本词的总和，基本词是指那些具有全民常用性、长期不变性的词，并且是构造新词的基础。

基本词汇名词解释是从事各种不同工作的人在日常生活中进行交际都必需使用的词汇，包括两部分内容，一部分是表示人类最基本的生活所必需的概念，另一部分是起语法作用的虚词。

基本词汇名词解释是使用最普遍的词汇，也是在日常生活领域中最常用的词汇。

基本词汇名词解释和语法构造是语言的基础。

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词汇的名词解释

词汇的名词解释
词汇可以指某个语言中的所有词，也可以指某个范围内的词语，如医学、法律、计算机等领域的词汇。

词汇是语言的基本构成要素，是人们进行交流和表达思想的基础。

在语言学中，词汇的定义有不同的理论观点，但通常将词汇定义为“意义和形式相结合的基本语言单位”。

词汇的形式包括音、字母、词素等。

在不同的语言中，词汇的形式有所不同。

例如，汉语的词汇由汉字组成，英语的词汇由字母组成。

词汇的意义是词汇的重要属性，它是指词汇所代表的事物、概念或关系。

例如，“狗”这个词汇所代表的是一种动物。

在语言学中，词汇的意义也被称为词汇的语义。

词汇是语言中最为基础的单位之一，对语言的学习和使用有着重要的影响。

词汇量的大小直接影响着人们的交流能力和表达能力。

因此，词汇的学习和掌握对于语言学习者来说至关重要。

在语言教学中，词汇的教学也是非常重要的一个环节。

常用英语单词的名词解释

常用英语单词的名词解释英语作为一门全球通用的语言，无论是在日常生活中还是在国际交流中都扮演着重要的角色。

在学习英语过程中，了解和掌握常用单词的名词解释是非常重要的。

下面将介绍一些常见英语单词的解释，帮助读者更好地理解和应用这些词汇。

1. Love（爱）：这是一种强烈的情感，是人类最基本的情绪之一。

爱可以用于表达对家人、朋友和伴侣的深情，也可以用于描述对事物或活动的喜爱程度。

2. Friendship（友谊）：这是两个人之间的关系，建立在互相理解、互相尊重和互相支持的基础上。

朋友之间通常会分享快乐和悲伤，相互帮助和鼓励。

3. Happiness（幸福）：这是一种情绪状态，通常是由于达到某种个人目标、实现内心渴望或经历积极的人际关系而引发的。

幸福是每个人追求的目标，它可以来源于物质和精神层面。

4. Success（成功）：这是实现自己的目标、达到预期结果或在职业和个人生活中取得成就的状态。

成功是每个人都希望实现的，它需要勤奋、毅力和智慧。

5. Knowledge（知识）：这是通过学习和经验获取的信息和理解。

知识可以来自于书籍、学校、导师、互联网等渠道，它扩展了人们的视野，提高了个人能力。

6. Education（教育）：这是一种系统的学习和教导过程，旨在培养和发展人的认知能力、技能和价值观。

教育可以通过学校、大学、培训机构等途径进行，它是培养未来社会人才的重要手段。

7. Responsibility（责任）：这是个体或组织应该承担的义务和责任，以确保他人的利益和社会的稳定。

责任包括遵守法律法规、履行合同、对自己的行为负责等方面。

8. Freedom（自由）：这是一种没有限制和束缚的状态，可以自由地表达意见、选择行为方式、追求个人理想。

自由是人权的核心之一，但也需要在法律框架下进行。

9. Communication（沟通）：这是一种交流、传递信息和理解他人意图的过程。

沟通可以通过口语、书面、非语言等形式进行，它是人与人之间建立连接和理解的关键。

词汇学名词解释

词汇学名词解释词汇学是研究语言中的词汇（单词）和词汇使用的学科。

在词汇学中，有很多专业术语，下面将对其中的几个常用术语进行解释。

1. 词汇（Vocabulary）：语言中使用的词语的集合。

2. 词（Word）：语言中的最小语言单位，具有单独的意义和语音形式。

3. 词根（Root）：词中含有全词意义的核心成分，通常是一个字母组合。

例如，“tele-”是“telephone”这个词的词根。

4. 词缀（Affix）：可以加在词根前、中或后的一个或多个字母，用于改变词的含义。

例如，“-er”是“teacher”这个词的词缀。

5. 合成词（Compound Word）：将两个或更多的词或词根组合成一个新的词。

例如，“lighthouse”（灯塔）由“light”和“house”两个词合成而成。

6. 前缀（Prefix）：位于词根前面的一个或多个字母，可以改变词的含义。

例如，“re-”是“return”这个词的前缀。

7. 后缀（Suffix）：位于词根后面的一个或多个字母，可以改变词的词性或含义。

例如，“-able”是“comfortable”这个词的后缀。

8. 短语（Phrase）：由两个或多个单词组成的词组，没有主语和谓语。

例如，“in the morning”（在早晨）是一个短语。

9. 句子（Sentence）：有明确的主语和谓语，可以表达一个完整的意思。

以上是词汇学中常见的术语解释，它们有助于我们更好地理解语言中的单词和词组。

除此之外，词汇学还研究了词的来源、演变、分类和使用等方面，是一门十分重要的学科。

词汇学名词解释

词汇学名词解释1.Slang:俚语word of this group belong to the sub-standard language (a category that seems to stand between the standard general words and informal ones available to everyone) eg roger(understand),catch(talk to)2.Archaisms:古语词archaisms are words or form that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. eg thou(you).wilt(will)3.Neologisms:新词语this category refer to newly-created words or expressions or words that have taken on new meanings. eg the pill=an oral contraceptive4.Denizens:同化词denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the english language.in the words they have come to conform to english way of pronunciation and spelling. eg pork from porc(F) .cup from cuppa(L)5.Aliens:非同化词aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Eg decor(F)6.translation loans:译借词translation loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the english language but modelled on the patterns taken from anther language. eg ketchup from fanqiejiang(CH dial) lama from lama(Tib)7.semantic loans:借义词words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form but to the meaning.in the other words ,english has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language. eg Pioneer once signified ‘explorer’ only or ‘person doing pioneering work’, and it now has taken on the new meaning of a member of the Young Pioneer’8.Free versus bound morphemes:自由语素粘着语素Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free .free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentence.eg they are identicalWith words,for example,man,earth,wind,car and anger.collect,ideal and prison can stand by themselves and thus are free morphemes.all the rest re-,-ion,-ist,-ic,ex- and -er are bound as none of them freestanding units9.Derivational versus inflectional morphemes:①morphemes wich are u sed to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes.eg clear+ance,life+like.②.Inflection morphemes:曲折语素indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers.inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines,fridges,desks,radio and potatoes.10.affix:词缀affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. Eg prefixes:pre-,ex-,and de- suffixes:-less,-dom,-ic,-s,-ed)11.Affixation:词缀法affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to base. Affixation fall into two subcategories:prefixation and suffixation.①prefixation前缀法is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to base.non-means not:non-smoker,non-classical.②suffixation:后缀法is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases.eg -ful:meaning’amount’contained’一mouthful,handful./doc/be11048396.html,pounding:(复合法）compounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases. eg these example show that compounds can be writtensolid(silkworm),hyphenated(honey-bee) and open(tear gas).13.Conversion转类法conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Eg simple (adj)一simplify(v)简化14.Blending:拼缀法blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. eg smog is the result of putting smoke and fog together.15.Clipping：截短法another common way of making a word is to shorten,or clip a longer word,known as clipping. eg plane and exam are sometimes use in place of aeroplane.16.Acronymy:首字母拼写法acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of composite names of social and political organizations or phrases used as technical terms. Eg. V oa voice of america17.back-formation:逆生法back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. eg diagnosis一diagnose，donation一donate18.Sound reduplication(语音重叠法）sound reduplication is the formation compound words by repeating the same element with little or no change. eg flip一flop人字拖,fingle一fangle标立异/doc/be11048396.html,monization of proper names:专用名词普遍化when proper names are changed into words in use,the process is called commonization. eg ‘ohm from German physicist ohm .20.Onomatopoeic motivation:拟声理据in modern Englishone may find some words whose phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating,the natural sounds or noises.bang,ping一pong,haha.21.Morphological motivation:形态理据compounds and derived words are muti-morphemic words and the meaning many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined. eg air mail means ‘to mail by air’22.Semantic motivation：语义理据semantic motivation is the mental associations bases on the conceptual meaning of a word.in other word,it is the figurative sense of the word. eg when we say the mouth of a river,we associate ‘the open ing part of the river’with ‘the mouth of a human being or an animal’23.Etymological motivation：词源理据the origins of words often throw light on their meanings. eg the word laconic meaning ‘brief ‘ or ‘short’ is derived form lacons.24.t ypes of homonyms①hom onyms：同形同音异义词perfect homonyms also known as absolute homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling. eg bear n(a large heavy animal) bear v (to put up with)②homographs:同形异义词are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. eg sow v(to scatter seeds)一sow n (female adult pig)③homophones:同音异义词are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Eg dear n(a love person) ;deer n (a kind of animal).25.Extension of meaning:词义的扩大extension of meaning refers to the process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. eg journal一daily paper一periodical26.Narrowing of meaning：(词义的缩小）narrowing of meaning is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. eg girl一young person of either sex 一female young person27.Elevation of meaning:(词义的升华)elevation refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. eg angel一messenger一messenger of God. 28.Degradation of meaning:(词义的降格)degradation is a process whereby words of good originfall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense. eg silly一happy一foolish.29.Transference of meaning:(词义的转移）words which were used to designated one thing later changed to mean something else.30.Euphemism:（委婉语）people tend to avoid mentioning taboo and specific unpleasantnesses directly and try to employ pleasant terms to express the ideas.。

词汇学名词解释2

词汇学名词解释21、英语词汇概述：（8%）（1）英语词汇的谱系关系及其历史发展：英语的谱系关系；英语的三个发展阶段。

（2）英语词汇的构成：基本词汇与专⽤词汇；英语词汇中的本族词与外来词。

（3）英语词汇的三⼤特点：数量⼤、来源⼴、变化多。

‘Indo-European’印欧语系With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.1. Word词--- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2．Vocabulary词汇—— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.3. basic word stock 基本词汇is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important partof it. These words have obvious characteristics.（1）All national character全民性. Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language。

一般词汇名词解释

一般词汇名词解释一般词汇名词解释谓语动词：根据已经规定的行为、图画或事件，用主动表述法，带宾语中心词，而且其谓语动词有直接、间接两种形式。

例如：该句谓语动词有两种形式：“装备…”和“从事…活动”，用主动形式;第二句“专门针对他的个人兴趣”是间接引语，属于被动句。

由动词构成的句子，谓语一般都有一定的单复数变化规律。

①谓语动词的单复数有规律变化，如： A我是这样一位爱好者…②有些动词具有人称、数、性的变化规律。

例如： What I think…第三句，谓语动词是不及物动词，那么后面应跟名词性短语作宾语。

由动词构成的句子，在表示主语和谓语的关系时，要特别注意动词的主动和被动的区别。

被动句：谓语动词表示的是主语被动，是从动关系，而非主动关系，即谓语动词受到主语的影响而被动。

被动句常有宾语前置、宾语后置、介词结构后置、定语后置等情况。

时间性：相对性：是一种历史上发展起来的民族自我意识形态。

相对性是指两个民族在各个发展阶段所处的社会历史条件不同，发展的程度不同，反映民族心理的内容也就不同，这是一种历史的合理性。

民族心理可分为个体民族心理和群体民族心理。

个体民族心理包括性格特征、生活习惯、思维方式、价值观念等，是人的整个心理面貌的综合，反映一个民族的道德素质、文化修养、价值取向、思维方式、理想愿望等。

它是民族差异的核心。

群体民族心理包括价值取向、伦理道德、风俗习惯、行为准则、生活方式、审美观点等。

群体民族心理的状况决定着民族差异的特点。

民族心理有一个不断增强的趋势，这与各民族的交往日益密切和相互依赖日益加深有密切关系。

增强的原因主要是民族接触的频繁，客观世界的开放，新技术革命的推动，知识更新的加速以及文化教育的普及。

增强的结果表现在：在个体层次上出现了个性差异；在群体层次上出现了团结互助、协调一致等新的群体心理。

但由于长期以来，人们对民族心理的认识上存在偏差，甚至是片面的看法，使得研究工作出现了很多困难。

我国是一个统一的多民族国家，具有共同的民族心理，每个民族的民族心理都有自己的特色。

汉语百科知识名词解释

汉语百科知识名词解释汉语百科是一本综合性工具书，用于介绍汉语语言和文化的各个方面。

它包含了汉语词汇、汉字、语法、修辞、文化等内容的详细解释和说明。

汉语百科旨在帮助读者更好地理解和运用汉语，同时也对于研究汉语语言和文化的学者和学生具有重要的参考价值。

汉语：指的是中国人使用的主要语言，也是世界上使用人数最多的语言之一。

汉语是汉民族的语言，汉字是其文字表达的主要形式。

汉语的特点是声调、声素和词法变化等。

词汇：指的是一个语言中使用的单词或词组，用于表示一个具体的概念、人、事物、动作等。

词汇是语言的基本组成部分，起着传递信息和交流意义的作用。

汉字：汉语的文字表达形式，是一种象形文字。

汉字是通过一定的笔画和结构来表示具体的事物和抽象的概念。

汉字的特点是复杂、系统和多义。

语法：指的是一种语言中词语之间的组织和关系的规则。

语法包括词法、句法、语序等方面的内容。

语法规则是语言的基本规律，能够帮助理解和运用语言。

修辞：指的是一种通过语言表达来达到修饰、强调、夸张等效果的手法。

修辞包括比喻、夸张、反问、排比等各种修辞手法。

修辞是一种艺术形式，能够增强语言表达的感染力和表现力。

文化：指的是一个国家或地区的社会生活方式、价值观念、艺术形式等的总称。

文化包括语言、宗教、历史、传统、艺术等各个方面的内容。

文化是一个民族的精神财富，能够影响和塑造人们的行为和思想。

综上所述，汉语百科是一本全面介绍汉语语言和文化的工具书，涵盖了词汇、汉字、语法、修辞、文化等方面的内容。

它对于理解和运用汉语，研究汉语语言和文化都具有重要的参考价值。

英语词汇术语名词解释

第二部分名词解释1.English lexicologyEnglish Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the vocabulary of the English language in respect to words and word equivalents.2.w ordA word may be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.3.vocabularyAll the words in a language together constitute what is known as its vocabulary.4.native wordsWords of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are called native words.5.loan wordsWords borrowed from other languages are called loan words. They are also called foreign words and borrowed words.mon wordsCommon words are also called popular words. They are words connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life. Common words are neutral in style.7.literary wordsLiterary words are words chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches. Literary words are formal in style.8.archaic wordsArchaic words are words no longer in common use, although retained for special purpose.9.poetical wordsPoetical words are words that are traditionally used only in poetry.10.colloquial wordsColloquial words are words or expressions mainly used in spoken English and informal writings.11.slang wordsSlang words are language, words or phrases of a vigorous, colorful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary.12.technical wordsTechnical words are words used in various special fields.13.function wordsFunction words are usually short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries and so forth, which serve grammatically than anything else.14.content wordsContent words are words which are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning.15.basic word stockThe basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. These words have four obvious characteristics: national character, stability, word-forming ability and ability to form collocations. They are words which are most frequently used and which are essential to the construction of sentences and to life.16.neologismNeologisms are new words or new meanings for established words.17.obsolete wordsObsolete words are words completely out of current use.18.morphemeThe morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.19.allomorphAn allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.20.free morphemeA free morpheme is one which can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its ownwithout a bound morpheme. A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense.21.bound morphemeA bound morpheme is one which cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appearwith at least one other morpheme, free or bound.22.rootA root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning ofthe word.23.free rootFree roots are free morphemes. They belong to the basic word-stock and provide the English language with a basis for the formation of new words.24.bound rootBound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root.Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. They were once words, yet in Modern English they are not words. They cannot exit on their own. Nor can they be used to form new words.25.affixAffix is a “collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.” They are considered bound morphemes.26.inflectional affixAffixes attached to the end of words to indicate such grammatical relationships as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree are inflectional affixes.27.derivational affixDerivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.28.prefixIn derivation, the affix added before the base is called prefix.29.suffixIn derivation, the affix added after the base is called suffix.30.hybridA hybrid is a word made up of elements from two or more different languages.31.simple wordA simple word is a word consisting of one free root (or one morpheme).32.word-formation rulesWord-formation rules are the rules which define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new words.33.stemA stem is the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have beenremoved.34.baseA base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; it may also be defined as “aform to which a rule of word-formation is applied”.poundingCompounding or composition is a word formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new word.36. compoundWords formed through compounding are called compounds.36.string compoundWhen the first element of a noun compound is itself a compound, such a compound is called a string compound.37.derivationDerivation or affixation is a process of forming new words by addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix or combining form to an already existing word.bining formA combining form is a bound morpheme, which was originally a full word in Latin or Greek,but which now occurs only in derivatives.39.prefixationPrefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix or combining form to the base.40. suffixationSuffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base.41. differentiating suffixesDifferentiating suffixes are those suffixes which convey subtle nuances of meaning.42. conversionConversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.43. functional shiftSince in conversion the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, conversion is called by some linguists “functional shift”.44. derivation by zero suffixSince the relationship between a base of one word-class and a corresponding derived word of another by suffixation is parallel to a shift of the same base from one word-class to another without suffixation, conversion is called by some linguists “derivation by zero suffix”.45. partial conversionSome adjectives are used as nouns when preceded by the definite article, yet these converted nouns take on only some of the features of the noun. Therefore, such adjective noun conversion is partial conversion.46. acronymyAcronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.47. initialismInitialism is a type of shortening, using the first letter of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; an initialism is pronounced letter by letter.48. acronymAcronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms are pronounced as words.49. clippingClipping is a process of forming new words by the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.50. blendingBlending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.51. portmanteau wordThe result of blending is called a blend, or portmanteau word.52. back-formationBack-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.53. reduplicationReduplication is a minor type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition (1) of one word; (2) of two almost identical words with a change in the vowels;(3) of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants.54. words from proper namesThey refer to words which come from such proper nouns as names of people, names of places, names of books and trade names.55. neoclassical formationNeoclassical formation denotes the process by which new words are formed from elementsderived from Latin and Greek.56. conventionalityMost English words are conventional, arbitrary symbols; consequently, there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense. There is no way to explain why this or that sound-symbol has this or that meaning beyond the fact that the people of a given community have agreed to use one to designate the other. Such a relationship between the linguistic symbol and its meaning is called conventionality.57. motivationMotivation refers to the connection between word symbol and its sense.58. phonetic motivationIn modern English, some words have sounds that suggest their meaning, for these words were created by imitating natural sounds or noise. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. Such a kind of connection between the word symbol and its sense is called phonetic motivation.59. morphological motivationCompounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of some are the sum of the morphemes combined. If one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. Such a kind of connection between the word symbol and its sense is called morphological motivation.60. semantic motivationSemantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and the figurative sense of the word.61. echoic word/onomatopoeic wordWords motivated phonetically are called echoic words or onomatopoeic words, whose pronunciation suggests the meaning.62. grammatical meaningGrammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as word-class, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms.63. inflectional paradigmWhen used in actual speech, words appear in different forms. The set of grammatical forms of a words is called its inflectional paradigm.64. lexical meaningLexical meaning is the notion that the word conveys. It is constant in all the content wordswithin or without context.65. denotative meaningDenotative meaning is sometimes called the conceptual meaning. It is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all speakers of the same language.66. connotative meaningConnotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one‟s mind; it is the supplementary value which is added to the purely denotative meaning ofa word.67. social or stylistic meaningSocial meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.68. affective meaningAffective meaning indicates the speaker‟s feeling and attitudes towards the person or thing in question.69. purr wordsPurr words are those used not as a mere statement of fact, but to express the speaker‟s approval of the person or thing he is talking about.70. snarl wordsSnarl words are those words which always show disapproval or contempt on the part of the speaker.71. componential analysisComponential analysis is the process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components.72. semantic features/sense componentsThe analysis of word meanings is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components, which are known as semantic features or sense components.73. polysemyPolysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages. There are words that have two or three senses, and the most commonly used ones can have as many as over a hundred.However, when a word is first coined, it is always monosemic. But in the course of development, the same symbol must be used to express more meanings, the result is polysemy.74. primary meaningFrom the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. At the time when the word was created, it was endowed with only one meaning. This first meaning is the primary meaning.75. central meaningSynchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time. The central meaning of a word can be considered the most frequently occurring meaning.76. radiationRadiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.77. concatenationConcatenation, meaning “linking together”, is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.78. homonymyHomonymy is the linguistic phenomenon that pairs or groups of words, though different in meaning, are pronounced alike, or spelled alike, or both.79. homonymHomonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning, but are pronounced alike, or spelled alike, or both.80. perfect homonymPerfect homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning.81. homophoneWords identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning are called homophones.82. homographHomographs are words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning.83. synonymySynonymy is the semantic relation of similarity.84. synonymA synonym can be defined as one of two or more words in the English language which havethe same or very nearly the same essential meaning.85. complete synonymComplete synonyms, also known as absolute synonyms , are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual, associative meanings, etc.. Synonyms of this type are interchangeable in every way.86. relative synonymRelative synonyms, or more accurately quasi-synonymous words, are words similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality, or differences in affective meaning, in stylistic meaning or in collocation and distribution.87. the double scale pattern of synonymsThere are in English countless pairs of synonyms in which a native term exists side by side with the one borrowed from French, Latin, or Greek. This is called the double scale pattern of synonyms.88. the triple scale pattern of synonymsThe triple scale pattern of synonyms refers to a group of synonyms in which native, French and Latin or Greek words co-exist.89. antonymyAntonymy is the semantic relation of oppositeness.90. antonymAntonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.91. contrariesContraries or contrary terms are antonyms which can be handled in terms of gradability, that is, in terms of degrees of the quality involved. Antonyms of this kind form part of scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belonging neither to one pole nor to the other.92. complementariesComplementaries or contradictories are antonyms which represent a type of binary semantic opposition. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other. Another distinctive feature of this category is that such antonyms are non-gradable.93. conversivesConversives, also called relative terms, consist of relational opposites. The pairs of antonyms indicate such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other. This type also includes reverse terms, which comprise adjectives and adverbs signifying a quality or verbs and nouns signifying an act or state that reverse thequality, action or state of the other.94. root antonymsAntonyms with different roots are called root antonyms.95. derivational antonymsDerivational antonyms are words with the same roots having negative affixes.96. marked member in an antonymous pairIn some antonymous pairs, one member is used more widely and can frequently be used to subsume the other but not vise versa. This member always carries a certain implication of distinctiveness. It is called the marked member.97. unmarked member in an antonymous pairIn some antonymous pairs, one member is used less frequently and is subsumed by the other.This member carries no particular implication. It is called the unmarked member.98. hyponymyHyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.99. hyponym/subordianteWhen two words have the relationship of semantic inclusion, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of a more general word. This specific word is known as hyponym or subordiante .100. superordiante term/upper termWhen two words have the relationship of semantic inclusion, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of a more general word. This general word is known as superordiante term or upper term.101. semantic fieldAccording to Jost Trier, the whole vocabulary of a given language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized meaning areas. These meaning areas are called semantic fields. Words in each field are semantically related and define one another.102. contextContext is used in different senses. In its narrowest sense, context refers to the lexical items that come immediately before and after any word in an act of communication. In a broad sense, it may cover the whole passage and sometimes the whole book in which a word occurs, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting.103. linguistic contextThe lexical , grammatical, and verbal context in its broad sense are called linguistic context.104. lexical contextLexical context refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemous word. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighbouring words.105. grammatical contextIn some cases, the meaning of a polysemous word is influenced by the syntactic structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context.106. verbal context in its broad senseThe entire passage, or even the entire book, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting in which a word occurs is called the verbal context of the word in its broad sense.107. extra-linguistic context/context of situationIt refers to the actual speech situation in which a word (or an utterance, or a speech event) occurs and the entire cultural background against which a word or an utterance or a speech event has to be set.108. ambiguityAmbiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or group of sentences with more than one possible interpretation or meaning.109. lexical ambiguityLexical ambiguity is the ambiguity of meaning due to polysemy.110. structural ambiguityStructural ambiguity is the ambiguity of meaning arising from the grammatical analysis of a sentence or a phrase.111. historical cause of semantic changeIt often happens that though a word retains its original form, its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed. This is the historical cause of semantic change.112. social cause of semantic changeChange in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change.113. linguistic cause of semantic changeThe change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system. One type such change occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole, e.g. gold is used for …gold medal”. The other type of such change occurs when new meanings developed in one part of speech are passed on to other parts of speech from the same lexical base.114. psychological cause of semantic changeThis is the change of word meaning owing to various psychological motives: love, respect, courtesy suspicion, pessimism, sarcasm, irony, contempt, hatred, etc. The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are due to psychological factors.115. euphemismPeople have a tendency to use mild, agreeable language when speaking of an unpleasant or embarrassing fact (such as death, disease, unfortunate events or crime), and of taboo subjects as sex and the excretive processes of the body. These mild, agreeable languages are euphemisms.116. grandiloquenceGrandiloquence refers to the use of long, important-sounding words for effect.117. cynicismCynicism is the desire to sneer and to be sarcastic.118. restriction of meaning/specializationRestriction of meaning means that a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower, specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the subjects it had previously denoted.119. extension of meaning/generalizationExtension of meaning means the widening of a word‟s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.120. degeneration of meaning/pejorationDegeneration of meaning is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.121. elevation of meaning/ ameliorationElevation of meaning refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance, or a word meaning takes a turn for the better in the course of time.122. metaphorMetaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similarity, in which a word or a phrase ordinarily and primarily used for one thing is applied to another, a process which often results in semantic change or figurative extension of meaning.123. idiomAn idiom may be defined as a combination of two or more words which are usually structurally fixed and semantically opaque, and function as a single unit of meaning.124. phrase idiomPhrase idioms are those idioms which have a noun, verb, adjective, preposition or an adverb as the central word, and which correspond to the familiar parts of speech, and are capable ofa given syntactic function.125. clause idiomClause idioms are those idioms containing a verb and an object and/or a complement.126. sentence idiomProverbs and typical conversational expressions are called sentence idioms.127. AmericanismA word, phrase, or usage originating in or peculiar to American English is calledAmericanism.128. big wordsBig words are “high-sounding, mouth-filling” words, or words seeming important oradmirable but often having no meaning.129. prescriptive dictionaryA prescriptive dictionary is one regarded as the norm of spelling, meaning, and usage ofEnglish words.130. descriptive dictionaryA descriptive dictionary is one which registers the language and bases standard of correctnesson usage.131. monolingual dictionariesMonolingual dictionaries are written in one language, that is, the headwords or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language. The monolingual dictionary is rather a late development because the earliest dictionaries were all bilingual.132. bilingual dictionariesBilingual dictionaries are the ones compiled in two languages.133. linguistic dictionariesLinguistic dictionaries aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language.They usually cover such areas as spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical function, usage and etymology, etc. These dictionaries can be monolingual and bilingual.134. encyclopedic dictionariesAn encyclopedia is not concerned with the language purpose but provides encyclopedic information concerning each headword. There the reader cannot find pronunciation or meanings or usages but other information. Encyclopedic dictionaries have the characteristicsof both linguistic dictionaries and encyclopedia. In such dictionaries one can find the general information as in a linguistic dictionary and limited encyclopedic information as well.135 unabridged dictionariesAn unabridged dictionaries is an unshortened dictionary. Theoretically, it is a complete record of all the words in use. But such a dictionary is the most complete description of words available to us. It provides a great quantity of basic information about a word. It should be large in scope and size, containing at least 200,000 headwords.136. desk dictionariesDesk dictionaries are medium-sized ones containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000.As they are dictionaries that one finds most used on desks, they are called desk dictionaries.137. pocket dictionariesPocket dictionaries have about 50, 000 entries or fewer. Such a dictionary provides only the spelling and pronunciation of each word with a few most common meanings. They contain only a few or no examples. Their advantages are being inexpensive and easy to carry.138. specialized dictionariesSpecial dictionaries concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, idioms, pronunciation, usages in language and a variety of other subjects. These dictionaries may not be very large in size, yet each contains much more detailed information on the subject than you can find in a general unabridged one.139. etymologyThe branch of linguistics that deals with the origin and historical development of a linguistic form as shown by determining its basic elements, earliest known use, and changes in form and meaning, tracing its transmission from one language to another, identifying its cognates in other languages, and reconstructing its ancestral form where possible.140. synchronic dictionariesSynchronic dictionaries describe the vocabulary of a certain period or at a certain period or at a certain stage of the development of the language, providing the form, meaning, usage, etc. of the words of the period.141. diachronic dictionariesDiachronic dictionaries show how the form, meaning, usage, etc. of words have developed throughout the history of the language.142. ideological dictionariesIdeological dictionaries are the ones which deal with ideas or concepts, not with words as such. Words expressing related ideas are grouped under separate heads which are in turn grouped into subclasses and classes. Taken together, a system is formed into which, theoretically, a word can be included and related to a number of other words.。

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