英文外文文献
英文文献翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿Sodium Polyacrylate:Also known as super-absorbent or “SAP”(super absorbent polymer), Kimberly Clark used to call it SAM (super absorbent material). It is typically used in fine granular form (like table salt). It helps improve capacity for better retention in a disposable diaper, allowing the product to be thinner with improved performance and less usage of pine fluff pulp. The molecular structure of the polyacrylate has sodium carboxylate groups hanging off the main chain. When it comes in contact with water, the sodium detaches itself, leaving only carboxylions. Being negatively charged, these ions repel one another so that the polymer also has cross-links, which effectively leads to a three-dimensional structure. It has hige molecular weight of more than a million; thus, instead of getting dissolved, it solidifies into a gel. The Hydrogen in the water (H-O-H) is trapped by the acrylate due to the atomic bonds associated with the polarity forces between the atoms. Electrolytes in the liquid, such as salt minerals (urine contains 0.9% of minerals), reduce polarity, thereby affecting superabsorbent properties, especially with regard to the superabsorbent capacity for liquid retention. This is the main reason why diapers containing SAP should never be tested with plain water. Linear molecular configurations have less total capacity than non-linear molecules but, on the other hand, retention of liquid in a linear molecule is higher than in a non-linear molecule, due to improved polarity. For a list of SAP suppliers, please use this link: SAP, the superabsorbent can be designed to absorb higher amounts of liquids (with less retention) or very high retentions (but lower capacity). In addition, a surface cross linker can be added to the superabsorbent particle to help it move liquids while it is saturated. This helps avoid formation of "gel blocks", the phenomenon that describes the impossibility of moving liquids once a SAP particle gets saturated.History of Super Absorbent Polymer ChemistryUn til the 1980’s, water absorbing materials were cellulosic or fiber-based products. Choices were tissue paper, cotton, sponge, and fluff pulp. The water retention capacity of these types of materials is only 20 times their weight – at most.In the early 1960s, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) was conducting work on materials to improve water conservation in soils. They developed a resin based on the grafting of acrylonitrile polymer onto the backbone of starch molecules (i.e. starch-grafting). The hydrolyzed product of the hydrolysis of this starch-acrylonitrile co-polymer gave water absorption greater than 400 times its weight. Also, the gel did not release liquid water the way that fiber-based absorbents do.The polymer came to be known as “Super Slurper”.The USDA gave the technical know how several USA companies for further development of the basic technology. A wide range of grating combinations were attempted including work with acrylic acid, acrylamide and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).Since Japanese companies were excluded by the USDA, they started independent research using starch, carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), acrylic acid, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and isobutylene maleic anhydride (IMA).Early global participants in the development of super absorbent chemistry included Dow Chemical, Hercules, General Mills Chemical, DuPont, National Starch & Chemical, Enka (Akzo), Sanyo Chemical, Sumitomo Chemical, Kao, Nihon Starch and Japan Exlan.In the early 1970s, super absorbent polymer was used commercially for the first time –not for soil amendment applications as originally intended –but for disposable hygienic products. The first product markets were feminine sanitary napkins and adult incontinence products.In 1978, Park Davis (d.b.a. Professional Medical Products) used super absorbent polymers in sanitary napkins.Super absorbent polymer was first used in Europe in a baby diaper in 1982 when Schickendanz and Beghin-Say added the material to the absorbent core. Shortly thereafter, UniCharm introduced super absorbent baby diapers in Japan while Proctor & Gamble and Kimberly-Clark in the USA began to use the material.The development of super absorbent technology and performance has been largely led by demands in the disposable hygiene segment. Strides in absorption performance have allowed the development of the ultra-thin baby diaper which uses a fraction of the materials – particularly fluff pulp – which earlier disposable diapers consumed.Over the years, technology has progressed so that there is little if any starch-grafted super absorbent polymer used in disposable hygienic products. These super absorbents typically are cross-linked acrylic homo-polymers (usually Sodium neutralized).Super absorbents used in soil amendments applications tend to be cross-linked acrylic-acrylamide co-polymers (usually Potassium neutralized).Besides granular super absorbent polymers, ARCO Chemical developed a super absorbent fiber technology in the early 1990s. This technology was eventually sold to Camelot Absorbents. There are super absorbent fibers commercially available today. While significantly more expensive than the granular polymers, the super absorbent fibers offer technical advantages in certain niche markets including cable wrap, medical devices and food packaging.Sodium polyacrylate, also known as waterlock, is a polymer with the chemical formula [-CH2-CH(COONa)-]n widely used in consumer products. It has the ability to absorb as much as 200 to 300 times its mass in water. Acrylate polymers generally are considered to possess an anionic charge. While sodium neutralized polyacrylates are the most common form used in industry, there are also other salts available including potassium, lithium and ammonium.ApplicationsAcrylates and acrylic chemistry have a wide variety of industrial uses that include: ∙Sequestering agents in detergents. (By binding hard water elements such as calcium and magnesium, the surfactants in detergents work more efficiently.) ∙Thickening agents∙Coatings∙Fake snowSuper absorbent polymers. These cross-linked acrylic polymers are referred to as "Super Absorbents" and "Water Crystals", and are used in baby diapers. Copolymerversions are used in agriculture and other specialty absorbent applications. The origins of super absorbent polymer chemistry trace back to the early 1960s when the U.S. Department of Agriculture developed the first super absorbent polymer materials. This chemical is featured in the Maximum Absorbency Garment used by NASA.译文聚丙烯酸钠聚丙烯酸钠，又可以称为超级吸收剂或者又叫高吸水性树脂，凯博利克拉克教授曾经称它为SAM即：超级吸收性物质。
(英文)生物外文文献
FIG. 3
SK-BR-3 cell，HER2过表达的乳腺癌细胞，STAT3可以通 过特定的细胞因子激活。HER2是重要的乳腺癌预后判 断因子，HER2阳性（过表达或扩增）的乳腺癌，其临 床特点和生物学行为有特殊表现，治疗模式也与其他 类型的乳腺癌有很大的区别。
36%
FIG. 4 LIF刺激
FIG. 1
15.5%
FIG. 2
GRN knockdown reduced the mRNA expression of these genes, similar to the effects of STAT3 knockdown
58%
染色质免疫共沉淀技术（ chromatin immunoprecipitation assay, CHIP ）
70%
Suggesting that some but not all phenotypes associated with GRN knockdown can be rescued by constitutively active STAT3.
FIG. 6
42.9%
13.5%
These findings indicate that in primary breast cancers, GRN expression specifically correlates with enhanced STAT3 transcriptional activity in the presence of tyrosinephosphorylated STAT3
• 皮尔森相关系数（Pearson correlation coefficient）也称皮尔森积矩 相关系数(Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient) ，是一种 线性相关系数。皮尔森相关系数是用来反映两个变量线性相关程 度的统计量。相关系数用r表示，其中n为样本量，分别为两个变 量的观测值和均值。r描述的是两个变量间线性相关强弱的程度。 r的绝对值越大表明相关性越强。
常用的外文文献数据据库有
常用的外文文献数据据库有常用的外文文献数据据库有：一、Wiley Inter Science(英文文献期刊)Wiley Inter Science是John Sons公司创建的动态在线内容服务，1997年开始在网上开通。
通过Inter Science，Wiley公司以许可协议形式向用户提供在线访问全文内容的服务。
Wiley Inter Science收录了360多种科学、工程技术、医疗领域及相关专业期刊、30多种大型专业参考书、13种实验室手册的全文和500多个题目的Wiley学术图书的全文。
其中被SCI收录的核心期刊近200种。
期刊具体学科划分为：Business，Finance & Management (商业、金融和管理)、Chemistry (化学)、Computer Science（计算机科学）、Earth Science （地球科学）、Education （教育学）、Engineering （工程学）、Law（法律）、Life and Medical Sciences （生命科学与医学）、Mathematics and Statistics（数学统计学）、Physics （物理）、Psychology （心理学）。
二、ICPSRICPSR全称为 Inter一university Consortium for Political and Social Research，即美国校际社会科学数据共享联盟。
成立于1962年，位于美国密西根大学安娜堡分校(University of Michigan 一 Ann Arbor， 1817一)，储存超过17000种调查研究资料，如军队官兵总名册，遗嘱、遗嘱查验与税收纪录，是现在世界上最大的社会科学数据中心，拥有600多个成员机构，包括大学和各种研究中心。
其中400多个成员机构在美国，我国的国家人口发展研究战略课题组，北京大学，香港大学，香港科技大学，香港浸会大学也是成员之一。
外文文献 英文
Foreign material：Chemical Industry1.Origins of the Chemical IndustryAlthough the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin’s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939).Since 1940 the chemical industry has grown at a remarkable rate, although this has slowed significantly in recent years. The lion’s share of this growth has been in the organic chemicals sector due to the development and growth of the petrochemicals area since 1950s. The explosives growth in petrochemicals in the 1960s and 1970s was largely due to the enormous increase in demand for synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, polyesters and epoxy resins.The chemical industry today is a very diverse sector of manufacturing industry, within which it plays a central role. It makes thousands of different chemicals whichthe general public only usually encounter as end or consumer products. These products are purchased because they have the required properties which make them suitable for some particular application, e.g. a non-stick coating for pans or a weedkiller. Thus chemicals are ultimately sold for the effects that they produce.2. Definition of the Chemical IndustryAt the turn of the century there would have been little difficulty in defining what constituted the chemical industry since only a very limited range of products was manufactured and these were clearly chemicals, e.g., alkali, sulphuric acid. At present, however, many intermediates to products produced, from raw materials like crude oil through (in some cases) many intermediates to products which may be used directly as consumer goods, or readily converted into them. The difficulty cones in deciding at which point in this sequence the particular operation ceases to be part of the chemical industry’s sphere of activities. To consider a specific example to illustrate this dilemma, emulsion paints may contain poly (vinyl chloride) / poly (vinyl acetate). Clearly, synthesis of vinyl chloride (or acetate) and its polymerization are chemical activities. However, if formulation and mixing of the paint, including the polymer, is carried out by a branch of the multinational chemical company which manufactured the ingredients, is this still part of the chemical industry of does it mow belong in the decorating industry?It is therefore apparent that, because of its diversity of operations and close links in many areas with other industries, there is no simple definition of the chemical industry. Instead each official body which collects and publishes statistics on manufacturing industry will have its definition as to which operations are classified as the chemical industry. It is important to bear this in mind when comparing statistical information which is derived from several sources.3. The Need for Chemical IndustryThe chemical industry is concerned with converting raw materials, such as crude oil, firstly into chemical intermediates and then into a tremendous variety of other chemicals. These are then used to produce consumer products, which make our livesmore comfortable or, in some cases such as pharmaceutical produces, help to maintain our well-being or even life itself. At each stage of these operations value is added to the produce and provided this added exceeds the raw material plus processing costs then a profit will be made on the operation. It is the aim of chemical industry to achieve this.It may seem strange in textbook this one to pose the question ―do we need a chemical industry?‖ However trying to answer this question will provide(ⅰ) an indication of the range of the chemical industry’s activities, (ⅱ) its influence on our lives in everyday terms, and (ⅲ) how great is society’s need for a chemical industry. Our approach in answering the question will be to consider the industry’s co ntribution to meeting and satisfying our major needs. What are these? Clearly food (and drink) and health are paramount. Other which we shall consider in their turn are clothing and (briefly) shelter, leisure and transport.(1)Food. The chemical industry makes a major contribution to food production in at least three ways. Firstly, by making available large quantities of artificial fertilizers which are used to replace the elements (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) which are removed as nutrients by the growing crops during modern intensive farming. Secondly, by manufacturing crop protection chemicals, i.e., pesticides, which markedly reduce the proportion of the crops consumed by pests. Thirdly, by producing veterinary products which protect livestock from disease or cure their infections.(2)Health. We are all aware of the major contribution which the pharmaceutical sector of the industry has made to help keep us all healthy, e.g. by curing bacterial infections with antibiotics, and even extending life itself, e.g. ß–blockers to lower blood pressure.(3)Clothing. The improvement in properties of modern synthetic fibers over the traditional clothing materials (e.g. cotton and wool) has been quite remarkable. Thus shirts, dresses and suits made from polyesters like Terylene and polyamides like Nylon are crease-resistant, machine-washable, and drip-dry or non-iron. They are also cheaper than natural materials.Parallel developments in the discovery of modern synthetic dyes and the technology to ―bond‖ th em to the fiber has resulted in a tremendous increase in the variety of colors available to the fashion designer. Indeed they now span almost every color and hue of the visible spectrum. Indeed if a suitable shade is not available, structural modification of an existing dye to achieve this canreadily be carried out, provided there is a satisfactory market for the product.Other major advances in this sphere have been in color-fastness, i.e., resistance to the dye being washed out when the garment is cleaned.(4)Shelter, leisure and transport. In terms of shelter the contribution of modern synthetic polymers has been substantial. Plastics are tending to replace traditional building materials like wood because they are lighter, maintenance-free (i.e. they are resistant to weathering and do not need painting). Other polymers, e.g. urea-formaldehyde and polyurethanes, are important insulating materials f or reducing heat losses and hence reducing energy usage.Plastics and polymers have made a considerable impact on leisure activities with applications ranging from all-weather artificial surfaces for athletic tracks, football pitches and tennis courts to nylon strings for racquets and items like golf balls and footballs made entirely from synthetic materials.Like wise the chemical industry’s contribution to transport over the years has led to major improvements. Thus development of improved additives like anti-oxidants and viscosity index improves for engine oil has enabled routine servicing intervals to increase from 3000 to 6000 to 12000 miles. Research and development work has also resulted in improved lubricating oils and greases, and better brake fluids. Yet again the contribution of polymers and plastics has been very striking with the proportion of the total automobile derived from these materials—dashboard, steering wheel, seat padding and covering etc.—now exceeding 40%.So it is quite apparent even from a brief look at the chemical industry’s contribution to meeting our major needs that life in the world would be very different without the products of the industry. Indeed the level of a country’s development may be judged by the production level and sophistication of its chemical industry4. Research and Development (R&D) in Chemical IndustriesOne of the main reasons for the rapid growth of the chemical industry in the developed world has been its great commitment to, and investment in research and development (R&D). A typical figure is 5% of sales income, with this figure being almost doubled for the most research intensive sector, pharmaceuticals. It is important to emphasize that we are quoting percentages here not of profits but of sales income, i.e. the total money received, which has to pay for raw materials, overheads, staff salaries, etc. as well. In the past this tremendous investment has paid off well, leading to many useful and valuable products being introduced to the market. Examplesinclude synthetic polymers like nylons and polyesters, and drugs and pesticides. Although the number of new products introduced to the market has declined significantly in recent years, and in times of recession the research department is usually one of the first to suffer cutbacks, the commitment to R&D remains at a very high level.The chemical industry is a very high technology industry which takes full advantage of the latest advances in electronics and engineering. Computers are very widely used for all sorts of applications, from automatic control of chemical plants, to molecular modeling of structures of new compounds, to the control of analytical instruments in the laboratory.Individual manufacturing plants have capacities ranging from just a few tones per year in the fine chemicals area to the real giants in the fertilizer and petrochemical sectors which range up to 500,000 tonnes. The latter requires enormous capital investment, since a single plant of this size can now cost $520 million! This, coupled with the widespread use of automatic control equipment, helps to explain why the chemical industry is capital-rather than labor-intensive.The major chemical companies are truly multinational and operate their sales and marketing activities in most of the countries of the world, and they also have manufacturing units in a number of countries. This international outlook for operations, or globalization, is a growing trend within the chemical industry, with companies expanding their activities either by erecting manufacturing units in other countries or by taking over companies which are already operating there.。
如何搜索英文(外文)文献
注1：图书馆一般都提供文献代检服务，不过要收取一定费用。
注2：通过IP代理的方式可以访问图书馆的这些数据库，不过是非法的。
2）利用在线期刊、论文数据库。
国内的有：
中国知网：
literature：/
Wikipedia：/ ຫໍສະໝຸດ 更多网站>>
二、如何确定英文关键词？
搜索英文资料的关键，还是要找到准确描述搜索内容的“英文关键词”
零点花园：/bbs/
上面有大量的搜索技巧和资源，可以学习到如何进行IP代理和获取数据库帐号密码。
如果需要什么文献资料，也可以向这儿的高手求助。
3）利用搜索引擎。
一般来说，英文的用Google来搜索要好一点，般都采用pdf，要搜索pdf文档，只需在关键词后，加个filetype:pdf即可
大家可以去这儿查：
1）去知网翻译助手：/
（因为是根据论文内容来确定的，词汇或表达都比较准确）
2）翻词典，如：金山词霸（或爱词霸）上去查。
（单机版的金山词霸里有不少专业词典，网上的“爱心词典”里名、小说名字之类，比如：东北虎 英文）
三、推荐几个文献搜索的网站：
解决问题，往往去专业的论坛比较好：
小木虫：/index.html
网上读书园地：
丁香园：/
除了以网页具体参见《搜索引擎常用技巧——英文资料篇》
4）利用免费文献网站
免费和收费是相对的，有些网站是全面免费，有些是部分免费，
而有些是等论文发表过了一定期限后才免费。
HighWire Press：/
ProQuest：/pqdweb
电气工程及其自动化专业外文文献英文文献外文翻译方面
1、 外文原文（复印件）A: Fundamentals of Single-chip MicrocomputerT h e sin gle -ch ip mi c ro co m p u t e r is t h e cu lm in at io n of b ot h t h e d e ve lo p me nt of t h e d ig ita l co m p u t e r a n d t h e i nte g rated c ircu it a rgu ab l y t h e to w mo st s ign if i cant i nve nt i o n s of t h e 20t h c e nt u ry [1].T h ese to w t yp e s of arch ite ct u re are fo u n d in s in gle -ch ip m i cro co m p u te r. S o m e e mp l oy t h e sp l it p ro gra m /d at a m e m o r y of t h e H a r va rd arch ite ct u re , s h o wn in -5A , ot h e rs fo l lo w t h e p h i lo so p hy, wid e l y ad a p ted fo r ge n e ral -p u rp o se co m p u te rs an d m i cro p ro ce ss o rs , of m a kin g n o l o g i ca l d i st in ct i o n b et we e n p ro gra m an d d ata m e m o r y as in t h e P rin c eto n a rch ite ct u re , sh o wn in -5A.In ge n e ra l te r m s a s in g le -ch ip m ic ro co m p u t e r is ch a ra cte r ized b y t h e in co r p o rat io n of all t h e u n its of a co mp u te r into a s in gle d e vi ce , as s h o w n in F i g3-5A-3.-5A-1A Harvard type-5A. A conventional Princeton computerProgrammemory Datamemory CPU Input& Output unitmemoryCPU Input& Output unitResetInterruptsPowerFig3-5A-3. Principal features of a microcomputerRead only memory (ROM).RO M is u su a l l y fo r t h e p e r m an e nt , n o n -vo lat i le sto rage of an ap p l i cat io n s p ro g ram .M a ny m i c ro co m p u te rs a n d m i cro co nt ro l le rs are inte n d ed fo r h i gh -vo lu m e ap p l i cat io n s a n d h e n ce t h e e co n o m i cal man u fa c t u re of t h e d e vi ces re q u ires t h at t h e co nt e nts of t h e p ro gra m me mo r y b e co mm i ed p e r m a n e nt l y d u r in g t h e m a n u fa ct u re of c h ip s . C lea rl y, t h i s imp l ies a r i go ro u s ap p ro a ch to ROM co d e d e ve lo p m e nt s in ce ch an ges can n o t b e mad e af te r m an u fa ct u re .T h i s d e ve l o p m e nt p ro ces s m ay i nvo l ve e mu l at i o n u sin g a so p h ist icated d e ve lo p m e nt syste m wit h a h ard wa re e mu l at i o n capab i l it y as we ll as t h e u s e of p o we rf u l sof t war e to o l s.So m e m an u fa ct u re rs p ro vi d e ad d it i o n a l ROM o p t io n s b y in clu d in g in t h e i r ran ge d e v ic es w it h (o r inte n d ed fo r u s e wit h ) u se r p ro g ram m a b le m e mo r y. T h e s im p lest of t h e se i s u su a l l y d e v i ce wh i ch can o p e rat e in a m i cro p ro ce s so r mo d e b y u s in g s o m e of t h e in p u t /o u t p u t l in es as an ad d res s a n d d ata b u s fo r a cc es sin g exte rn a l m e m o r y. T h is t yp e o f d e vi ce can b e h ave f u n ct i o n al l y as t h e s in gle ch ip m i cro co m p u t e r f ro m wh i ch it i s d e ri ved a lb e it wit h re st r icted I/O an d a m o d if ied exte rn a l c ircu it. T h e u s e of t h e se RO M le ss d e vi ces i s co mmo n e ve n in p ro d u ct io n circu i ts wh e re t h e vo lu m e d o e s n ot ju st if y t h e d e ve lo p m e nt co sts of cu sto m o n -ch ip ROM [2];t h e re ca n st i ll b e a si gn if i cant sav in g in I/O an d o t h e r ch ip s co m pared to a External Timing components System clock Timer/ Counter Serial I/O Prarallel I/O RAM ROMCPUco nve nt io n al m i c ro p ro ces so r b ased circ u it. M o re exa ct re p l a ce m e nt fo rRO M d e v ice s can b e o b tain ed in t h e fo rm of va ria nts w it h 'p i g g y-b a c k'E P ROM(E rasab le p ro gramm ab le ROM )s o cket s o r d e v ice s w it h E P ROMin stead of ROM 。
免费的英文文献资料网站
有用的英文文献资料网站1.Nova Southeastern University（高权限）入口：ID：hpdlibrary PW：library资源列表：ACP Medicine (2006)AHFS Drug Information? (2006)Basic and Clinical Pharmacology - 9th Ed. (2004)Current Diagnosis & Treatment in Orthopedics - 4th Ed. (2006)Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment - 45th Ed. (2006)Current Obstetric & Gynecologic Diagnosis & Treatment - 9th Ed. (2003) Delmar's Fundamental & Advanced Nursing Skills - 2nd Ed. (2004) Geriatric Medicine: An Evidence Based Approach - 4th Ed. (2003) Griffith's 5-Minute Clinical Consult - 14th Ed. (2006)Merck Manual - 17th Ed. (1999) Centennial EditionRudolph's Pediatrics - 21st Ed. (2003)Schwartz's Principles of Surgery - 8th Ed. (2005)Smith's General Urology - 16th Ed. (2004)USP DI? Drug Info. for the Health Care Pro. - 26th Ed. (2006)Williams Obstetrics - 22nd Ed. (2005)还有一些免费外文文献网站。
英文文献网站 外文文献检索
主要的英文文献网找一个服务的网站：不过想自己弄的话可以以下网站吧：Academic Research Library (ProQuest)【地址】原界面链接【文献类型】报纸、期刊、全文/部分全文【访问年限】1971-【描述】本数据库为综合性学术期刊数据库，收录2974种综合性期刊和报纸的文摘/索引（内含Peer Reviewed（同行评审）期刊1502种），其中2020种是全文期刊（内含全文延期上网期刊208种），包括SCI收录的核心全文刊189种，SSCI收录的核心全文...Academic Search Complete学术期刊集成全文数据库 (EBSCO)【地址】原界面链接【文献类型】报纸、多出版类型、期刊、全文/部分全文【访问年限】1965-【描述】Academic Search Premier 收录超过8230种出版物，其中3342种为全文专家评审刊。
它为 100 多种期刊提供了可追溯至 1975 年或更早年代的 PDF 过期案卷，并提供了 1000 多个标题的可检索参考文献。
涉及了几乎所有自然科学和社会科学领域，...ACLS人文科学电子图书－学术著作精选【地址】原界面链接【文献类型】全文/部分全文、图书【访问年限】【描述】《ACLS人文科学电子图书－学术著作精选》（ACLS Humanities E-Book Collection, HEB）由美国学术团体协会（American Council of LearnedSocieties, ACLS）提供。
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英文文献资料外文文献一：Food safety: the shocking truth about the food industrySource: Author: Marion Nestle、Refrigeration technology, pasteurization, pesticides, disease control, these technologies so that safe food into the 20th century, public health's greatest achievements. This book view is that food safety problems also depend on politics. September 2001 events to dispel this view of the doubts about aviation aircraft used by terrorists as a destruction of weapons to civilians and public figures have anthrax spores sent folder of letters, the consequences of these events shows, food, water can easily become a a tool for terrorists, it has also become the federal government for food safety control problem.This chapter will sum up this book referred to in the various food safety problems. Some of them threatened to keep animals healthy, very few will lead to a number of human diseases. Even so, these issues impact on human well-being is deep; large-scale destruction of breeding animals, affecting the livelihood of many people, limiting personal freedom. The 20th century, 90's and early 21st century, an outbreak of mad cow disease and foot and mouth disease Although this is only because of errors caused by the production process, but still brings a lot of destructive. In contrast, bio-terrorism is the deliberate use of biological and chemical substances to achieve their political objectives. For food safety issues,Bio-terrorism extends food safety issues and political outreach; deliberate destruction, excluding any consequences of innocent injury.In this chapter, we will discuss how the rise of bio-terrorism, food safety issues and extend the extension of food safety issues. In the United States, food safety, usually refers to the family food supply reliability. E-mail from the anthrax incident, the food safety issues, also includes safety from biological terrorism. Our discussion will be the beginning of some zoonotic diseases: such as mad cow disease, foot and mouth disease, anthrax. In recent years, these zoonotic diseases harmful to humans is relatively small. Today, for these zoonotic diseases, we are concerned that they may give rise to disease, destruction of food supply system,To become a tool for bio-terrorism aspect. This chapter summarizes the discussion of this book, fromsociety and from a personal point of view what action should be taken to face these issues, as well as food safety issues present and future.The political animal diseasesOne of the consequences of globalization is that of food cross-border long-distance rapid transit, affecting food supply all kinds of disease can easily spread from one country to another country. Animal diseases have a commercial impact, if a country has come to infectious diseases of animals, other countries will refuse to import the kinds of animal meat. The impact of business at the same time there are political consequences.Britain's mad cow disease and foot and mouth disease occurred as a result of beef in the production process caused by mismanagement, compared to the U.S. anthrax letters is a result of vandalism. However, this three kinds of threatening to cause great panic, they are difficult to detect control, can cause severe disease. Moreover, these three kinds of threats against people for the food supply, as well as confidence in the Government.Mad cow is the mid-20th century, 90 of the most popular of a food security crisis, the epidemic is mainly limited to the United Kingdom. With regard to BSE-related issues and our discussion, mainly because of political issues and scientific issues intertwined Among them, public confidence had a great impact. For example, the British Government in the BSE crisis in the practice is also considered to result in distrust of genetically modified food one of the reasons. The beginning of the 20th century, 80 years, no one had heard of the disease, but in 1999, this disease affects at least 175,000 British cattle. The consequences are very serious: 400 million head of livestock were slaughtered, the loss of 70 billion U.S. dollars,Spread to 18 countries worldwide national boycott of British beef. By 2001 only, although "only" 120 people died of the human variant of mad cow disease, it is estimated the death toll will reach 10 million people. Because mad cow disease revealed the modern politics of food safety issues, it is worth detailing.英文文献中文翻译06013618 胡冬敏外文翻译一：作者：玛丽恩·内斯特尔出版时间：2004年11月食品安全：令人震惊的食品行业真相（美）玛丽恩·内斯特尔冷藏技术，巴氏消毒，杀虫剂，疾病控制，这些技术使安全食品成为20世纪公众健康最伟大的成就之一。
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〔序号〕 析出责任者.析出题名.见(英文用In)：专著责任者.书名.出版地：出版者，出版年：起止页码.
〔12〕罗云.安全科学理论体系的`发展及趋势探讨.见：白春华，何学秋，吴宗之.21世纪安全科学与技术的发展趋势.北京：科学出版社，2000：1-5.
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单一作者著作的书籍：
姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.
Sheril, R. D. (1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego: Halstead.
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[1]周庆荣，张泽廷，朱美文，等.固体溶质在含夹带剂超临界流体中的.溶解度[J].化工学报，1995，46(3)：317 323
[2]Dobbs J M, Wong J M. Modification of supercritical fluid phasebehavior using polor coselvent[J]. Ind Eng Chem Res, 1987,26:56
B.专著
〔序号〕 主要责任者.文献题名〔M〕.出版地：出版者，出版年：页码.
〔3〕 刘国钧，郑如斯.中国书的故事〔M〕.北京：中国青年出版社，1979：115.
参考文献 英文
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The Day Continuation School ,London ,1923.[51 ] Dr. N. L. McCaslin Designing Career and Technical (Voca2tional) EducationPrograms for the Modern City 上海教育论坛[J ] . 2005 , (6) :22 - 23.[52] Jeffey A.immons:New Ventere Creation.Iwin McGraw–Hill,1999,3[53] Katz,J,The chronology and intellectual trajectory of American entrepreneurshipeducation,Journal of Business Venturing,2003(18):283-300nturing12(5)[ 54 ] 滕大春. 美国教育史[M] . 北京:人民教育出版社,1994.[ 55 ] 滕大春. 外国教育通史(第1 卷) [M] . 济南:山东教育出版社,1990.[56 ] [英]安迪·格林著,王春华等译,朱旭东校. 教育与国家的形成:英、法、美教育体系起源之比较[M] . 北京:教育科学出版社,2004[ 57] 滕大春. 今日美国教育[M] . 北京:人民教育出版社,1980.2.傅汉清:《美国小企业研究》，北京:中国财经经济出版社，2000年版。
法学 毕业论文 文献 外文 英文 翻译
附件一：英文文献INTRODUCTIONOffences of strict liability are those crimes which do not require mens rea with regard to at least one or more elements of the actus reus. The defendant need not have intended or known about that circumstance or consequence. Liability is said to be strict with regard to that element. For a good example see:R v Prince[1875]：The defendant ran off with an under-age girl. He was charged with an offence of taking a girl under the age of 16 out of the possession of her parents contrary to s55 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861. The defendant knew that the girl was in the custody her father but he believed on reasonable grounds that the girl was aged 18. It was held that knowledge that the girl was under the age of 16 was not required in order to establish the offence. It was sufficient to show that the defendant intended to take the girl out of the possession of her father.It is only in extreme and rare cases where no mens rea is required for liability, thereby making the particular offence "absolute".GENERAL PRINCIPLESThe vast majority of strict liability crimes are statutory offences. However, statutes do not state explicitly that a particular offence is one of strict liability. Where a statute uses terms such as "knowingly" or "recklessly" then the offence being created is one that requires mens rea. Alternatively, it may make it clear that an offence of strict liability is being created. In many cases it will be a matter for the courts to interpret the statute and decide whether mens rea is required or not. What factors are taken into account by the courts when assessing whether or not an offence falls into the category of strict liability offences?THE MODERN CRITERIAIn Gammon (Hong Kong) Ltd v Attorney-General for Hong Kong [1984], the Privy Council considered the scope and role of strict liability offences in the modern criminal law and their effect upon the "presumption of mens rea". Lord Scarman laid down the criteria upon which a court should decide whether or not it is appropriate to impose strict liability: "In their Lordships' opinion, the law … may be stated in the following propositions … : (1) there is a presumption of law that mens rea is required before a person can be held guilty of a criminal offence; (2) the presumption is particularly strong where the offence is "truly criminal" in character; (3) the presumption applies to statutory offences, and can be displaced only if this is clearly or by necessary implication the effect of the statute; (4) the only situation in which the presumption can be displaced is where the statute is concerned with an issue of social concern, and public safety is such an issue; (5) even where a statute is concerned with such an issue, the presumption of mens rea stands unless it can be shown that the creation of strict liability will be effective to promote the objects of the statute by encouraging greater vigilance to prevent the commission of the prohibited act."(1) PRESUMPTION OF MENS REACourts usually begin with the presumption in favor of mens rea, seeing the well-known statement by Wright J in Sherras v De Rutzen：There is a presumption that mens rea, or evil intention, or knowledge of the wrongfulness of the act, is an essential ingredient in every offence; but that presumption is liable to be displaced either by the words of the statute creating the offence or by the subject-matter with which it deals, and both must be considered(2) GRAVITY OF PUNISHMENTAs a general rule, the more serious the criminal offence created by statute, the less likely the courts is to view it as an offence of strict liability. See:Sweet v Parsley [1970]：The defendant was a landlady of a house let to tenants. She retained one room in the house for herself and visited occasionally to collect the rent and letters. While she was absent the police searched the house and found cannabis. The defendant was convicted under s5 of the Dangerous Drugs Act 1965, of "being concerned in the management of premises used for the smoking of cannabis". She appealed alleging that she had no knowledge of the circumstances and indeed could not expect reasonably to have had such knowledge.The House of Lords,quashing her conviction, held that it had to be proved that the defendant had intended the house to be used for drug-taking, since the statute in question created a serious, or "truly criminal" offence, conviction for which would have grave consequences for the defendant. Lord Reid stated that "a stigma still attaches to any person convicted of a truly criminal offence, and the more serious or more disgraceful the offence the greater the stigma". And equally important, "the press in this country are vigilant to expose injustice, and every manifestly unjust conviction made known to the public tends to injure the body politic [people of a nation] by undermining public confidence in the justice of the law and of its administration."Lord Reid went on to point out that in any event it was impractical to impose absolute liability for an offence of this nature, as those who were responsible for letting properties could not possibly be expected to know everything that their tenants were doing.(3) WORDING OF THE STATUTEIn determining whether the presumption in favor of mens rea is to be displaced, the courts are required to have reference to the whole statute in which the offence appears. See:Cundy v Le Cocq (1884) ：The defendant was convicted of unlawfully selling alcohol to an intoxicated person, contrary to s13 of the Licensing Act 1872. On appeal, the defendant contended that he had been unaware of the customer's drunkenness and thus should be acquitted. The Divisional Court interpreted s13 as creating an offence of strict liability since it was itself silent as to mens rea, whereas other offences under the same Act expressly required proof of knowledge on the part of the defendant. It was held that it was not necessary to consider whether the defendant knew, or had means of knowing, or could with ordinary care have detected that the person served was drunk. If he served a drink to a person who was in fact drunk, he was guilty. Stephen J stated: Here, as I have already pointed out, the object of this part of the Act is to prevent the sale of intoxicating liquor to drunken persons, and it is perfectly natural to carry that out by throwing on the publican the responsibility of determining whether the person supplied comes within that category.(4) ISSUES OF SOCIAL CONCERNSee :R v Blake (1996) :Investigation officers heard an unlicensed radio station broadcast and traced it to a flat where the defendant was discovered alone standing in front of the record decks, still playing music and wearing a set of headphones. Though the defendant admitted that he knewhe was using the equipment, he claimed that he believed he was making demonstration tapes and did not know he was transmitting. The defendant was convicted of using wireless telegraphy equipment without a license, contrary to s1 (1) Wireless Telegraphy Act 1949 and appealed on the basis that the offence required mens rea.The Court of Appeal held that the offence was an absolute (actually a strict) liability offence. The Court applied Lord Scarman's principles in Gammon and found that, though the presumption in favor of mens rea was strong because the offence carried a sentence of imprisonment and was, therefore, "truly criminal", yet the offence dealt with issues of serious social concern in the interests of public safety (namely, frequent unlicensed broadcasts on frequencies used by emergency services) and the imposition of strict liability encouraged greater vigilance in setting up careful checks to avoid committing the offence.(5) IS THERE ANY PURPOSE IN IMPOSING STRICT LIABILITY?The courts will be reluctant to construe a statute as imposing strict liability upon a defendant, where there is evidence to suggest that despite his having taken all reasonable steps, he cannot avoid the commission of an offence. See:Sherras v De Rutzen [1895]: The defendant was convicted of selling alcohol to a police officer whilst on duty, contrary to s16(2) of the Licensing Act 1872. He had reasonably believed the constable to be off duty as he had removed his arm-band, which was the acknowledged method of signifying off duty. The Divisional Court held that the conviction should be quashed, despite the absence from s16 (2) of any words requiring proof of mens rea as an element of the offence. Wright J expressed the view that the presumption in favor of mens rea would only be displaced by the wording of the statute itself, or its subject matter. In this case the latter factor was significant, in that no amount of reasonable care by the defendant would have prevented the offence from being committed. Wright J stated: "It is plain that if guilty knowledge is not necessary, no care on the part of the publican could save him from a conviction under section 16, subsection (2), since it would be as easy for the constable to deny that he was on duty when asked, or to produce a forged permission from his superior officer, as to remove his armlet before entering the public house. I am, therefore, of opinion that this conviction ought to be quashed."MODERN EXAMPLESThe following case is a modern example of the imposition of strict liability: Alphacell v Woodward [1972] The defendants were charged with causing polluted matter to enter a river contrary to s2 of the Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Act 1951. The river had in fact been polluted because a pipe connected to the defendant's factory had been blocked, and the defendants had not been negligent. The House of Lords nevertheless held that the defendants were liable. Lord Salmon stated: If this appeal succeeded and it were held to be the law that no conviction be obtained under the 1951 Act unless the prosecution could discharge the often impossible onus of proving that the pollution was caused intentionally or negligently, a great deal of pollution would go unpunished and undeterred to the relief of many riparian factory owners. As a result, many rivers which are now filthy would become filthier still and many rivers which are now clean would lose their cleanliness. The legislature no doubt recognized that as a matter of public policy this would be most unfortunate. Hence s2(1)(a) which encourages riparian factory owners not only to take reasonable steps to prevent pollution but to do everything possible to ensure that they do not cause it.ARGUMENTS FOR STRICT LIABILITY1. The primary function of the courts is the prevention of forbidden acts. What acts should be regarded as forbidden? Surely only such acts as we can assert ought not to have been done. Some of the judges who upheld the conviction of Prince did so on the ground that men should be deterred from taking girls out of the possession of their parents, whatever the girl's age. This reasoning can hardly be applied to many modern offences of strict liability. We do not wish to deter people from driving cars, being concerned in the management of premises, financing hire purchase transactions or canning peas. These acts, if done with all proper care, are not such acts as the law should seek to prevent.2. Another argument that is frequently advanced in favor of strict liability is that, without it, many guilty people would escape - that there is neither time nor personnel available to litigate the culpability of each particular infraction. T his argument assumes that it is possible to deal with these cases without deciding whether D had mens rea or not, whether he was negligent or not. Certainly D may be convicted without deciding these questions, but how can he be sentenced? Suppose that a butcher sells some meat which is unfit for human consumption. Clearly the court will deal differently with (i) the butcher who knew that the meat was tainted; (ii) the butcher who did not know, but ought to have known; and (iii) the butcher who did not know and had no means of finding out. Sentence can hardly be imposed without deciding into which category the convicted person falls.3. The argument which is probably most frequently advanced by the courts for imposing strict liability is that it is necessary to do so in the interests of the public. Now it may be conceded that in many of the instances where strict liability has been imposed, the public does need protection against negligence and, assuming that the threat of punishment can make the potential harm doer more careful, there may be a valid ground for imposing liability for negligence as well as where there is mens rea. This is a plausible argument in favor of strict liability if there were no middle way between mens rea and strict liability - that is liability for negligence - and the judges have generally proceeded on the basis that there is no such middle way. Liability for negligence has rarely been spelled out of a statute except where, as in driving without due care, it is explicitly required. Lord Devlin has said: "It is not easy to find a way of construing a statute apparently expressed in terms of absolute liability so as to produce the requirement of negligence."ARGUMENTS AGAINST STRICT LIABILITY1. The case against strict liability, then, is, first, that it is unnecessary. It results in the conviction of persons who have behaved impeccably and who should not be required to alter their conduct in any way.2. Secondly, that it is unjust. Even if an absolute discharge can be given D may feel rightly aggrieved at having been formally convicted of an offence for which he bore no responsibility. Moreover, a conviction may have far-reaching consequences outside the courts, so that it is no answer to say that only a nominal penalty is imposed.3. The imposition of liability for negligence would in fact meet the arguments of most of those who favor strict liability. Such statutes are not meant to punish the vicious will but to put pressure upon the thoughtless and inefficient to do their whole duty in the interest of public health or safety or morals." The "thoughtless and inefficient" are, of course, the negligent. The objection tooffences of strict liability is not that these persons are penalized, but that others who are completely innocent are also liable to conviction. Though Lord Devlin was skeptical about the possibility of introducing the criterion of negligence (above), in Reynolds v Austin (1951) he stated that strict liability should only apply when there is something that the defendant can do to promote the observance of the law - which comes close to requiring negligence. If there were something which D could do to prevent the commission of the crime and which he failed to do, he might generally be said to have failed to comply with a duty - perhaps a high duty - of care; and so have been negligent.4. In Alphacell v Woodward (1972) Lord Salmon thought the relevant statutory section, "encourages riparian factory owners not only to take reasonable steps to prevent pollution but to do everything possible to ensure that they do not cause it." This suggests that, however vast the expenditure involved, and however unreasonable it may be in relation to the risk, D is under a duty to take all possible steps. Yet it may be doubted whether factory owners will in fact do more than is reasonable; and it is questionable whether they ought to be required to do so, at the risk - even though it be unlikely - of imprisonment. The contrary argument is that the existence of strict liability does induce organizations to aim at higher and higher standards.POSSIBLE DEVELOPMENTSThere are several possible compromises between mens rea and strict liability in regulatory offences. A "halfway house" has developed in Australia. The effect of Australian cases is: D might be convicted without proof of any mens rea by the Crown; but acquitted if he proved on a balance of probabilities that he lacked mens rea and was not negligent; ie, that he had an honest and reasonable belief in a state of facts which, would have made his act innocent. The onus of proving reasonable mistake is on D.STATUTORY DEFENCESIt is common for the drastic effect of a statute imposing strict liability to be mitigated by the provision of a statutory defense. It is instructive to consider one example. Various offences relating to the treatment and sale of food are enacted by the first twenty sections of the Food Safety Act 1990. Many, if not all, of these are strict liability offences. Section 21(1), however, provides that it shall be a defense for the person charged with any of the offences to prove that he took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due diligence to avoid the commission of the offence by himself or by a person under his control. Statutory defenses usually impose on the defendant a burden of proving that he had no mens rea and that he took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due diligence to avoid the commission of an offence. The effect of such provisions is that the prosecution need do no more than prove that the accused did the prohibited act and it is then for him to establish, if he can, that he did it innocently. Such provisions are a distinct advance on unmitigated strict liability.附件二：英文文献翻译介绍严格责任犯罪是关于客观方面的一个或多个因素不要求犯罪意图的那些犯罪。
英语情景教学外文参考文献
英语情景教学外文参考文献以下是一些英语情景教学方面的参考文献：1. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.（理查兹和罗杰斯的《语言教学的手段与方法》）2. Willis, J., & Willis, D. (2007). Doing Task-Based Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.（威利斯夫妇的《任务型教学实践》）3. Ur, P. (1996). A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.（厄尔的《语言教学课程：实践与理论》）4. Nation, I. S. P., & Macalister, J. (2010). Language Curriculum Design. New York: Routledge.（纳修恩和麦卡利斯特的《语言课程设计》）5. Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003). Beyond Methods: Macrostrategies for Language Teaching. New Haven: Yale University Press.（库马拉维德卢的《方法之外：语言教学的宏观策略》）6. Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.（哈默的《英语语言教学实践》）7. Nunan, D. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman Limited.（努南的《语言教学方法论：教师用教材》）8. Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. White Plains: Pearson Education.（布朗的《语言学习和教学原理》）这些参考文献覆盖了英语语言教学的不同方面，包括教学方法、课程设计以及教学策略等。
外文文献免费范文精选
英文原文1：《Professional C# Third Edition》Simon Robinson，Christian Nagel, Jay Glynn, Morgan Skinner, Karli Watson, Bill Evjen. Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2006 Where C# Fits InIn one sense, C# can be seen as being the same thing to programming languages is to the Windows environment. Just as Microsoft has been adding more and more features to Windows and the Windows API over the past decade. Visual Basic andC++ have undergone expansion. Although Visual Basic and C++ have ended up as hugely powerful languages as a result of this, both languages also suffer from problems due to the legacies of how they have evolved.In the case of Visual Basic 6 and earlier, the main strength of the language was the fact that it was simple to understand and didn't make many programming tasks easy, largely hiding the details of the Windows APT and the COM component infrastructure from the developer. The downside to this was that Visual Basic was never truly object-oriented, so that large applications quickly become disorganized and hard to maintain. As well as this, because Visual Basic's syntax was inherited from early versions of BASIC (which, in turn, was designed to be intuitively simple for beginning programmers to understand, rather than lo write large commercial applications), it didn't really lend itself to well-structured or object-oriented programs.C++, on the other hand, has its roots in the ANSI C++ language definition. It isn’t completely ANSI compliant for the simple reason that Microso ft first wrote itsC++ compiler before the ANSI definition had become official, but it conics close. Unfortunately, this has led to two problems. First, ANSI C++ has its roots in a decade-old state of technology, and this shows up in a lack of support for modern 1 外文文献-中文翻译-c#concepts (such as Unicode strings and generating XML documentation), and in some archaic syntax structures designed for the compilers of yesteryear (such as the separation of declaration from definition of member functions). Second, Microsoft has been simultaneously trying to evolve C++ into a language that is designed for high-performance (asks on Windows, and in order to achieve that they've been forced to add a huge number of Microsoft-specific keywords as well as various libraries to the language.The result is that on Windows, the language has become a complete mess. Just ask C++ developers how many definitions for a string they can think of: char*, LPTSTR, string, CString (MFC version), CString (WTL version), wchar_l*, OLECHAR*, and so on.Now completely new environment that is going to involve new extensions to both languages. Microsoft has gotten around this by adding yet more Microsoft-specific keywords to C++, and by completely revamping Visual Basic into Visual a language that retains some of the basic VB syntax but that is so different in design that we can consider it to be, for all practical purposes, a new language. It?s in this context that Microsoft has decided to give developers an alternative—a language designed specifically and designed with a clean slate. Visual C# .NET is the result. Officially, Microsoft describes C# as a ''simple, modern, object-oriented, and type-safe programming language derived from C and C++.” Most independent observers would probably change Chat to '"derived from C, C++, and Java.^ Such descriptions are technically accurate but do little to convey the beauty or elegance of the language. Syntactically, C# is very similar to both C++ and Java, to such 2an extent that many keywords are (he same, and C# also shares the same block structure with braces ({}) to mark blocks of code, and semicolons to separate statements. The first impression of a piece of C# code is that it looks quite like C++ or Java code. Behind that initial similarity, however, C# is a lot easier to learn than C++, and of comparable difficulty to Java. Its design is more in tune with modern developer tools than both of those other languages, and it has been designed to give us, simultaneously, the ease of use of Visual Basic, and the high performance, low-level memory access of C++ if required. Some of the features of C# arc:LI Full support for classes and object-oriented programming, including both interface and implementation inheritance, virtual functions, and operator overloading.□ A consistent and well-defined set of basic types.□ Built-in support for automatic generation of XML documentation.□ Automatic cleanup of dynamically allocated memory.□ The facility to mark classes or methods with user-defined attributes. This can be useful for documentation and can have some effects on compilation (for example, marking methods to be compiled only in debug builds).□ Full access to base class library, as well as easy access to the Windows AP I (if you really need it, which won’t be all that often).□ Pointers and direct memory access are available if required, but the language has been designed in such a way that you can work without them in almost all cases. □ Support for properties and eve nts in the style of Visual Basic.LJ Just by changing the compiler options, you can compile either to an executable or to a library components that can be called up by other code in the same way as 3外文文献-中文翻译-c#ActiveX controls (COM components).LI C# can be used to write dynamic Web pages and XMLWeb services.Most of the above statements, it should be pointed out. do also apply to Visual and Managed C++. The fact that C# is designed from the start to work however, means that its support for the features is both more complete, and offered within the context of a more suitable syntax than for those other languages. While the C# language itself is very similar to Java, there are some improvements: in particular. Java is not designed to work with environment.Before we leave the subject, we should point out a couple of limitations of C#. The one area the language is not designed for is time-critical or extremely high performance code—the kind where you really are worried about whether a loop takes 1.000 or 1,050 machine cycles to run through, and you need to clean up your resources the millisecond they arc no longer needed. C++ is likely to continue to reign supreme among low-level languages in this area. C# lacks certain key facilities needed for extremely high performance apps, including the ability to specify inline functions and destructors that are guaranteed to run at particular points in the code. However, the proportions of applications that fall into this category are very low.4外文文献-中文翻译-c#中文译文1:《C#的优点》C#在某种程度上k可以打作足.NET面向Windows环境的种编程语言。
3-电气工程及其自动化专业 外文文献 英文文献 外文翻译
3-电气工程及其自动化专业外文文献英文文献外文翻译1、外文原文(复印件)A: Fundamentals of Single-chip MicrocomputerThe single-chip microcomputer is the culmination of both the development of the digital computer and the integrated circuit arguably the tow most significant inventions of the 20th century [1].These tow types of architecture are found in single-chip microcomputer. Some employ the split program/data memory of the Harvard architecture, shown in Fig.3-5A-1, others follow the philosophy, widely adapted for general-purpose computers and microprocessors, of making no logical distinction between program and data memory as in the Princeton architecture, shown in Fig.3-5A-2.In general terms a single-chip microcomputer is characterized by the incorporation of all the units of a computer into a single device, as shown in Fig3-5A-3.ProgramInput& memoryOutputCPU unitDatamemoryFig.3-5A-1 A Harvard typeInput&Output CPU memoryunitFig.3-5A-2. A conventional Princeton computerExternal Timer/ System Timing Counter clock componentsSerial I/OReset ROMPrarallelI/OInterrupts RAMCPUPowerFig3-5A-3. Principal features of a microcomputerRead only memory (ROM).ROM is usually for the permanent,non-volatile storage of an applications program .Many microcomputers and microcontrollers are intended for high-volume applications and hence the economical manufacture of the devices requires that the contents of the program memory be committed permanently during the manufacture of chips . Clearly, this implies a rigorous approach to ROM code development since changes cannot be made after manufacture .This development process may involve emulation using a sophisticated development system with a hardware emulation capability as well as the use of powerful software tools.Some manufacturers provide additional ROM options by including in their range devices with (or intended for use with) user programmablememory. The simplest of these is usually device which can operate in a microprocessor mode by using some of the input/output lines as an address and data bus for accessing external memory. This type of device can behave functionally as the single chip microcomputer from which itis derived albeit with restricted I/O and a modified external circuit. The use of these ROMlessdevices is common even in production circuits where the volume does not justify the development costs of custom on-chip ROM[2];there canstill be a significant saving in I/O and other chips compared to a conventional microprocessor based circuit. More exact replacement for ROM devices can be obtained in the form of variants with 'piggy-back' EPROM(Erasable programmable ROM )sockets or devices with EPROM instead of ROM 。
文学作品中英文对照外文翻译文献
文学作品中英文对照外文翻译文献
本文旨在汇总文学作品中的英文和中文对照外文翻译文献，共有以下几篇：
1. 《傲慢与偏见》
翻译：英文原版名为“Pride and Prejudice”，中文版由钱钟书翻译。
该小说是英国作家简.奥斯汀的代表作之一，描绘了19世纪英国中上层社会的生活和爱情故事。
2. 《了不起的盖茨比》
翻译：英文原版名为“The Great Gatsby”，中文版由杨绛翻译。
小说主要讲述了一个居住在纽约长岛的年轻白领盖茨比为了追求他的旧爱黛西而付出的努力，是20世纪美国文学的经典之作。
3. 《麦田里的守望者》
翻译：英文原版名为“The Catcher in the Rye”，中文版由施蛰存翻译。
该小说主人公霍尔顿是美国现代文学中最为知名的反英雄形象之一，作品深刻地揭示了青少年内心的孤独和矛盾。
4. 《1984》
翻译：英文原版名为“1984”，中文版由李敬瑞翻译。
该小说是英国作家乔治.奥威尔的代表作之一，描绘了一个虚构的极权主义社会。
以上是部分文学作品的中英文对照外文翻译文献，可以帮助读者更好地理解和学习相关文学作品。
外文文献及翻译
（（英文参考文献及译文）二〇一六年六月本科毕业论文 题 目：STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED INTHE AUDIT学生姓名：王雪琴学 院：管理学院系 别：会计系专 业：财务管理班 级：财管12-2班 学校代码： 10128 学 号： 201210707016Statistics and AuditRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED IN THE AUDIT - views, recommendations, fi ndingsPhD Candidate Gabriela-Felicia UNGUREANUAbstractThe rapid increase in the size of U.S. companies from the earlytwentieth century created the need for audit procedures based on the selectionof a part of the total population audited to obtain reliable audit evidence, tocharacterize the entire population consists of account balances or classes oftransactions. Sampling is not used only in audit – is used in sampling surveys,market analysis and medical research in which someone wants to reach aconclusion about a large number of data by examining only a part of thesedata. The difference is the “population” from which the sample is selected, iethat set of data which is intended to draw a conclusion. Audit sampling appliesonly to certain types of audit procedures.Key words: sampling, sample risk, population, sampling unit, tests ofcontrols, substantive procedures.Statistical samplingCommittee statistical sampling of American Institute of CertifiedPublic Accountants of (AICPA) issued in 1962 a special report, titled“Statistical sampling and independent auditors’ which allowed the use ofstatistical sampling method, in accordance with Generally Accepted AuditingStandards (GAAS). During 1962-1974, the AICPA published a series of paperson statistical sampling, “Auditor’s Approach to Statistical Sampling”, foruse in continuing professional education of accountants. During 1962-1974,the AICPA published a series of papers on statistical sampling, “Auditor’sApproach to Statistical Sampling”, for use in continuing professional educationof accountants. In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, “AuditSampling”, which provides general guidelines for both sampling methods,statistical and non-statistical.Earlier audits included checks of all transactions in the period coveredby the audited financial statements. At that time, the literature has not givenparticular attention to this subject. Only in 1971, an audit procedures programprinted in the “Federal Reserve Bulletin (Federal Bulletin Stocks)” includedseveral references to sampling such as selecting the “few items” of inventory.Statistics and Audit The program was developed by a special committee, which later became the AICPA, that of Certified Public Accountants American Institute.In the first decades of last century, the auditors often applied sampling, but sample size was not in related to the efficiency of internal control of the entity. In 1955, American Institute of Accountants has published a study case of extending the audit sampling, summarizing audit program developed by certified public accountants, to show why sampling is necessary to extend the audit. The study was important because is one of the leading journal on sampling which recognize a relationship of dependency between detail and reliability testing of internal control.In 1964, the AICPA’s Auditing Standards Board has issued a report entitled “The relationship between statistical sampling and Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS)” which illustrated the relationship between the accuracy and reliability in sampling and provisions of GAAS.In 1978, the AICPA published the work of Donald M. Roberts,“Statistical Auditing”which explains the underlying theory of statistical sampling in auditing.In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, named “Audit Sampling”, which provides guidelines for both sampling methods, statistical and non-statistical.An auditor does not rely solely on the results of a single procedure to reach a conclusion on an account balance, class of transactions or operational effectiveness of the controls. Rather, the audit findings are based on combined evidence from several sources, as a consequence of a number of different audit procedures. When an auditor selects a sample of a population, his objective is to obtain a representative sample, ie sample whose characteristics are identical with the population’s characteristics. This means that selected items are identical with those remaining outside the sample.In practice, auditors do not know for sure if a sample is representative, even after completion the test, but they “may increase the probability that a sample is representative by accuracy of activities made related to design, sample selection and evaluation” [1]. Lack of specificity of the sample results may be given by observation errors and sampling errors. Risks to produce these errors can be controlled.Observation error (risk of observation) appears when the audit test did not identify existing deviations in the sample or using an inadequate audit technique or by negligence of the auditor.Sampling error (sampling risk) is an inherent characteristic of the survey, which results from the fact that they tested only a fraction of the total population. Sampling error occurs due to the fact that it is possible for Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthe auditor to reach a conclusion, based on a sample that is different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would have been subject to audit procedures identical. Sampling risk can be reduced by adjusting the sample size, depending on the size and population characteristics and using an appropriate method of selection. Increasing sample size will reduce the risk of sampling; a sample of the all population will present a null risk of sampling.Audit Sampling is a method of testing for gather sufficient and appropriate audit evidence, for the purposes of audit. The auditor may decide to apply audit sampling on an account balance or class of transactions. Sampling audit includes audit procedures to less than 100% of the items within an account balance or class of transactions, so all the sample able to be selected. Auditor is required to determine appropriate ways of selecting items for testing. Audit sampling can be used as a statistical approach and a non- statistical.Statistical sampling is a method by which the sample is made so that each unit consists of the total population has an equal probability of being included in the sample, method of sample selection is random, allowed to assess the results based on probability theory and risk quantification of sampling. Choosing the appropriate population make that auditor’ findings can be extended to the entire population.Non-statistical sampling is a method of sampling, when the auditor uses professional judgment to select elements of a sample. Since the purpose of sampling is to draw conclusions about the entire population, the auditor should select a representative sample by choosing sample units which have characteristics typical of that population. Results will not extrapolate the entire population as the sample selected is representative.Audit tests can be applied on the all elements of the population, where is a small population or on an unrepresentative sample, where the auditor knows the particularities of the population to be tested and is able to identify a small number of items of interest to audit. If the sample has not similar characteristics for the elements of the entire population, the errors found in the tested sample can not extrapolate.Decision of statistical or non-statistical approach depends on the auditor’s professional judgment which seeking sufficient appropriate audits evidence on which to completion its findings about the audit opinion.As a statistical sampling method refer to the random selection that any possible combination of elements of the community is equally likely to enter the sample. Simple random sampling is used when stratification was not to audit. Using random selection involves using random numbers generated byRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit a computer. After selecting a random starting point, the auditor found the first random number that falls within the test document numbers. Only when the approach has the characteristics of statistical sampling, statistical assessments of risk are valid sampling.In another variant of the sampling probability, namely the systematic selection (also called random mechanical) elements naturally succeed in office space or time; the auditor has a preliminary listing of the population and made the decision on sample size. “The auditor calculated a counting step, and selects the sample element method based on step size. Step counting is determined by dividing the volume of the community to sample the number of units desired. Advantages of systematic screening are its usability. In most cases, a systematic sample can be extracted quickly and method automatically arranges numbers in successive series.”[2].Selection by probability proportional to size - is a method which emphasizes those population units’recorded higher values. The sample is constituted so that the probability of selecting any given element of the population is equal to the recorded value of the item;Stratifi ed selection - is a method of emphasis of units with higher values and is registered in the stratification of the population in subpopulations. Stratification provides a complete picture of the auditor, when population (data table to be analyzed) is not homogeneous. In this case, the auditor stratifies a population by dividing them into distinct subpopulations, which have common characteristics, pre-defined. “The objective of stratification is to reduce the variability of elements in each layer and therefore allow a reduction in sample size without a proportionate increase in the risk of sampling.” [3] If population stratification is done properly, the amount of sample size to come layers will be less than the sample size that would be obtained at the same level of risk given sample with a sample extracted from the entire population. Audit results applied to a layer can be designed only on items that are part of that layer.I appreciated as useful some views on non-statistical sampling methods, which implies that guided the selection of the sample selecting each element according to certain criteria determined by the auditor. The method is subjective; because the auditor selects intentionally items containing set features him.The selection of the series is done by selecting multiple elements series (successive). Using sampling the series is recommended only if a reasonable number of sets used. Using just a few series there is a risk that the sample is not representative. This type of sampling can be used in addition to other samples, where there is a high probability of occurrence of errors. At the arbitrary selection, no items are selected preferably from the auditor, Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthat regardless of size or source or characteristics. Is not the recommended method, because is not objective.That sampling is based on the auditor’s professional judgment, which may decide which items can be part or not sampled. Because is not a statistical method, it can not calculate the standard error. Although the sample structure can be constructed to reproduce the population, there is no guarantee that the sample is representative. If omitted a feature that would be relevant in a particular situation, the sample is not representative.Sampling applies when the auditor plans to make conclusions about population, based on a selection. The auditor considers the audit program and determines audit procedures which may apply random research. Sampling is used by auditors an internal control systems testing, and substantive testing of operations. The general objectives of tests of control system and operations substantive tests are to verify the application of pre-defined control procedures, and to determine whether operations contain material errors.Control tests are intended to provide evidence of operational efficiency and controls design or operation of a control system to prevent or detect material misstatements in financial statements. Control tests are necessary if the auditor plans to assess control risk for assertions of management.Controls are generally expected to be similarly applied to all transactions covered by the records, regardless of transaction value. Therefore, if the auditor uses sampling, it is not advisable to select only high value transactions. Samples must be chosen so as to be representative population sample.An auditor must be aware that an entity may change a special control during the course of the audit. If the control is replaced by another, which is designed to achieve the same specific objective, the auditor must decide whether to design a sample of all transactions made during or just a sample of transactions controlled again. Appropriate decision depends on the overall objective of the audit test.Verification of internal control system of an entity is intended to provide guidance on the identification of relevant controls and design evaluation tests of controls.Other tests:In testing internal control system and testing operations, audit sample is used to estimate the proportion of elements of a population containing a characteristic or attribute analysis. This proportion is called the frequency of occurrence or percentage of deviation and is equal to the ratio of elements containing attribute specific and total number of population elements. WeightRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit deviations in a sample are determined to calculate an estimate of the proportion of the total population deviations.Risk associated with sampling - refers to a sample selection which can not be representative of the population tested. In other words, the sample itself may contain material errors or deviations from the line. However, issuing a conclusion based on a sample may be different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would be subject to audit.Types of risk associated with sampling:Controls are more effective than they actually are or that there are not significant errors when they exist - which means an inappropriate audit opinion. Controls are less effective than they actually are that there are significant errors when in fact they are not - this calls for additional activities to establish that initial conclusions were incorrect.Attributes testing - the auditor should be defining the characteristics to test and conditions for misconduct. Attributes testing will make when required objective statistical projections on various characteristics of the population. The auditor may decide to select items from a population based on its knowledge about the entity and its environment control based on risk analysis and the specific characteristics of the population to be tested.Population is the mass of data on which the auditor wishes to generalize the findings obtained on a sample. Population will be defined compliance audit objectives and will be complete and consistent, because results of the sample can be designed only for the population from which the sample was selected.Sampling unit - a unit of sampling may be, for example, an invoice, an entry or a line item. Each sample unit is an element of the population. The auditor will define the sampling unit based on its compliance with the objectives of audit tests.Sample size - to determine the sample size should be considered whether sampling risk is reduced to an acceptable minimum level. Sample size is affected by the risk associated with sampling that the auditor is willing to accept it. The risk that the auditor is willing to accept lower, the sample will be higher.Error - for detailed testing, the auditor should project monetary errors found in the sample population and should take into account the projected error on the specific objective of the audit and other audit areas. The auditor projects the total error on the population to get a broad perspective on the size of the error and comparing it with tolerable error.For detailed testing, tolerable error is tolerable and misrepresentations Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditwill be a value less than or equal to materiality used by the auditor for the individual classes of transactions or balances audited. If a class of transactions or account balances has been divided into layers error is designed separately for each layer. Design errors and inconsistent errors for each stratum are then combined when considering the possible effect on the total classes of transactions and account balances.Evaluation of sample results - the auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether assessing relevant characteristics of the population is confirmed or needs to be revised.When testing controls, an unexpectedly high rate of sample error may lead to an increase in the risk assessment of significant misrepresentation unless it obtained additional audit evidence to support the initial assessment. For control tests, an error is a deviation from the performance of control procedures prescribed. The auditor should obtain evidence about the nature and extent of any significant changes in internal control system, including the staff establishment.If significant changes occur, the auditor should review the understanding of internal control environment and consider testing the controls changed. Alternatively, the auditor may consider performing substantive analytical procedures or tests of details covering the audit period.In some cases, the auditor might not need to wait until the end audit to form a conclusion about the effectiveness of operational control, to support the control risk assessment. In this case, the auditor might decide to modify the planned substantive tests accordingly.If testing details, an unexpectedly large amount of error in a sample may cause the auditor to believe that a class of transactions or account balances is given significantly wrong in the absence of additional audit evidence to show that there are not material misrepresentations.When the best estimate of error is very close to the tolerable error, the auditor recognizes the risk that another sample have different best estimate that could exceed the tolerable error.ConclusionsFollowing analysis of sampling methods conclude that all methods have advantages and disadvantages. But the auditor is important in choosing the sampling method is based on professional judgment and take into account the cost / benefit ratio. Thus, if a sampling method proves to be costly auditor should seek the most efficient method in view of the main and specific objectives of the audit.Romanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit The auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether the preliminary assessment of relevant characteristics of the population must be confirmed or revised. If the evaluation sample results indicate that the relevant characteristics of the population needs assessment review, the auditor may: require management to investigate identified errors and likelihood of future errors and make necessary adjustments to change the nature, timing and extent of further procedures to take into account the effect on the audit report.Selective bibliography:[1] Law no. 672/2002 updated, on public internal audit[2] Arens, A şi Loebbecke J - Controve …Audit– An integrate approach”, 8th edition, Arc Publishing House[3] ISA 530 - Financial Audit 2008 - International Standards on Auditing, IRECSON Publishing House, 2009- Dictionary of macroeconomics, Ed C.H. Beck, Bucharest, 2008Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit摘要美国公司的规模迅速增加，从第二十世纪初创造了必要的审计程序，根据选定的部分总人口的审计，以获得可靠的审计证据，以描述整个人口组成的帐户余额或类别的交易。
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Effect of Processing and Storage on Antioxidant Capacity of Honey ABSTRACT: The impact of heat and filtration on the antioxidant capacity of clover and buckwheat honey during storage was analyzed. Processing clover honey did not significantly impact antioxidant capacity (determined by oxygen radical absorbance capacity [ORAC] assay); processing lowered the antioxidant capacity of buckwheat honey(33.4%). The antioxidant capacity of honeys was reduced after 6 mo of storage with no impact of storage temperature or container type detected at the end point of the storage period. Processed and raw clover honey antioxidant capacity decreased about 30%. Processed buckwheat honey decreased 24% in antioxidant capacity, whereas raw buckwheat honey decreased 49%. Antioxidant capacity of processed and raw honeys was similar after storage.Phenolic profiles,peroxide accumulation, 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furaldehyde (HMF), gluconic acid, and total phenolics were also analyzed.The impact of storage on antioxidant components of processed and raw honey was complex.Keywords: honey, antioxidant, processing, storage, phenolicsIntroductionHoney has been used since ancient times and has gained appreciation as the only concentrated form of sugar available worldwide (FAO 1996).Traditionally, its use in food has been as a sweetening agent.However, several aspects of its use indicate that it also functions as a food preservative.It has been demonstrated that honey serves as a source of natural antioxidants,which are effective in preventing deteriorative oxidation reactions in foods, such as inhibiting browning reactions in fruits and vegetables (Oszmianski and Lee 1990;McLellan and others 1995; Chen and others 2000) and preventing lipid oxidation in cooked, ground poultry (Antony and others 2000b, 2002; McKibben and Engeseth 2002). Serum antioxidant capacity was significantly increased in humans after consumption of buckwheat honey in water(Gheldof and others 2003). Honey consumption was also effective in increasing total plasma antioxidant capacity as well as the total plasma reducing capacity in humans(Schramm and others 2003). Many previous studies on the antioxidantcapacity of honey focused primarily on processed honeys. Honey is reported to be at its best in terms of flavor and color immediately after extraction (White 1978). As extracted, “raw”honey contains extraneous matter such as pollen, bits of wax, variable amounts of sugar-tolerant yeasts, and potentially, crystals of dextrose hydrate. These substances are removed from extracted honey to make it marketable on a large scale. Honey is prone to fermentation unless the moisture content is below 17% (White 1978); most honey will crystallize with time, unless action is taken to prevent crystallization. Granulated honey is more likely to ferment than liquid honey (White 1967). Raw honey is not suitable for large-scale marketing without further treatment.Commercial honey processing includes controlled heating to destroy yeast and to dissolve dextrose crystals, combined with fine straining or pressure filtration. A number of methods are available for heating to temperatures high enough to kill yeasts or to delay granulation. Methods and equipment that rapidly cool honey after heating are desirable (Townsend 1975). Possible time/temperature combinations include 65.6 °C for 30 s, 82.2 °C for 10 to 12 s, and 85 °C for 4 to 5 min. The effect of heat is cumulative;thus, the effects of processing and storing honey are often considered together(White and Subers 1964a; Sancho and others 1992; Bath and Singh 1999).Several researchers (White and others 1964; Sancho and others 1992; Bath and Singh 1999; Sánchez and others 2001) have evaluated honey freshness and quality by measuring diastase, invertase, and hydroxymethylfurfural content over the heat-ing and storing of different sources of honey.However, the impact of industrial processing and storage on the antioxidant capacity of honey is not well understood.It was hypothesized that significant alteration in the antioxidant capacity of honey would be introduced by processing. The overall objective of this study, therefore,was to determine the impact of processing and different storage conditio.Materials and MethodsProcessed and unprocessed (raw) clover and buckwheat honeys from the same batch were obtained from Sioux Honey Assn.(Sioux City, Iowa, U.S.A.). Unprocessed samples were drawn from lots that were heated to130 °F, to melt granulation, and blended.For processing, raw honey was dumped intomelting tanks and heated with heat exchangers at 140 °F for 12 to 16 h (based on the degree of granulation). Melted honey was pumped into settling tanks, where foam and debris settled on top for 8 to 12 h and then was skimmed off. After settling, honey was pumped through screens to filter out larger debris. Celite was mixed into the honey in the slurry tank as a filter aid.From the slurry tanks, honey was pumped to heat exchangers, exposed to 180 °F for 10 to 12 s and passed through a filter press(pore size approximately 10m), small enough to filter out pollen. AAPH (2,2-azobis[2-amidinopropane]dihydrochloride) was purchased from WakoChemicals,Inc.(Richmond,Va.,U.S.A.)andTrolox(6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-te tramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid) from Fisher Scientific(Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.A.). All other chemicals were obtained from Sigma Chemical (St.Louis, Mo., U.S.A.).Samples were aliquoted into 2-oz clear glass, amber glass, and polyethylene bottles and stored at room temperature under both natural laboratory lighting and in the dark; 3 samples were stored per honey per condition. Additional samples were stored for 6 mo at 4 °C and at –20 °C. Analytical determinations were performed at least in triplicate for each honey sample. Each honey sample was analyzed for antioxidant capacity(ORAC value), phenolic compounds profile, total phenolics, HMF, gluconic acid,and peroxide accumulation.The ORAC assay was based on the procedure described by Cao and others (1993) and modified as previously described(Gheldof and Engeseth 2002). All reagents were prepared in 75 m M phosphate buffer,pH 7.0. Trolox (0 to 4 M) was used as the standard. Buckwheat honeys were dissolved at a concentration of 0.003g/mL,whereas clover honey solutions were prepared at 0.005 g/mL. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis of phenolic compounds Honeys were fractionated on an Amberlite XAD-2 resin column according to Gheldof and others (2002), and the phenolics in the methanol fraction were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography(HPLC), using a 3.9 × 150 mm XTerra RP18(Waters, Mass., U.S.A.) column (5 m) with diode array detection at 285 and 340 nm.Gradients were generated using 0.05% formic acid in water (A) and methanol (B), starting at 95%A, decreasing to 85% A in 10 min,to 70% A in 5 min, to 60% A in 5 min, to 55% A in 10 min, to 40% A in 20 min, to 20% A in 2 min, and held for 8 min. The flow rate was 0.8 mL/min. Identification of honey phenolics was carried out by comparing retention time and spectral characteristics of standards and unknown analytes using HP ChemStation software (Hewlett Packard, Palo Alto,Calif., U.S.A.).Total phenolics and ascorbic acidTotal phenolics in honey were analyzed by the method of Bonvehi and Coll (1994),with modifications described by Gheldof and Engeseth (2002). Honey samples were dissolved in 70% methanol (0.03 g/mL for buckwheat honey and 0.2 g/mL for clover honey); total phenolics were determined using a calibration curve of gallic acid (0 to 100 mg/L), prepared fresh daily. The recovery rate of this assay was calculated by spiking honeys with gallic acid.The determination of ascorbic acid in honey by HPLC was based on the method described by Castro and others (2001).Moisture content and colorThe initial moisture content and color of both raw and processed clover and buckwheat honey were measured. Percent moisture was determined with an Atago honey hand refractometer (Dadant, Hamilton, Ill.,U.S.A.) and color measured with a Pfund honey grader (Koehler Instrument Co. Inc., Bohemia, N.Y., U.S.A.) according to manufacturer’s instructions. The measurement is in centimeters; higher numbers indicate darker colored honey.Analysis of HMF, gluconic acid,and peroxide accumulationHMF was determined by a UV spectrophotometric method (AOAC 1995). The predominantorganic acid in honey is gluconic acid (Stinson and others 1960). Total D-gluconic acid content in honey was measured by an enzymatic assay described by Mato and others (1997), using a Boehringer-Mannheim enzymatic kit supplied by Bioform(Marshall, Mich., U.S.A.). The combined activity of glucose oxidase, catalase,and peroxidase was assessed by measuring peroxide accumulation in honey as described by White and Subers (1963).Statistical analysisAll statistical analyses were performed using SAS Software (Version 8, SAS Inst.,Cary, N.C., U.S.A.). Results are presented as means ± SD; statistical significance was set at P < 0.05. Analysis of variance (ANOVA)and differences of least square means were used to examine differences between treatment groups and the impact of their interactions on antioxidant capacity.Results and DiscussionAntioxidant capacityProcessing clover honey did not have a significant impact on the antioxidant capacity as determined by ORAC assay (Table 1).However, processed buckwheat honey initially was 33.4% lower in antioxidant capacity than raw buckwheat honey. Antioxidant capacity of all honeys was reduced after 6 mo of storage; no differences in ORAC values were observed because of storage temperature or container type. Antioxidant capacity of processed and raw clover honeys decreased approximately 26% and 32%, respectively,over 6 mo of storage. Processed buckwheat honey decreased an average of 24% in antioxidant capacity, whereas raw buckwheat honey decreased 49%. Thus, the antioxidant capacity of processed and raw honeys was similar at the end of the 6 mo storage period.Previous research on commercially availableclover honey indicated no significant alteration of antioxidant capacity over longterm(>2 y) storage (Gheldof and Engeseth 2002); however, there was no available information about the age of the honey before the project started. This, together with results presented here, suggests that the decline in antioxidant content occurs early(during the first 6 mo).Storage container type and temperature did not have a dramatic impact on the antioxidant capacity (ORAC values) of honey.There was no reason to suspect that the storage container would alter ORAC values,except that there is an influence of light on oxidative processes (Leonardis and Macciola 1998; Khan and Shahidi 1999). Mansour and Khalil (2000) noticed that freeze-dried extracts from potato peel, fenugreek seeds,and ginger rhizomes stored in the dark over a 21-d period did not demonstrate changes in antioxidant activity; however, extracts stored at room temperature exposed to light experienced significant reduction in antioxidant potency after 7-d storage. Higher temperaturesgenerally result in a higher rate of hydroperoxide decomposition, a higher reactivity of transition metal ions, and greater rates for general redox reactions (Kamal-Eldin and Appelqvist 1996), perhaps influencing the stability of antioxidants themselves(Lingnert and Waller 1983; Kamal-Eldin and Appelqvist 1996).Processing dramatically impacted antioxidant capacity (ORAC values) of buckwheat honey, yet had little impact on the ORAC values of clover honey. Buckwheat honey and clover honey have been demonstrated to be very different in antioxidant capacity,color, and chemical composition (Frankel and others 1998; Gheldof and others 2002).Thus, the impact of processing is not surprising.Primary differences in response to processing may be because of the additionof celite as a filter aid.During the honey processing, celite was added to facilitate filtration. Filter aids generally are rigid, intricately shaped, porous,individual particles that can form a highly permeable, stable, incompressible filter cake. Celite removes fine solids at high rates of flow and is chemically inert and essentially insoluble in the liquid being filtered.However, celite has been reported to remove more than 50% of phenolic compounds in apple juice (Zhang and others 1999) and tocopherol in extra virgin olive oil(Khan and Shahidi 1999). Celite used during honey filtration may have nonspecifically bound phenolics, which could explainthe reduction of antioxidant capacity in buckwheat honey after processing because buckwheat honey has a much higher phenolic composition than clover honey(Gheldof and Engeseth 2002; Gheldof and others 2002). However, phenolic profiles generated in this study were only of the methanol fraction from the Amberlite extraction of honey; previous results generated in our laboratory (Gheldof and others 2002) indicated that the acid/water fraction was also high in phenolics (and antioxidant capacity). This fraction is not easily analyzed; thus, it is difficult to discern which phenolics may have been bound by celite. However, it was demonstrated by previous studies (Gheldof and Engeseth 2002) that total phenolic content has a strong positive correlation with the antioxidantcapacity of honey (R2 = 0.9497, P <0.0001).Phenolic profilesProcessing significantly increased quercetin and galanginconcentrations in clover honey (Figure 1). Initially, there were no significant differences in phenolic profiles of processed and raw buckwheat honeys, except for differences in galangin concentrations,which, unlike clover honey, decreased after processing. After storing at room temperature for 6 mo, several phenolics were different in clover honey, with a decrease in unknown nr 1, vanillic acid, syringic acid,and unknown nr 2 in both raw and processed clover honey samples.Storage affected kaempferol only in raw clover honey and chrysin only in processed clover honey. No alteration was observed in p-coumaric acid and pinobanksin upon processing and storage. Storage decreased vanillic acid, cis, trans abscisic acid, pinobanksin and pinocembrin and increased unknown nr 2 in both raw and processed buckwheat honey. A decrease of galangin in raw buckwheat honey and p-OH benzoic acid in processed buckwheat honey was also observed.There were no differences in unknown nr 1, p-coumaric acid, kaempferol,and chrysin in any buckwheat honey samples.After storage, all phenolic compounds in raw and processed honey samples were either decreased or increased to the same level for both clover and buckwheat honey.In a study of the impact of processing on major flavonoids in vegetables, Ewald and others (1999) noticed that a dramatic loss of flavonoids in onion took place during preprocessing,where the onion was peeled,trimmed, and chopped before blanching.Further cooking, frying, or warm-holding of blanched onions for up to 2 h did not influence the flavonoid content. The ability of flavonols to resist degradation during heat processing is believed to be highly associated with their structure but is also substantially dependent on other factors, such as the presence of oxygen or oxidizing agents(Makris and Rossiter 2000). It is possiblethat in the present study, oxygen may have been introduced into honey samples while handling and dividing into different containers,thus influencing the stability (not content) of certain phenolic compounds. Total phenolics and ascorbic acidProcessing did not affect total phenolics of clover honey initially (Table 2); however, raw clover honey experienced a 25% decrease in total phenolics after 6 mo of dark storage.Initially, processing reduced totalphenolics of buckwheat honey by 37%. Storage did not significantly alter the total phenolics of the processed buckwheat honey samples. Raw buckwheat honey contained lower total phenolics after storage in the dark (17% decrease) and storage at 4 °C (31% decrease).Note that total phenolics include all phenolic compounds; the phenolic compounds analyzed by HPLC include only those analyzed after fractionation and include just 1 fraction.Thus, the impact on total phenolics would be expected to differ from that of the phenolic profile.Previous studies have shown that antioxidant capacity was strongly correlated with total phenolics (Kalt and others 1999; Gheldof and Engeseth 2002), and polyphenolics contributed substantially to the antioxidant capacity of many small fruit species (Kalt and others 2001). Antioxidant capacity because of phenolics is decreased by food processing practices, such as heating or aeration (Kalt and others 2001). The flavone content decreased slightly with processing and more markedly during the storage of red raspberry jams (Zafrilla and others 2001). Drastic degradation of phenolics was also observed during the storage of Thompson seedless grape juice, and the colorimetric measurement of phenolics showed no correlation with HPLC quantitation (Spanos and Wrolstad 1990).Ascorbic acid was not initially detectable in any of the selected honeys. Thus, no ascorbate analyses were conducted on stored honeys. This agrees with reports that most honey has less than 5 mg/100 g ascorbic acid content (White 1975; Gheldof and others 2002).Moisture content and colorNo significant differences were identified between processed and raw clover honey in moisture content, 16.64% ± 0.29% and 16.67% ± 0.15%, respectively. Processed clover honey was darker in color (3.95 ± 0.11cm) than raw clover honey (3.43 ± 0.12 cm,P < 0.001). On the contrary, processed buckwheat honey had a slightly higher moisture content (17.08% ± 0.29%) than raw buckwheat honey (16.66% ± 0.14%, P = 0.0396).Raw buckwheat honey was darker in color(10.22 ± 0.06 cm) than processed buckwheat honey (9.73 ± 0.14 cm, P < 0.001). HydroxymethylfuraldehydeIn general, there was a dramatic difference in HMF values betweenclover(from 0.39 to 1.68 mg/100 g honey) and buckwheat honeys (from 10.91 to 15.81 mg/100 g honey) (Table 3). The HMF value of processed clover honey initially was 57% higher than that of raw clover honey. After 6 mo of storage, HMF values increased in both raw (102% to 181%) and processed (62% to 155%) clover honeys stored at room temperature.The HMF value of processed buckwheat honey initially was 23% lower than that of raw buckwheat honey. Storage did not have a dramatic impact on HMF in processed buckwheat honey, with exception of the decline (8% to 10%) in HMF values after storage in plastic bottles at room temperature.Raw buckwheat honey samples experienced a 6% to 20% reduction in HMF content after storage. Maillard reaction products (MRP) have been cited for their capacity to serve as antioxidants in various systems (Wijewickreme and Kitts 1997; Anese and others 1999; Antony and others 2000a). HMF formation was monitored as a general indicator of the extent of the Maillard reaction in the honeys.Significant MRP have been previously noted in commercially obtained processed honey (Zhou and others 2002). Previously,mild heat treatment and/or prolonged storage of honey led to compositional changes because of caramelization of carbohydrates,Maillard reaction, and decomposition of fructose in the acid medium of honey (Villamiel and others 2001). These reactions lead to the formation of HMF, other furfural compounds, and MRP. Many of these compounds have been found to function as antioxidants(Namiki 1988). When present in meat, the high reducing sugar content of honey allowed for the formation of MRP during cooking, helping to protect muscle lipids against oxidation (Bailey and Um 1992; Antony and others 2000b).In the present study, the impact of processing and storage on HMF accumulation in 2 different honeys was not consistent. Likewise, antioxidant capacity did not follow the same trend. Gheldof and others (2002) also observed that there was no correlation between the ORAC values and the HMF content of 7 honeys from different floral sources (R2 = 0.144, P = 0.4). HMF thus does not serve as a major contributor to the antioxidant activity of honey. The Maillard reaction is, however, very complex and leads to a wide range of breakdown products, which might also contribute to the antioxidant activity of honey but are more difficult to char-acterize. All fractions generated from whole mixtures of modelMRPs made from glucose-lysine and fructose-lysine reactants showed various degrees of antioxidative activity when evaluated by a deoxyribose oxidative degradation assay (Jing and Kitts 2000); similar protective antioxidative activity of the different MRP fractions was not exhibited in a DNA nicking assay. In a flourlipid mixture, -tocopherol showed a higher antioxidant activity than fructose-lysine MRPs (Wijewickreme and Kitts 1998). This information, together with our data, may lead to the suggestion that in honey, phenolic compounds might contribute more antioxidant capacity than that of the MRPs.Further investigation of this is necessary.Gluconic acidProcessing reduced gluconic acid content initially for clover honey by 7% (Table 4). After storage, gluconic acid concentration in processed clover honey remained unchanged,whereas the level of gluconic acid was reduced by 7.9% to 8.8% in all raw clover honey samples. Processing decreased gluconic acid for buckwheat honey by 9%, and the difference remained afte storage.Gluconic acid, in equilibrium with gluconolactone, is the principal organic acid of honey (Stinson and others 1960). It is produced from nectar during ripening by glucose oxidase (White and others 1963; White 1978). This reaction is reported to be extremely slow in full-density honey, at a rate of only 0.002 to 0.012 g/h/g honey (White and others 1963), but proceeds rapidly when honey is diluted. Gluconic acid was reduced significantly by processing in the present study. Only raw clover honey experienced reduced gluconic acid upon storage.Glucose oxidase is stable over a wide range of pH and temperature (Schwimmer 1981). This may explain why prolonged storage did not alter gluconic acid content in honey.However, destruction of glucose oxidase in honey by photo-oxidation has been observed (White and Subers 1964b). This enzyme, responsible for hydrogen peroxide production in diluted honey, is destroyed in either full-density or diluted honey by visible radiation, with the 425 to 525 nm region being most effective. It is possible that the honey of the present study was exposed to light during processing and handling, leading to a reduction in glucose oxidase after processing. The impact of heat and light on glucose oxidase activity was determined bymeasurement of the impact on hydrogen peroxide (White and Subers 1964a, 1964b).It is not certain what the impact of heat and light would be on the measurement of gluconic acid in honey and whether or not this impact would be the same as that noted for hydrogen peroxide. Further research needs to be conducted.Hydrogen peroxide accumulationHydrogen peroxide accumulation was dramatically lowered (98% decrease) in clover honey after processing but did not change significantly after storage under any condition (Table 5). In raw clover honey, peroxideaccumulation decreased after storage at room temperature in plastic (84%) and clear glass bottles (35%), but increased in amber glass bottles at room temperature (42%) and at 4 °C (86%). Similar effects were observed for buckwheat honey after processing, with a 90% decrease in peroxide accumulation; no significant changes in this parameter were observed for processed buckwheat honey after storage. An increase in peroxide accumulation in raw buckwheat honey after storage at 4 °C (88%) was also noted.Hydrogen peroxide is produced by a natural glucose oxidase system in honey; it has antibacterial effects called inhibine (White and others 1962, 1963). White and Subers (1964a) observed a wide variation in heat sensitivity of inhibine among 29 honey samples.Different honeys can vary in heat resistance of hydrogen peroxide accumulation by more than 70-fold. Hydrogen peroxide accumulation is not a direct measure of glucose oxidase activity in honey but rather is ameasure of the difference between peroxide accumulation by the enzyme and its destruction by various constituents of the honey (Bonvehí and others 2000), for example,catalase and peroxidase. White and Subers (1964b) observed that general laboratory illumination, particularly fluorescent-tube lighting, was highly destructive to hydrogen peroxide accumulation in a sensitive fulldensity honey (aster-goldenrod honey).However, they noted great variability in light sensitivity of inhibine among honeys from different floral sources. This may explain the dramatic decrease of hydrogen peroxide accumulation in our clover honey samples stored in the light and that raw buckwheat honey hydrogen peroxide accumulation was not so dramatically affected bylight. One of the factors cited by White and Subers (1964b) to explain differences in sensitivity between different floral sources of honey was the presence of a heat-stable, light-stable nonvolatile sensitizing material. This sensitizing substance would promote oxidation of glucose by blue light.Sensitivity of hydrogen peroxide to light may also explain why the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide actually increased in light-protected storage (such as amber bottles and in the refrigerator). Because glucose oxidase is stable to heat, it is expected that there is still a fair amount of enzymatic activity (and thus generation of hydrogen peroxide) during the storage of the honeys.Peroxidase and catalase, the enzymes involved in the destruction of hydrogen peroxide, may also play a role in the alteration of hydrogen peroxide content. Peroxidase is the most heat-stable enzyme,whereas catalase is a peroxidase that is much less heat stable (Schwimmer 1981).Because of the complexity of the enzyme system in honey, the results obtained were not surprising. The combined activity of many components in honey might contribute to the overall antioxidant capacity.ConclusionsThe impact of traditional processing on honey antioxidant capacity varies depending on the honey, as one might expect,because of the complicated chemical composition that varies between honeys from different floral sources. Buckwheat honey was more affected by processing than clover honey in terms of reduction in antioxidant capacity. After 6 mo of storage, the impact of processing on antioxidant capacity was lost and all unprocessed honeys had similar antioxidant capacity to their processed counterparts. Storage container type and storage temperature were not influential to antioxidant capacity at the end of 6 mo of storage. However, this does not include the impact that might have occurred during early time periods of storage, which was not analyzed. Although decreases in antioxidant capacity in clover and buckwheat honey after processing and storage were observed,the antioxidant levels observed in this study were sufficient to protect against oxidative deterioration in food systems and against the deleterious effects of oxidation in human health assays in vitro and ex vivo based on previous research.AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank the Sioux Honey Assn. for providing the honeys and Dr. Bill Helferich for the use of the fluorescence spectrophotometer. They also thank John Jerrell from the ACES Mass Spectrometry Facility (Urbana, Ill.) for technical assistance. This work was supported by a grant from the Natl. Honey Board.Reference【1】Bailey ME, Um KW. 1992. Maillard reaction products and lipid oxidation. ACS Symp Ser Am Chem Soc 500:122–39.【2】Bath PK, Singh N. 1999. A comparison between Helianthus annuus and Eucalyptus lanceolatus honey.Food Chem 67:389–97.【3】Bonvehí JS, Coll FV. 1994. Phenolic composition of propolis from China and from South America. Z Naturforsch 49:712–8.【4】Bonvehí JS, Torrentó MS, Raich JM. 2000. Invertase activity in fresh and processed honeys. J Sci Food Agric 80:507–12.【5】Cao G, Alessio HM, Cutler RG. 1993. Oxygen-radical absorbance capacity assay for antioxidants. Free Radical Biol Med 14:303–11. 【6】Castro RN, Azeredo LC, Azeredo AA, de Sampaio CST.2001. HPLC assay for the determination of ascorbic acid in honey samples. J Liq Chrom Rel Technol 24:1015–20.【7】Chen L, Mehta A, Berenbaum M, Zangerl AR, Engeseth NJ. 2000. Honeys from different floral sources as inhibitors of enzymatic browning in fruit and vegetable homogenates. J Agric Food Chem 48:4997–5000.【8】Ewald C, Fjelkner-Modig S, Johansson K, Sjoholm I,Akesson B. 1999. Effect of processing on major flavonoids in processed onions, green beans, and peas. Food Chem 64:231–5.【9】Food and Agriculture Organization. 1996. Value-added products form beekeeping. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin. Orme, Italy: FAO. 【10】Frankel S, Robinson GE, Berenbaum MR. 1998. Antioxidant content and correlated characteristics of monofloral honeys. J Apic Res 37:27–31. 【11】Gheldof N, Engeseth NJ. 2002. Antioxidant capacity of honeys from various floral sources based on the determination of oxygen radical absorbance capacity and inhibition of in vitro lipoprotein oxidationin human serum samples. J Agric Food Chem 50:3050–5.。
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Educational Role of the Nurse in Chronic Control DiseaseNURSES Have long accepted the concept that "health education is implied in every nursing activity, irrespective of the setting in which the the nurse functions" (1).Whether the nurse works with patients and their families in the home, clinic, physician's office, hospital, school ，or other neighborhood facilities that provide health services, she can know the satisfaction that comes from educational work.Through her efforts patients' attitudes may be changed from indifference to interest and their behavior altered to accord with recommended medical advice. Health practices in a home may be reinforced and strengthened by adoption of a favorable daily regimen that the nurse has suggested. Disease control and eradication programs may be advanced in the community through individual or family understanding and cooperation that the nurse has promoted.But there are barriers to teaching patients about their disease. The International Union against Tuberculosis ,for example, has recently pointed out: We hear a great deal about the resistance of the bacillus. But not Enough is said about another form of resistance: that coming from ignorance, apathy, lack of interest ——in a phrase, ". the resistance of man" (2).Whether or not we agree with this statement, education of the patient and his family presents a great challenge which requires the continuous and coordinated efforts of individuals and agencies.Again using tuberculosis as an example, several recent studies in the United States reveal that the general public is not well Informed about this disease; many people apparently do not know the basic facts about it. In one of these recent studies, made in 1964 in a mainland city,more than a third of the respondents thought that tuberculosis was inheritable,while nearly 30 percent did not know whether it was or not. Many similar recent studies indicate clearly the need for community education about chronic diseases such as tuberculosis if the people, particularly those in high-risk groups,are to understand and cooperate in the control and eradication measures being carried out.This need makes the educational role of the nurse all the more important today.What can nurses do to Promote better understanding of a chronic disease?How can contacts with patients be made more productive in stimulating a desire for treatment? How can nurses encourage greater awareness of, and interest in, a given chronic disease among patients, ex-patients, and families? How can broken clinic appointments or lapses be lessened? How can patients be encouraged to take prescribed drugs over long periods? How can educational work be made more effective in all phases of disease control and eradication?Barriers to Patient EducationSome of the barriers to education of patients about a chronic disease may relate to the setting in which the conference between nurse andpatient is held, the lack of clear-cut goals for educational work, the failure to extend scarce, professional time by group teaching, limitations under which the agency must operate, and cultural differences between the patients and the nurse.Conference setting. Since person-to-person teaching and interviewing are an essential part of the nurse's professional work,arrangements should be made for a suitable place to talk with patients. If teaching takes place in the midst of telephone calls and other distractions,neither patient nor nurse can concentrate on what the other has to say. Distractions can inhibit or even prevent effective communication and teaching.Clear-cut Goals Goals. to define what the nurse hopes to accomplish in a conference, inte view,or group work are indispensable. The goals will be determined in the part by the questions the patient or his family asks, the interests he expresses,what he and his family already know about the disease, and how the patient is cooperating in his medical treatment. The objectives need to be related to specific ways of helping the group or person to understand the disease and its treatment,to comprehend the necessity for cooperation over a considerable period, and to discover what community services are available to the patient and his family. Unless the nurse takes time to think through the objectives for each educational experience, teaching may be inadequate and vague, including too much material at one time or omitting important aspects altogether;italso may not be keyed to the immediate needs of the patient or to his interests.Group work. Discussion in which the experience of members of the group is elicited may effect changes in attitudes and practices.We have often seen patients and members of their families sitting silently in rows, waiting patiently to see the physician or nurse. Can some of this time be spent more productively in group talks and discussion? Has the nurse tried working with small groups in educational activities? Can group teaching be done in the waiting rooms of outpatient departments and clinics?Is it possible to use educational aids such as slides or filmstrips at this time?And most important ,can the nurse involve the patients and ex-patients in planning for,and participating in, educational activities? Othe barriers. Patients' lack of understanding and acceptance of the educational message may be due to illiteracy,a low educational level, cultural differences,or other nguage differences, particularly among some of the elderly，may prevent them from understanding and therefore,from putting into practice, the teaching about the disease. There may be agency barriers, too, relating to shortage of staff, inadequate facilities, or inadequate budget.Changing Health PracticesClear communication and educational experiences attuned to meet the personal, family,or group situation can change patients' attitudes andpractices.Communication.To the nurse, communication is a two-way process, an interaction in which she is listening,observing, and speaking.While speaking, she transmits both information and feelings;while and observing,listening,she receives both information and feelings.A person's manner of speaking,expression,voice,gesture, and posture all help or hinder communication; encourage or inhibit a permissive attitude; promote or repress questions or comments.The way a nurse meets a patient in the clinic and her way of speaking over the telephone are also part of her communication.When technical expressions are difficult to translate into simple language or when words seem inadequate to explain a procedure, does the nurse supplement verbal communication with a demonstration or a simple visual aid, such as a chart, photograph,or diagram?To make sure that the patient clearly understands,some nurses say, "Won't you show me how you do it?"or at the end of a conference or interview, "Now let's review what we said."The nurse in the tuberculosis field, for example, usually has intensive and close contact with patients and families over a fairly long period. This period provides time for her to gain their confidence; to learn how to speak so that she is understood; and to discover how to make her teaching acceptable and practical for the patient within the family milieu.She has the opportunity to encourage the patient to express his feelings, ideas,and questions.often the first steps in developing rapport.This two-way communication gives the nurse leads as to the patient's interests, problems, and needs. She, too, is learning as well as teaching during these contacts and especially during home visits,for in these she can observe the patient in his environment and discover his family interrelationships. Teaching methods. Many different teaching-learning experiences may be provided in a disease-education program planned for patients, families, and special groups in the community, such as older people. The purpose of these educational activities is to change attitudes and appreciations, knowledge and understanding, practices and skills, while reinforcing and strengthening favorable attitudes and practices.According to Herbert F. Lionberger, who has done much research in communication, the decision to adopt a new practice or idea takes time and is usually the result of a series of influences. He says that people appear to go through a series of five stages—awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and finally adoption of the practice or idea. Once a practice is adopted, its continued use may require reinforcement.I often wonder if reinforcement of desirable practices is not a neglected part of our educational plans. When patients are following a favorable , does the nurse take the time to encourage its continuance, point out its value,and help patients develop an appreciation of its importance?The medical staff, nursing supervisors,and numerous publications of authoritative sources such as State departments of health, the Public Health Service, and such national organizations as the National Tuberculosis Association can supply the content of the nurse's educational message.Face-to-face discussion in small groups is effective in bringing about change. In such discussions in small groups, people can draw upon past experiences and evaluate ideas in terms of these experiences and their present beliefs and practices. Learning takes place in a friendly, informal, permissive atmosphere.Decisions reached after discussion are more likely to be carried out by individual members of a group, for the group provides social support and pressure. Also, through discussion, nurses may gain insights into the motivations and goals of patients and their families.Participants in group discussions can help to explore needs, to set up goals, and to plan and carry out activities. Achieving the individual involvement of patients and their families takes time but can considerably enrich an educational program for patients.Since group discussion is considered so efFective, why do so many health workers hesitate to work with small groups in the outpatient department, hospital, clinic, health center, or neighborhood center? Is it because of lack of space for such work or of time for planning?Other teaching methods besides group discussion also lend themselves to the educational work of the nurse. The demonstration method is appropriate in many situations and might be used more widely health workers. A demonstration by the teacher can often be followed by one carried out by the person being taught.Role playing, dramatizations, and films are all particularly suitable for bringing out the emotional aspects of a health problem and the human relationships which may afFect it. They can provide二basis for objective discussion. Role playing can be used to try out new situations (reality testing).Visual aids have a place in stimulating an awareness of health problams and in motivating interest in them. Films,which may show events covering a long period within 20 to 30 minutes, are valuable for stimulating interest and providing a common experiante for discussion. The flannelgraph, flash cards, charts, flip charts, photographs, and other visual aids can be adapted to a particular situation and often prove more effective than more elaborate and costly devices. Today many departments and agencies have overhead projetting equipment, which enables the health worker to use drawings and pictures and charts from magazines or books in teaching or talks.Interpersonal RelationsUnless warm relations and empathy are estabfished between the nurse and patient, the nurse's teaching and technical advice may not be accepted.When patients show resentment, hostility, or insecurity, the nurse needs to try to discover the underlying causes. If misunder-standings have occurred, the situation should be corrected. A word of commendation for successful efforts and accomplishments will encourage the patient or his family to try again.Occasionally, a sense of humor helps to release tensions in a di}cult situation.The nurse's knowledge of the patient and his family, his background and milieu, medical history, and previous work experiences will provide insights into ways to approach him and encourage a harmonious relationship, but good will, friendliness, thoughtfulness, and flexibility are also required.Cooperative ActivitiesThe nurse works as a member of a team within the hospital, clinic, health department, voluntary agency, rehabilitation center, or other institution providing services for patients and their families. The members on the team may change according to the patient's problems and progress. How each member contributes to the patient's progress may be learned through problem-centered or patient-centered staff conferences.Cooperative efforts to promote the education of patients may be encouraged through joint staff conferences of several agencies, inservice training, case conferences of several agencies, informal conversations orvisits on the job, and other means for exchange of ideas. Cooperation in educational activities means giving, as well as receiving, help. It means making certain that the teaching by one person or agency about a disease does not conflict with the teaching of others, but rather supplements and reinforces other teaching;it means seeing that important information is included in teaching and'that communication goes through proper thannets. Cooperation does not mean developing a plan and then asking others concerned to toperate in implementing it. It means starting together with the problem, agreeing on goals,developing plans, and carrying out all phases of the program cooperatively so that each responsibility assigned is acceptable to the person or agency receiving it.Such cooperation and coordination of educational efforts will help the patient to progress in his treatment,become well, learn how to maintain his health, and thereby assume his role in society.SummaryAs the nurse provides a service to a patient or his family, she can also be teaching. Service and education go hand in hand;one enhances the other. To insure that such education of patients and families is carried out, that it is dynamic and effective, the nurse must make plans for it. The teaching needs to be personalized to meet the needs of a given patient or group. As far as possible patients should participate in all phases of educational activities.They may help in identifying theirinterests and needs and in setting goals. They may also take part in the programs themselves, for egample, by demonstrating a procedure after the nurse has demonstrated it.To insure clear communication between nurse and patient, visual aids and other educational methods may be used to supplement the spoken word. The most important aspect of teaching,。
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Applied Mechanics and Materials Vol. 109 (2012) pp 248-25Intelligent vehicle-mounted alcohol detection control system Keywords: intelligent; alcohol detection; vehicle-mountedAbstract：The paper designed an intelligent vehicle-mounted alcohol detection control system,which is based on S3C2440 chip. The system tested the driver's response ability and eye-hand coordination in interactive way to determine whether the driver could control the vehicle. The system introduced psychology method innovatively. It can overcome the disadvantage of only depending on the gas alcohol concentration as the control basis, and enhance the applicability of the system.IntroductionDrink-driving has been a heavy topic, People hurts so much by traffic accident caused by drinking-driving and People takes various measures to curb drink driving phenomenon, There are some kinds of vehicle-mounted alcohol detection control system which are used to control drink-driving, those system use alcohol sensor which placed in the car detect the alcohol concentration and compare the alcohol concentration value with the set gas concentration value, then control the vehicle according to the result of comparison. They can reduce the drinking-driving behavior.But those system control the vehicle ignition by the gas alcohol content exist big disadvantage. Due to the difference physical condition of individual, the affection on people caused by alcohol is different. So the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) cannot fully reflect the impact of alcohol on people’s driving skills. Furthermore it is difficultto judge alcohol gas origin and measure the breath alcohol concentration (BrAC) accurately in the car’s closed space with no surveillance.No matter how the alcohol sensor close to the driver, the gas which the sensor detected is still gas mixtures and BrAC cannot be detected accurately. Then the system control the car use the gas alcohol content exist big weakness. In addition those system can't distinguish the alcohol gas come from the drink driver from the alcohol gas come from copilot or other source of alcohol, Moreover those system unable to determine whether the driver want to coordinate with them.Based on the discussion upwards, a new intelligent vehicle-mounted alcohol detection control system is put forward in this paper. This system use the way of Human–Computer interaction and introduce the method of psychology. The method of psychology is used to test the driver’s response ability and eye-hand coordination, then the system according the test result to control the vehicle, it overcome the weakness that using a gas alcohol concentration as reference points to control the vehicle. The system can perceive the inner environment by its sensors, and it will be more accurate and flexible to control drunk driving, and the test result shows that the system can work effectively.1 Hardware designThe figure 1 shows the Intelligent vehicle-mounted alcohol detection control system block diagram, the system’s hardware mainly includes a proce ss chip S3C2440,a large capacity memory, an alcohol sensor MQ-3，speed sensor, amplifier, A/D convertor. The process chip S3C2440 is developed with ARM920T core, 0.13µm CMOS standard cellsand a memory complier. Its low-power, simple, elegant and fully static design is particularly suitable for cost- and power-sensitive applications. It offers outstandingfeatures with its CPU core, a 16/32-bit ARM920T RISC processor designed by advanced RISC machines, Ltd. The highest work frequency of the processor is 533MHz and its address space reach 1 G. All kinds of interfaces and 8 channel 10bit A/D converter can satisfy the rapid response system and driving larger LCD screen. TheMQ-3 sensor can be used range from alcohol content of gas 0.05mg/L to alcohol contentof gas 10mg/L，and MQ-3 is sensitive to alcohol gas, selective and fast recovery, and theMQ-3 sensor is reliable, used with simple drive circuit. The system will use the MQ-3alcohol sensor’s signal as a trigger signal, and then we can reduce the dependence of thesystem to the sensor. We just adjust two value of the sensor is accurate with the alcoholgas concentration, one is 0.0454mg/L correspond to BAC 10mg/100ml, the other is0.3636mg/L correspond to 80mg/100ml, the former value used to exclude the uncertainvalue which is brought by the other gas. When the driver enters the vehicle the systemdetects the alcohol gas concentration. If the alcohol gas concentration is more than0.0454mg/L, the system starts the test program. Which is used to determine whether thedriver was drunk, when detecting alcohol gas concentration above 0.3636mg/L, therelay will be turn off and the system will watch the interfaces till the driver get out ofthe vehicle.The switch turns off when the driver set down, and turns on when the driver stand up.Speed sensor is used when the driver had drink and passes the test, the speed sensor’ssignal feedback to the system. Relay and speed control circuit carry out the system’scontrol signal. Touch-screen display message, provide interface for interaction with thedriver. Electric fan accelerate air flow, it is helpful for the rapid detection of alcohol sensor.2 Systems working principleNormally, the driver gets in vehicle without drink, so this system designed to ensure rapid response capability as short as possible. When the driver opens the door from outside, the system act from standby into operation, heat alcohol sensor, start electric fan, disconnect the relay and lock vehicles. When driver open the vehicle’s door, the switch under the seat is off, the system will consider the driver is getting into the vehicle, when the switch is on, and vehicle’s door closed, it will be considered as the driver has entered the vehicle. When the door lock is closed, and the switch is on, the system will consider the driver is leaving the vehicle, the driver left seat, the switch turns off, and the vehicle’s door closed, then the system consider the driving leave the vehicle.Figure 2 is the work process of the system. When the driver entered the vehicle, the system wait for start the test program.3 Test program3.1 Design of test programTest program is the core of the system, its working principle was shown in Figure 3. When the system starts the test program, the voice prompts the driver not to drive after drinking and requires drivers to blow to the sensor. The system will compare the detected gas concentration of alcohol with the driver’s alcohol gas concentration.If the former is lower than the latter, it indicates the driver didn't drink, the system closes the relay, the vehicle can start, then the system goes into standby state. If the former is not lower than the latter, it is considered to be the driver drinking, and then the system determine whether the alcohol concentration is more than alcohol concentration of gas of intoxication state, if more, the vehicle is not allowed to start. Only in the first case, the driver's response ability and eye-hand coordination are tested. System's test methods borrow the ideas from methods to the responsiveness testing and hand-eye coordination tests in psychology.3.2 The implication to human's physical and psychological testingIt is shown that blood alcohol concentration has a direct impact on the driver's operation ability after researches. Testing to people's physical and psychological in the enforcement process, mainly are in the following six ways: balance testing, pupil inspection, finger-nose testing, walking and turning writing and speaking tests and picking up coins experimental testing. These methods have the disadvantage of low accuracy, the lack of evidence and other reasons so that is not easy to use in law enforcement. But using the interaction testing of human physiological and psychological in the vehicle control method, and exert psychological impact can be applied to achieve better results.3.3 Test program executionSystem uses a touch-screen, which greatly facilitates the design of the system interface. When the system starts the testing program, first tests the response capabilities and hand-eye coordination, where imitate a sudden change of environment for the driver to react. when the "Start" is pressed, the program delayed a little time(limited to one second), change the screen background color, after changing start timing immediately, when the "end" is pressed, it's the time to get the results as to determine whether the driver can drive. Normal response time is between 150ms and 400ms. The longer reaction time, the more dangerous driving, the system response time threshold will be limited to 500ms, if more than 500ms, the vehicle will be locked until the driver left. And then the system exit the test program, reset back to standby. If not more than system response time threshold, the system will test driver's ability as well as driver's reactions and hand-eye coordination, when the "Start" is pressed, three-color lights begin cycling, when light stops flashing cycle, the system starts timing. The system calculates the ending number based on the green light location, press the left once, middle twice, and three times the far right. When the "end" is pressed, the correct number of time is over. When the time results under limit and the pressing number are correct, the drivers can drive. It is assume that the number of need to press is n, the time interval the of press the button twice is x, the system sets correcting pressing time threshold is (500 + nx) ms. When x means 200ms, If testing time is more than (500ms + n * 200ms), the vehicle will be locked. The system will prompt the driver that the vehicle is locked. If the two tests are finished under a limited period of time, the system will prompt the driver that the highest speed has been limited. Until the driver left the vehicle, the system exits the test program, resets back to standby model.3.4 ConclusionsIntelligent vehicle-mounted alcohol detection control system controls the drinking drive from a new angle. It is more flexible, more interaction with the driver, more user-friendly than any other vehicle control system. The core of system is the test program, which gains driver's information through sensor, touch-screen, and then determine the driver's driving-related ability. An inadequacy of the system is that the system determines driver's responsiveness and hand-eye coordination in a short period of time when driver enters the vehicle but not in a long period of time, and the system cannot judge the sustainability of reaction and coordination capacity, and the capacity of legs-feet coordination. Besides, intrinsic relationship between alcohol concentration and responsiveness need further research, testing procedures need further enriched too.Foundation：Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province Y1091121References：1. GONG Lei.Developing Detail Explain of Embedded Linux System Based on ARM, third ed., Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 20102. FAN Sang-chun. Sensor Technology and Its Application[M]. Beijing: Beijing Aerospace University Press, 2004.83. Security Indus try Standards of Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of China GA307- 2001 detector of Br AC[s].4. James M. Drinking and Driving [J].CAMJ, 2003.168(3):313.5. ZHANG Zhi-yong.WANG Xue-wen.Principle and application of Sensor and Actuator[M].Beijing Aerospace University Press, 2004.36.Rao B Bhooloka. Zinc oxide ceramic semi-conductor gas sensor for ethanol vapors [J].Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2000(64): 62-65.7. Canham LT. 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