毕业论文外文资料翻译
毕业论文(设计)外文文献翻译及原文
金融体制、融资约束与投资——来自OECD的实证分析R．SemenovDepartment of Economics，University of Nijmegen，Nijmegen（荷兰内梅亨大学，经济学院）这篇论文考查了OECD的11个国家中现金流量对企业投资的影响.我们发现不同国家之间投资对企业内部可获取资金的敏感性具有显著差异,并且银企之间具有明显的紧密关系的国家的敏感性比银企之间具有公平关系的国家的低.同时，我们发现融资约束与整体金融发展指标不存在关系.我们的结论与资本市场信息和激励问题对企业投资具有重要作用这种观点一致，并且紧密的银企关系会减少这些问题从而增加企业获取外部融资的渠道。
一、引言各个国家的企业在显著不同的金融体制下运行。
金融发展水平的差别(例如，相对GDP的信用额度和相对GDP的相应股票市场的资本化程度），在所有者和管理者关系、企业和债权人的模式中，企业控制的市场活动水平可以很好地被记录.在完美资本市场,对于具有正的净现值投资机会的企业将一直获得资金。
然而，经济理论表明市场摩擦，诸如信息不对称和激励问题会使获得外部资本更加昂贵，并且具有盈利投资机会的企业不一定能够获取所需资本.这表明融资要素，例如内部产生资金数量、新债务和权益的可得性，共同决定了企业的投资决策.现今已经有大量考查外部资金可得性对投资决策的影响的实证资料（可参考，例如Fazzari（1998）、 Hoshi(1991)、 Chapman（1996）、Samuel(1998））.大多数研究结果表明金融变量例如现金流量有助于解释企业的投资水平。
这项研究结果解释表明企业投资受限于外部资金的可得性。
很多模型强调运行正常的金融中介和金融市场有助于改善信息不对称和交易成本，减缓不对称问题,从而促使储蓄资金投着长期和高回报的项目,并且提高资源的有效配置（参看Levine（1997)的评论文章）。
因而我们预期用于更加发达的金融体制的国家的企业将更容易获得外部融资.几位学者已经指出建立企业和金融中介机构可进一步缓解金融市场摩擦。
毕业论文英文参考文献与译文
Inventory managementInventory ControlOn the so-called "inventory control", many people will interpret it as a "storage management", which is actually a big distortion.The traditional narrow view, mainly for warehouse inventory control of materials for inventory, data processing, storage, distribution, etc., through the implementation of anti-corrosion, temperature and humidity control means, to make the custody of the physical inventory to maintain optimum purposes. This is just a form of inventory control, or can be defined as the physical inventory control. How, then, from a broad perspective to understand inventory control? Inventory control should be related to the company's financial and operational objectives, in particular operating cash flow by optimizing the entire demand and supply chain management processes (DSCM), a reasonable set of ERP control strategy, and supported by appropriate information processing tools, tools to achieved in ensuring the timely delivery of the premise, as far as possible to reduce inventory levels, reducing inventory and obsolescence, the risk of devaluation. In this sense, the physical inventory control to achieve financial goals is just a means to control the entire inventory or just a necessary part; from the perspective of organizational functions, physical inventory control, warehouse management is mainly the responsibility of The broad inventory control is the demand and supply chain management, and the whole company's responsibility.Why until now many people's understanding of inventory control, limited physical inventory control? The following two reasons can not be ignored:First, our enterprises do not attach importance to inventory control. Especially those who benefit relatively good business, as long as there is money on the few people to consider the problem of inventory turnover. Inventory control is simply interpreted as warehouse management, unless the time to spend money, it may have been to see the inventory problem, and see the results are often very simple procurement to buy more, or did not do warehouse departments .Second, ERP misleading. Invoicing software is simple audacity to call it ERP, companies on their so-called ERP can reduce the number of inventory, inventory control, seems to rely on their small software can get. Even as SAP, BAAN ERP world, the field ofthese big boys, but also their simple modules inside the warehouse management functionality is defined as "inventory management" or "inventory control." This makes the already not quite understand what our inventory control, but not sure what is inventory control.In fact, from the perspective of broadly understood, inventory control, shouldinclude the following:First, the fundamental purpose of inventory control. We know that the so-called world-class manufacturing, two key assessment indicators (KPI) is, customer satisfaction and inventory turns, inventory turns and this is actually the fundamental objective of inventory control.Second, inventory control means. Increase inventory turns, relying solely on the so-called physical inventory control is not enough, it should be the demand and supply chain management process flow of this large output, and this big warehouse management processes in addition to including this link, the more important The section also includes: forecasting and order processing, production planning and control, materials planning and purchasing control, inventory planning and forecasting in itself, as well as finished products, raw materials, distribution and delivery of the strategy, and even customs management processes.And with the demand and supply chain management processes throughout the process, it is the information flow and capital flow management. In other words, inventory itself is across the entire demand and supply management processes in all aspects of inventory control in order to achieve the fundamental purpose, it must control all aspects of inventory, rather than just manage the physical inventory at hand.Third, inventory control, organizational structure and assessment.Since inventory control is the demand and supply chain management processes, output, inventory control to achieve the fundamental purpose of this process must be compatible with a rational organizational structure. Until now, we can see that many companies have only one purchasing department, purchasing department following pipe warehouse. This is far short of inventory control requirements. From the demand and supply chain management process analysis, we know that purchasing and warehouse management is the executive arm of the typical, and inventory control should focus on prevention, the executive branch is very difficult to "prevent inventory" for the simple reason that they assessment indicatorsin large part to ensure supply (production, customer). How the actual situation, a reasonable demand and supply chain management processes, and thus set the corresponding rational organizational structure and is a question many of our enterprisesto exploreThe role of inventory controlInventory management is an important part of business management. In the production and operation activities, inventory management must ensure that both the production plant for raw materials, spare parts demand, but also directly affect the purchasing, sales of share, sales activities. To make an inventory of corporate liquidity, accelerate cash flow, the security of supply under the premise of minimizing Yaku funds, directly affects the operational efficiency. Ensure the production and operation needs of the premise, so keep inventories at a reasonable level; dynamic inventory control, timely, appropriate proposed order to avoid over storage or out of stock; reduce inventory footprint, lower total cost of inventory; control stock funds used to accelerate cash flow.Problems arising from excessive inventory: increased warehouse space andinventory storage costs, thereby increasing product costs; take a lot of liquidity, resultingin sluggish capital, not only increased the burden of payment of interest, etc., would affect the time value of money and opportunity income; finished products and raw materials caused by physical loss and intangible losses; a large number of enterprise resource idle, affecting their rational allocation and optimization; cover the production, operation of the whole process of the various contradictions and problems, is not conducive to improve the management level.Inventory is too small the resulting problems: service levels caused a decline in the profit impact of marketing and corporate reputation; production system caused by inadequate supply of raw materials or other materials, affecting the normal production process; to shorten lead times, increase the number of orders, so order (production) costs; affect the balance of production and assembly of complete sets.NotesInventory management should particularly consider the following two questions:First, according to sales plans, according to the planned production of the goods circulated in the market, we should consider where, how much storage.Second, starting from the level of service and economic benefits to determine howto ensure inventories and supplementary questions.The two problems with the inventory in the logistics process functions.In general, the inventory function:(1)to prevent interrupted. Received orders to shorten the delivery of goods fromthe time in order to ensure quality service, at the same time to prevent out of stock.(2)to ensure proper inventory levels, saving inventory costs.(3)to reduce logistics costs. Supplement with the appropriate time interval compatible with the reasonable demand of the cargo in order to reduce logistics costs, eliminate or avoid sales fluctuations.(4)ensure the production planning, smooth to eliminate or avoid sales fluctuations.(5)display function.(6)reserve. Mass storage when the price falls, reduce losses, to respond to disasters and other contingencies.About the warehouse (inventory) on what the question, we must consider the number and location. If the distribution center, it should be possible according to customer needs, set at an appropriate place; if it is stored in central places to minimize the complementary principle to the distribution centers, there is no place certain requirements. When the stock base is established, will have to take into account are stored in various locations in what commodities.库存管理库存控制在谈到所谓“库存控制”的时候，很多人将其理解为“仓储管理”，这实际上是个很大的曲解。
毕业设计(论文)外文翻译(原文)
编号：毕业设计(论文)外文翻译（原文）院（系）：桂林电子科技大学职业技术学院专业：工商企业管理学生姓名：方智立学号：010*********指导教师单位：桂林电子科技大学职业技术学院姓名：朱芸芸职称：讲师2016年 4 月 1 日Marketing Strategy Analysis of SportsAbstractSports market is a special industry market, which for provide exchange of sports tangible products and services market. Sports market including fixed type, such as sports facilities, sports goods market, Mobile market, such as all kinds of sports service provided by the fitness club. Sports tourism and advertising business, sports goods should be consumers to accept, and occupy a larger market. If success of the sports marketing involves many factors. According to the specific characteristics of sports marketing, develop and implement appropriate marketing strategy is very important. Sports marketing strategy is to the sports business units within a certain period or stage marketing campaign's overall development plan of decision making.This paper argues that the marketing strategy can be further subdivided into market positioning strategy, market timing strategy, market entry strategy, market development strategy, market competition strategy, Choose a strategy, must conform to the enterprise's own competitive position, product status, to grasp the market opportunity, determined according to the demands of consumers. In this paper, the sports market segmentation marketing strategy for the market positioning strategy, market timing strategy, market entry strategy, market development strategy, market competition strategy, and discusses the sports marketing how to carry out strategic choice.Keywords: Sports bazaar ; Sports marketing; Marketing strategy1.Sports marketing strategy and characteristics1.1Sports marketing strategyStrategy refers to the planning of overall and profound things. Sports marketing strategy refers to the commodity business units under the guidance of modern marketing concept, to achieve its economic goal for enterprise in a certain period of the overall design and planning of marketing development.Inan increasingly competitive market circumstances, sports business units in order to effectively carry out business activities, to achieve its business objectives, must understand and based on the characteristics of marketing concepts and strategies, and Target the demand of the market, comprehensive analysis and marketing of various environmental factors, choose effective market strategy in the background.1.2The characteristics of the sports marketing strategySports marketing strategy has sports business units within a certain period or stage marketing campaign's overall development plan of decision making. It has the characteristics of the following.(1) Overall importance.Sports marketing strategy is a matter of the global business units, including two aspects the meaning of this global:on the one hand, Sports marketing strategy is the overall design, the development of the business units, including overall planning and the overall strategy and means.On the other hand, Sports marketing strategy decision is a matter of global business units and their all-round development in the future.(2)Secular.Sports marketing strategy is really about the future of sports business units: to achieve the goals of sports marketing strategy, will make the sports business units to produce qualitative leap, but this is not usually that can be done in the short term.Important, sports business units of marketing strategy on the strategic period not only very important to enterprise's survival and development, but also to the long-term development of enterprises play an important role.(3) Systematicness.Sports systemic marketing refers to business units, each part of the work of each link is a contact each other, are closely related to the organic unity of the whole.System have layers, the size and the primary and secondary division, at the next lower level to obey and serve at the next higher level.For a certain sports and business operation entity, the strategy of the whole enterprise as a whole system engineering to overall arrangement, the pursuit of the overall development of the biggest benefits.(4)Adaptability.Sports marketing adaptability, refers to the sports marketing and business operation entity is easily affected by external and internal environment, when the environment changes, sports business units made to adapt themselves to the new environment of the characteristics of rapid response.Sports marketing of the external environment including the market demand, political or economic situation changes, policy and law changes. Similarly, sports business entities internal conditions change will impact on marketing.(5)Risk.Due to sports marketing strategy is the business unit for the marketing activities during the period development collection of expected decision, and this decision is absolutely impossible in various conditions fully mature and information fully, make and sports market, especially the intangible product variety and complexity of the market, make sports marketing strategy has the characteristics of uncertainty and instantaneity, many market opportunities tend to be a passes, no longer to, opportunity and risk coexist.2.Sports marketing strategy comprisedand choiceSports marketing strategies mainly include market positioning strategy, market timing strategy, market entry strategy, market development strategy, market competition strategy.2.1 Market orientation strategyMarket positioning refers to the sports business units according to the condition of market competition situation and its own resources, establish and develop differentiated competitive advantage, to make their own products in the consumer formed in the difference between each product unique image and is superior to the competition.This unique image can be tangible or intangible.Enterprise after analyzing the market environment, should highlight its own market advantage, establish market position, Which companies need to know on a certain level of paper generalizes, consumers mind what is the best sports products as expected.2.2 Market entry policyMarket entry strategy is the sports business units at the right time to capture the target market, how to appropriately in the two aspects of production capacity and sales ability to make reliable measures and guarantee, to ensure the decision-making of sports products successfully enter the market.Its content mainly includes the production capacity of decision-making and sales ability to form two aspects.(1) Capacity Decision. In the necessary time, sports business entities formtargetmarket capacity, is one of the important conditions to achieve market goal.Regardless of whether they are sports tangible products and intangible products, generally there are two alternative strategies.①Independent development strategy refers to both tangible products, the development of sports and development of sports intangible products. All on its own strength to expand production scale, enhance the comprehensive production capacity or adjust the structure of the comprehensive production capacity of enterprise, to adapt the demand of product combination structure. ②Comprehensive development strategy, mainly depend on the sports business units of the external forces, namely, through joint, collaboration, subcontract, form a new comprehensive production capacity. Due to participating in planning, control, coordination, etc, are more difficult. Therefore, sports business units must be good at optimizing collaborator, deal with the various cooperation of responsibility, right and benefit, to maintain good relations of cooperation.(2) Sales ability decision. A sports product to enter and occupy the market, production enterprise must have the necessary sales ability and the ability to penetrate the market.Sales ability decision-making main consideration circulation channels and sales, product should be considered when making decisions, market, enterprise, social environment and the factors such as economic effect.2.3 Market development strategyMarket development strategy refers to the perspective of market prospects, the choice of market development means, usually includes two kinds of intensive development and diversified development main form.(1)Intensive development.When some kind of sports products in the market has the potential of further development, the choice of market penetration, product development and market development of three kinds of intensive development form. As the tangible products market, in sports and intangible products are common market and applicable.①Market penetration. on the basis of the existing market scale, increase the sales of existing products. Can use a variety of measures, consolidate old customers, increase the new user. ②Product development Is through developing and improving existing products, make its have some new properties and USES, meet the social demand more. ③market development. Refers to an enterprise that open up new product sales market, in order to increase sales.(2) Diversified development.Diversity is also called the diversification, basically have concentricity scattered scattered, horizontal dispersion and the integrityof three. ①Concentricity is sports business unit USES the original dispersed development technology and the characteristics, with its as the core, the development use different structure similar products. ②Scattered level of sexual development.Was used in the original market advantage, has occupied the market development of technology, nature and purpose of different products. For example, Sports club olicy makers, can through the player transfer channels, to sell players, profit.Others use their sports club or the player's social awareness to participate in the sales promotion of goods, in order to obtain profits. ③Integrity of dispersed development. Refers to the sports business units to expand the business into its original business, technology, market and the product has no connection in the industry. Such as the sports department construction and run a catering and service hotels, hotels, entertainment city, charge for parking lot, etc., is the form of scattered holistic development. Implement the diversification development, can improve the ability of sports business units to adapt to the environment, reduce the risk of a single business, at the same time, may be more fully use of all kinds of resources within the enterprise, make its have more potential development opportunities. However, the development of decentralized often leads to complication of operation and management, and business operation entities such as diversifying some problems.2.4Strategic Marketing CompetitionThe rules of the development of the market is superior bad discard, its characteristic is the petition can promote the economic development of the enterprise and the improvement of economic benefits.Enterprises should establish a clear concept of competition, flexible use of price and non-price competition means, take a man without I have, people have my good, good people knew, new I cheap, cheap I turn the principle and method of making enterprise competitive strategy, must accomplish know fairly well the competition environment and competition situation, can with ease.Enterprise competition environment factors mainly refers to the enterprise in addition to the social and cultural environment stress factors of various aspects, such as management scientist professor Michael porter of Harvard University famous the competitive offer slightly above, an enterprise usually exist competition pressure from five aspects, namely the industry competition pressure, potential to join the pressure from the industry, suppliers forward pressure (by providing raw materials or semi-finished products, to develop into their production products), buyers.(1) The overall competitive strategy. Under different conditions, the enterprise facing the pressure of competition is different, the analysis of the pressure of competition is to understand the purpose of each kind of competition situation of power, so as to make effective competition strategy.Under normal circumstances, the sports business units of competition strategy in general have a low cost strategy, product differentiation strategy and intensive strategy. ①low-cost strategy. Low cost strategy is to point to in under the premise of guarantee the quality of products and services, efforts to reduce the cost of production and sales so that the enterprise product prices lower than competitors' prices, with rapidly expanding sales increase market share. ②Product differentiation strategies. Product differentiation strategy is to point to create a unique characteristic of the enterprise products, to develop unique products or marketing programs, for in such aspects as product or service than competitors are unique. Thus to obtain the difference advantage.The United States, for example, "NIKE" brand sports shoes, NIKE production due to the appearance of novel design, the innovation of the use function and unique, and exquisite packaging, etc., although the price is surprisingly expensive, but occupies considerable market in China, the teenagers are very loving. ③Intensive strategy. Intensive strategy refers to the enterprises focus on one or several market segments provide the most effective service, better meet certain customers with different needs, so as to strive for the local competitive advantage. It is little different from the above three kinds of overall competition strategy, successfully implement these three strategies need different resources and decision-making, also should have different requirements on organization and management.(2) The competitive strategy of enterprises of different competitive position. Where the status of enterprise in market competition, the enterprise can be divided into: market leader, market challenger, market follower. Different competitive position of enterprises, should choose different market competitive strategy.①Dominant market competition strategy. Market power refers to the related products has the highest market share. Such as the current market position and stable dominated by clothing JinMeiLong, "ADIDAS", they are price changes, new product development, sales channel width and promotional efforts in a dominant position, recognized by other sports enterprises. ②The challenger market competition strategy. Market challenger refers to those in a secondary position in the market of the enterprise, such as "lining" brand garment enterprises .Market challenger to choosechallenge object is closely related to the strategic target, for a same object has different goals and strategies Such as attack market leader to gain the market share and product advantage ;Attack power with yourself quite seize its market position; Attacking small businesses taking their customers even small business itself."Lining" to win market price advantage to the international brand, with product quality advantages to gain "anta" challenger "peak" brand's market share. ③Followers of the market competition strategy. Market followers is to point to in a secondary position, under the conditions of "coexistence" market for as much as possible the benefit of the enterprise. Market followers don't need a lot of money, less risky and can obtain high profits, so many enterprises adopt this strategy, especially the sort of small or no fame and status of sports clothing enterprises. As the current sports "philharmonic" brand clothing enterprise in the enterprise.Reference[1] LiJianJun,WangCuiHua:The Research on Marketing Environment Enterprise of Things for Sports Use in China[J] Journal of NanJing institute of sport (social science edition) 2013.(10),36 ~ 48.[2] Discuss Sports market, products and marketing characteristics. [J] journal of xi ' an institute of physical education,2012.(3)101 ~109.[3] HuZhengMing Ed. Marketing Management[M].Shandong people's publishing house，2012.302 ~325.[4] [US]Kotler write. YuLiJun translate. Introduction to Marketing[M].Huaxia Publishing House,2011.333~389.[5] ZhangTongYao.Application areas to promote the marketing advantage analysis of third party logistics[J].Market of China,2010(3)128 ~136.[6] WangHuaiShu.The influence of the logistics quality of marketing[J].Teacher's Journal,2010(3)31 ~38.[7] WangChenWen.Shallow theory of logistics strategy in the role of marketing management[J].Chemical Enterprise Management,2009(7)175 ~178.。
浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译
核准通过，归档资料。
未经允许，请勿外传!浙江大学本科毕业论文外文文献翻译The influence of political connections on the firm value of small and medium-sized enterprises in China政治关联在中国对中小型企业价值的影响1摘要中小型企业的价值受很多因素的影响,比如股东、现金流以及政治关联等.这篇文章调查的正是在中国政治关联对中小型企业价值的影响。
通过实验数据来分析政治关联对企业价值效益的影响.结果表明政府关联是关键的因素并且在中国对中小型企业的价值具有负面影响。
2重要内容翻译2。
1引言在商业界,有越来越多关于政治关联的影响的经济研究。
它们发现政治关联能够帮助企业确保有利的规章条件以及成功获得资源，比如能够最终提高企业价值或是提升绩效的银行贷款，这种政治关联的影响在不同的经济条件下呈现不同的效果。
在高腐败和法律制度薄弱的国家，政治关联对企业价值具有决定性因素1的作用.中国由高度集权的计划经济向市场经济转变，政府对市场具有较强的控制作用，而且有大量的上市企业具有政治关联。
中小型企业发展的很迅速，他们已经在全球经济环境中变得越来越重要。
从90年代起, 政治因素对中国的任何规模的企业来说都变得越来越重要,尤其是中小型企业的价值。
和其他的部门相比较，中小型企业只有较小的现金流，不稳定的现金流且高负债率.一方面，中小型企业改变更加灵活；另一方面,中小型企业在由于企业规模以及对银行来说没有可以抵押的资产，在筹资方面较为困难。
企业如何应对微观经济环境和政策去保证正常的企业活动，并且政治关联如何影响企业价值？这篇论文调查政治关联和企业价值之间的联系,并且试图去研究企业是否可以从政治关联中获利提升企业价值。
2.2定义这些中小型企业之所以叫中小型企业，是和管理规模有关。
对这些小企业来说，雇员很少，营业额较低,资金一般由较少的人提供,因此，通常由这些业主直接管理企业。
本科毕业论文外文翻译
本科毕业论文外文翻译Undergraduate Thesis External Translation (700 Words)Title: The Impact of Social Media on Consumer Behavior Abstract:With the rapid development of social media, its influence on consumer behavior has drawn increasing attention from scholars and marketers. This paper aims to explore the impact of social media on consumer behavior from the perspective of information acquisition, interpersonal communication, and brand evaluation. Through a literature review and analysis, it is found that social media has a significant impact on consumer behavior by providing easy access to information, facilitating communication between consumers, and influencing brand perception. This research provides valuable insights for marketers in understanding and utilizing social media platforms to effectively engage with consumers and influence their purchasing decisions.1. IntroductionSocial media has become an integral part of people's daily lives, and its impact on consumer behavior cannot be ignored. This paper aims to investigate the impact of social media on consumer behavior and provide practical implications for marketers. The research question is: How does social media influence consumer behavior in terms of information acquisition, interpersonal communication, and brand evaluation?2. Information Acquisition2.1 Social media provides a platform for consumers to easilyaccess information about products and services. Through social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter, consumers can obtain product reviews, comparisons, and recommendations from peers. This information influences consumers' purchasing decisions and enhances their knowledge about products.2.2 Social media also serves as a source of entertainment and inspiration, enabling users to discover new trends and products. Influencers and celebrities, who gain popularity through social media, often endorse products and create consumer desire for these items. This form of indirect advertising through social media has a significant impact on consumer behavior.3. Interpersonal CommunicationSocial media platforms enable users to interact with friends, family, and even strangers. This communication aspect of social media hasa direct influence on consumer behavior.3.1 Word-of-mouth (WOM) communication through social media is prevalent. Consumers often share their positive or negative experiences with products on social media platforms, which influence others' opinions and purchasing decisions. These online conversations have a wide reach and can greatly impact brand perception.3.2 Social media facilitates communication between consumers and brands. Consumers can directly communicate with brands through social media channels, providing feedback, asking questions, and seeking assistance. This two-way communicationimproves customer satisfaction and loyalty.4. Brand Evaluation4.1 Social media plays a crucial role in brand evaluation. Consumers often seek information about brands, their values, and their reputation on social media platforms. Positive or negative brand mentions and reviews on social media greatly influence consumers' perceptions of brands, leading to either increased or decreased brand trust and loyalty.4.2 Social media influencers and celebrities endorsing particular brands also impact brand evaluation. These individuals' recommendations and opinions can greatly influence consumers' perceptions and preferences for specific brands.5. ConclusionIn conclusion, social media has a significant impact on consumer behavior by influencing information acquisition, interpersonal communication, and brand evaluation. Marketers should utilize and engage with social media platforms to effectively reach and influence their target customers. This research provides insights for marketers to enhance their social media strategies and create effective brand-consumer interactions.。
毕业设计论文外文文献翻译
毕业设计(论文）外文文献翻译院系：财务与会计学院年级专业：201＊级财务管理姓名:学号：132148*＊*附件: 财务风险管理【Abstract】Although financial risk has increased significantly in recent years risk and risk management are not contemporary issues。
The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originate with events thousands of miles away that have nothing to do with the domestic market。
Information is available instantaneously which means that change and subsequent market reactions occur very quickly。
The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchange rates interest rates and commodity prices。
Counterparties can rapidly become problematic。
As a result it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management。
【Key Words】Financial risk，Risk management，YieldsI. Financial risks arising1.1What Is Risk1.1.1The concept of riskRisk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss while exposure is the possibility of loss although they are often used interchangeably。
本科毕业设计(论文)外文翻译
华南理工大学本科毕业设计（论文）翻译班级姓名学号指导教师填表日期中文译名水溶性过度金属咔咯配合物对DNA连接和氧化裂解的作用外文原文名DNA Binding and Oxidative Cleavage by a Water-soluble CarboxylManganese(III) Corrole外文原文版出处Chinese Journal of Chemistry,2013,V ol.31(10)译文：吸收光谱，荧光光谱和CD光谱，以及粘度测量已经研究了小牛胸腺DNA(ct-DNA)与锰的咔咯配合物——5,10,15-三(4-羧基苯基)咔咯的相互作用。
结果表明锰的咔咯配合物通过外部沟与ct-DNA结合，该结合常数K b为4.67×104 L•mol−1 。
在多种氧化剂存在下，由Mn III TCPC作用，ct-DNA裂解作用也被研究。
在过氧化氢或叔BuOOH存在下，Mn III TCPC 可以以缺口和线性形式切割超螺旋质粒pBR322，然而以KHSO5作为氧化剂却并没有观察到核酸酶的活性。
抑制剂试验表明，羟基自由基，单线氧没有参与Mn III TCPC为介质的DNA氧化裂解。
在这种氧化裂解反应中，氧代锰(V)的咔咯配合物是可能的活性中间体。
关键词：咔咯，锰，DNA联接，核酸酶活性引言在自然中，经由水解磷酸二酯是金属酶催化的DNA高效裂解的途径。
在过去几十年里，作为探索生物医药的工具和抗癌药物，旨在结合并切割DNA的过渡金属配合物已被广泛研究。
卟啉及其金属配合物在生命系统中无处不在并发挥了重要的作用，例如细胞色素P450，过氧化物酶和过氧化氢酶。
为追求潜在的应用，在光动力疗法，肿瘤显像，人工核酸酶中，许多水溶性卟啉，如阳离子型卟啉，磺化卟啉，羧酸卟啉已经合成，它们中的一些甚至被用在临床诊断和治疗中。
类似的研究已扩大到其他类似卟啉的分子。
咔咯大环化合物与卟啉是有许多相似之处。
咔咯金属配合物的许多性能与卟啉的比较已经引起了人们极大的兴趣。
毕业论文设计外文资料翻译
毕业论文(设计)外文资料翻译学院：物理科学与电子技术学院专业：电子信息工程姓名：雷顺明学号：05223137外文出处：/colourful-rhyth ms-of-light-tango-r971913.htm附件：1、外文资料翻译译文；2、外文原文。
指导教师评语：该同学的外文资料翻译较准确，说明前期准备阶段的文献调研做了一定的工作，达到了预期目的。
签名：年月日附件1：外文资料翻译译文简易音乐彩灯控制器本例介绍一个简易音乐彩灯控制器，它的电路结构虽然非常简单，但使用效果很好，适宜初学者制作。
工作原理:简易音乐彩灯控制器电路如图所示，电路主要采用了一只晶闸管和一只三极管等组成。
220V交流电经灯串EL和二极管VD1一VD4桥式整流后变成约200V的脉动电压，一路加在晶闸管VT的两端作为VS工作所需的正向阳极电压；另一路经R1与R4分压，并经电容Cl滤波，在Cl两端可获得约3V左右稳定的直流电压，作为三极管VT的工作电压。
RP为声控灵敏度调节电位器，要求环境在无音乐声场时，调整RP使三极管VT刚好处于临界导通状态，这时VS的门极被VT短接无法获得触发电压，所以晶闸管VS处于关断态，流过彩灯串EL的电流极微，彩灯串EL不亮。
如果有人打开音响设备播放音乐时，压电陶瓷片B就拾取环境声波信号，并将其转换成相应的音频电压加在VT的发射结上。
强信号的负半周就使三极管VT退出导通态进入放大态，故VT的集电极电位升高，音乐信号愈强，VT集电极电位也就愈高，当高至晶闸管VS门极的触发电平时，VS开通彩灯串点亮发光。
弱信号时，VT集电极输出电平低于晶闸管门极的触发电平，晶闸管因交流电过零时即关断。
所以彩灯串EL能随环境声波信号的强弱而闪烁。
元器件选择VS选用普通小型塑封单向晶闸管，如2N6565,MCR100一8、BT169型等；VT选用或3DG8型硅NPN小功率三极管，要求电流放大系数β＞200；VD1一VD4选用1 N4007型等硅整流二极管。
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译(学生用)
毕业设计外文资料翻译学院：信息科学与工程学院专业：软件工程姓名： XXXXX学号： XXXXXXXXX外文出处： Think In Java (用外文写)附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文网络编程历史上的网络编程都倾向于困难、复杂，而且极易出错。
程序员必须掌握与网络有关的大量细节，有时甚至要对硬件有深刻的认识。
一般地，我们需要理解连网协议中不同的“层”（Layer）。
而且对于每个连网库，一般都包含了数量众多的函数，分别涉及信息块的连接、打包和拆包；这些块的来回运输；以及握手等等。
这是一项令人痛苦的工作。
但是，连网本身的概念并不是很难。
我们想获得位于其他地方某台机器上的信息，并把它们移到这儿；或者相反。
这与读写文件非常相似，只是文件存在于远程机器上，而且远程机器有权决定如何处理我们请求或者发送的数据。
Java最出色的一个地方就是它的“无痛苦连网”概念。
有关连网的基层细节已被尽可能地提取出去，并隐藏在JVM以及Java的本机安装系统里进行控制。
我们使用的编程模型是一个文件的模型；事实上，网络连接（一个“套接字”）已被封装到系统对象里，所以可象对其他数据流那样采用同样的方法调用。
除此以外，在我们处理另一个连网问题——同时控制多个网络连接——的时候，Java内建的多线程机制也是十分方便的。
本章将用一系列易懂的例子解释Java的连网支持。
15.1 机器的标识当然，为了分辨来自别处的一台机器，以及为了保证自己连接的是希望的那台机器，必须有一种机制能独一无二地标识出网络内的每台机器。
早期网络只解决了如何在本地网络环境中为机器提供唯一的名字。
但Java面向的是整个因特网，这要求用一种机制对来自世界各地的机器进行标识。
为达到这个目的，我们采用了IP（互联网地址）的概念。
IP以两种形式存在着：(1) 大家最熟悉的DNS（域名服务）形式。
我自己的域名是。
所以假定我在自己的域内有一台名为Opus的计算机，它的域名就可以是。
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译【范本模板】
南京理工大学紫金学院毕业设计（论文）外文资料翻译系：机械系专业：车辆工程专业姓名:宋磊春学号:070102234外文出处：EDU_E_CAT_VBA_FF_V5R9(用外文写)附件：1。
外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文.附件1：外文资料翻译译文CATIA V5 的自动化CATIA V5的自动化和脚本：在NT 和Unix上：脚本允许你用宏指令以非常简单的方式计划CATIA。
CATIA 使用在MS –VBScript中(V5.x中在NT和UNIX3。
0 )的共用部分来使得在两个平台上运行相同的宏。
在NT 平台上：自动化允许CATIA像Word/Excel或者Visual Basic程序那样与其他外用分享目标。
ATIA 能使用Word/Excel对象就像Word/Excel能使用CATIA 对象。
在Unix 平台上:CATIA将来的版本将允许从Java分享它的对象。
这将提供在Unix 和NT 之间的一个完美兼容。
CATIA V5 自动化：介绍（仅限NT）自动化允许在几个进程之间的联系:CATIA V5 在NT 上：接口COM：Visual Basic 脚本(对宏来说)，Visual Basic 为应用（适合前:Word/Excel )，Visual Basic。
COM（零部件目标模型)是“微软“标准于几个应用程序之间的共享对象。
Automation 是一种“微软“技术,它使用一种解释环境中的COM对象。
ActiveX 组成部分是“微软“标准于几个应用程序之间的共享对象,即使在解释环境里。
OLE（对象的链接与嵌入）意思是资料可以在一个其他应用OLE的资料里连结并且可以被编辑的方法(在适当的位置编辑）.在VBScript,VBA和Visual Basic之间的差别：Visual Basic(VB）是全部的版本。
它能产生独立的计划,它也能建立ActiveX 和服务器。
它可以被编辑。
VB中提供了一个补充文件名为“在线丛书“(VB的5。
毕业论文外文翻译
毕业论文外文翻译Title: The Influence of Technological Advancements on Education Abstract:This paper explores the impact of technological advancements on education. With the rapid development of technology, its introduction into education has revolutionized the way knowledge is acquired and shared. The benefits of technology integration in education include improving learning outcomes, enhancing access to education, and fostering collaboration and communication. On the other hand, potential challenges such as inequality in access to technology and the risk of replacing traditional teaching methods with digital tools are also discussed. To address these challenges, the paper proposes recommendations and strategies for effectively using technology in education. It concludes that while technology has the potential to significantly enhance education, careful planning, teacher training, and continuous evaluation are crucial to ensure its successful integration.1. IntroductionEducation is the foundation of personal and societal development. Over the years, technological advancements have played a significant role in transforming various sectors, including education. The integration of technology in education has opened up new possibilities for teaching and learning.2. Benefits of Technological Integration in Education2.1 Improved Learning OutcomesTechnology has the potential to enhance learning outcomes by providing personalized and engaging learning experiences.Interactive multimedia resources, such as videos, simulations, and virtual reality, can make complex concepts more accessible and understandable for students. Additionally, learning management systems and online platforms enable students to access educational materials anytime and anywhere, facilitating self-paced learning. 2.2 Enhanced Access to EducationTechnology has greatly expanded access to education, especially in remote and underserved areas. Online courses, virtual classrooms, and open educational resources have democratized education, allowing individuals to overcome geographical barriers and access learning opportunities that were previously unavailable. Furthermore, technology has created opportunities for lifelong learning, making education more accessible to adults and professionals.2.3 Collaboration and CommunicationTechnology enables collaboration and communication among students, teachers, and experts from different locations. Online discussion forums, video conferencing, and collaborative tools promote active participation, peer learning, and knowledge sharing. These digital platforms also facilitate communication between teachers and students, providing instant feedback and support outside of the traditional classroom settings.3. Challenges and ConcernsDespite the numerous benefits, there are challenges and concerns associated with technology integration in education.3.1 Inequality in Access to TechnologyThe digital divide creates unequal access to technology, making it difficult for some students to fully benefit from technology in their educational journey. Limited access to devices, stable internet connection, and technology literacy are major barriers that need to be addressed to ensure equal opportunities for all learners.3.2 Potential Over-reliance on TechnologyThere is a risk of over-reliance on technology, leading to the exclusion of effective traditional teaching methods or neglecting essential skills, such as critical thinking and problem-solving. It is important to strike a balance between technology use and traditional teaching approaches, ensuring that technology complements and enhances, rather than replaces, the core aspects of education.4. Recommendations and StrategiesTo harness the potential of technology in education, it is important to consider the following recommendations and strategies:4.1 Infrastructure and AccessEfforts should be made to bridge the digital divide by providing infrastructure, such as devices and internet connectivity, to underserved communities. Schools and educational institutions should prioritize equal access to technology and ensure that students have the necessary skills to utilize it effectively.4.2 Teacher Training and Professional DevelopmentTeachers play a critical role in integrating technology into the curriculum. Adequate training and professional development programs are essential to equip teachers with the skills andknowledge to effectively use technology for teaching and learning purposes. Continuous support and opportunities for collaboration and sharing of best practices should be provided.4.3 Continuous Evaluation and AdaptationRegular evaluation and feedback mechanisms should be in place to assess the impact of technology integration on learning outcomes. This will help identify areas for improvement and adapt teaching practices accordingly. Continuous evaluation will also ensure that the integration of technology remains aligned with educational goals and objectives.5. ConclusionTechnology has the potential to reshape education in unprecedented ways. This paper has highlighted the benefits and challenges of technology integration in education. It is essential to recognize that technology is a tool, not a substitute for quality teaching and learning. Strategic planning, teacher training, and evaluation are necessary to ensure technology's effective integration into education, thus harnessing its full potential to improve learning outcomes, enhance access to education, and foster collaboration and communication.。
毕业论文外文翻译报告范文
毕业论文外文翻译报告范文AbstractThis report presents a translation of an academic article titled "The Impact of Technology on Education." The article discusses the various ways in which technology has transformed the field of education, particularly in terms of teaching methods, student engagement, and access to educational resources. The translation aims to accurately convey the content and meaning of the original article, while ensuring clarity and coherence for the readers.IntroductionTechnology has revolutionized nearly every aspect of our lives, including the field of education. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of technology in classrooms and educational institutions worldwide. This article explores the impact of technology on education, highlighting its benefits and potential challenges.Teaching MethodsOne of the key effects of technology on education is the transformation of traditional teaching methods. With the introduction of interactive whiteboards, online learning platforms, and educational apps, teachers now have access to a wide range of tools and resources to enhance their teaching. These technologies enable teachers to create dynamic and engaging lessons, integrating multimedia content and interactive activities, which enhance student understanding and participation.Student EngagementTechnology has also had a profound impact on student engagement in the learning process. With the use of digital tools, students can now actively participate in their education and take ownership of their learning. Interactive quizzes, online discussions, and collaborative projects allow students to actively engage with the subject matter, promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Moreover, technology enables personalized learning experiences, catering to individual student needs and preferences.Access to Educational ResourcesAnother significant benefit of technology in education is the increased access to educational resources. Online libraries, open educational resources, and digital textbooks provide students with a vast amount of information at their fingertips. This access to a wide range of resources goes beyond what traditional textbooks and classrooms can offer, empowering students to explore and learn at their own pace.Challenges and ConsiderationsWhile the impact of technology on education is largely positive, there are also some challenges and considerations that need to be addressed. One concern is the potential for technology to create a divide between students who have access to technology and those who do not. It is essential to ensure equitable access to technology and training for all students to prevent further disparities in education.Additionally, the integration of technology in the classroom requires teachers to adapt and acquire new technological skills. Adequate training and support must be provided to empower teachers to effectively incorporate technology into their teaching practices.ConclusionIn conclusion, technology has had a transformative impact on education. It has revolutionized teaching methods, enhanced student engagement, and provided increased access to educational resources. However, it is important to address the challenges and considerations that arise with the integration of technology in education. By doing so, we can ensure that technology continues to benefit and enhance the learning experience for all students.References:[Original Article Reference]。
毕业设计(论文)外文翻译
华南理工大学广州学院本科生毕业设计（论文）翻译外文原文名Agency Cost under the Restriction of Free Cash Flow中文译名自由现金流量的限制下的代理成本学院管理学院专业班级会计学3班学生姓名陈洁玉学生学号200930191100指导教师余勍讲师填写日期2015年5月11日外文原文版出处：译文成绩：指导教师（导师组长）签名：译文：自由现金流量的限制下的代理成本摘要代理成本理论是资本结构理论的一个重要分支。
自由现金流代理成本有显着的影响。
在这两个领域相结合的研究，将有助于建立和扩大理论体系。
代理成本理论基础上，本研究首先分类自由现金流以及统计方法的特点。
此外，投资自由现金流代理成本的存在证明了模型。
自由现金流代理成本理论引入限制，分析表明，它会改变代理成本，进而将影响代理成本和资本结构之间的关系，最后，都会影响到最优资本结构点，以保持平衡。
具体地说，自由现金流增加，相应地，债务比例会降低。
关键词：资本结构，现金流，代理成本，非金钱利益1、介绍代理成本理论，金融契约理论，信号模型和新的啄食顺序理论，新的资本结构理论的主要分支。
财务con-道的理论侧重于限制股东的合同行为，解决股东和债权人之间的冲突。
信令模式和新的啄食顺序理论中心解决投资者和管理者之间的冲突。
这两种类型的冲突是在商业组织中的主要冲突。
代理成本理论认为，如何达到平衡这两种类型的冲突，资本结构是如何形成的，这是比前两次在一定程度上更多的理论更全面。
……Agency Cost under the Restriction of Free Cash FlowAbstractAgency cost theory is an important branch of capital structural theory. Free cash flow has significant impact on agency cost. The combination of research on these two fields would help to build and extend the theoretical system. Based on agency cost theory, the present study firstly categorized the characteristics of free cash flow as well as the statistical methodologies. Furthermore, the existence of investing free cash flow in agency cost was proved by a model. Then free cash flow was introduced into agency cost theory as restriction, the analysis shows that it will change agency cost, in turn, will have an impact on the relationship between agency cost and capital structure, finally, will influence the optimal capital structure point to maintain the equilibrium. Concretely, with the increasing free cash flow, correspondingly, debt proportion will decrease.Keywords:Capital Structure,Free Cash Flow,Agency Cost,Non-Pecuniary Benefit1. IntroductionAgency cost theory, financial contract theory, signaling model and new pecking order theory are the main branches of new capital structure theory. Financial con-tract theory focuses on restricting stockholders’ behavior by contract and solving the conflict between stockholders and creditors. Signaling model and new pecking order theory center on solving the conflict between investors and managers. These two types of conflict are the main conflict in business organizations. Agency cost theory considers how equilibrium is reached in both types of conflict and how capital structure is formed, which is more theory is more comprehensive than the previous two to some degree.……。
【精品】外文资料翻译(DOC)
外文资料翻译(D O C)毕业论文外文资料翻译学院：化学与制药工程学院专业：化学与工艺姓名：甄希同学号： 090101227外文出处：(用外文写)附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
指导教师评语：签名：年月日β沸石作为制取烷基糖苷表面活性剂的催化剂：晶体的大小和疏水性的作用Hβ分子筛是一个活性和选择性的葡萄糖形成烷基糖苷非离子表面活性剂的缩醛化反应催化剂。
极性的反应物的大小和特点，中间体和产品，确定的质构特性强烈影响该催化剂（晶粒尺寸和吸附性能）的活性，选择性，和失活。
两个系列不同浓度的Si–O–Si连通性缺陷的最佳活性沸石中的Si / Al比的优化，这是在较低的Si / Al 比和较低的缺陷浓度，即系列达到，在更多的疏水性序列。
因此，优化的疏水性系列催化剂比亲水性更活跃，它也显示出较好的抗失活。
引言表面活性剂主要是用在我们的社会目前通常使用的许多产品中例如，他们存在于洗涤剂组合物，纺织品洗涤，美容产品，甚至在食品生产中。
作为清洁剂他们对经济和生态环境的影响是特别重要的。
在这种情况下，一个非常重要的特性是烷基链分支水平有关的生物降解。
这个因素强烈的决定在许多情况下，控制生产过程，成为重要因子。
最近的替代表面活性剂烷基糖苷C8和C18烷基链之间的制备在这种情况下，来自天然苷产品可用于制备积的木非离子表面活性剂具有良好的生物降解性和低程度的皮肤和口服毒性。
我们最近的工作，是用Fisher方法制备丁基糖苷使用沸石作为催化剂，这些低苷较好地溶于脂肪醇可作为制备高葡糖苷中间体而大孔酸性沸石被证明是交流性的催化剂，它被观察到对反应物的吸附产品发挥重要作用的动力学的过程，因此确定的转换和产物选择性。
考虑到反应发生在一个高度亲水性的反应物（葡萄糖）和亲水性低的（脂族醇）之间导致产品含有亲水性和疏水性基团就不奇怪了。
同时，在反应过程中，不同大小的反应物和产物干预，对沸石孔隙的扩散模式控制极为重要，这当足够的孔隙组合和晶粒尺寸。
机械设计制造及其自动化毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译
机械设计创造及其自动化毕业论文外文文献翻译INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY译文题目专业机械设计创造及其自动化外文资料翻译INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY（From ELECTRICAL AND MACHINERY INDUSTRY）ABSTRACTMachinery was the modern science and technology development inevitable result, this article has summarized the integration of machinery technology basic outline and the development background .Summarized the domestic and foreign integration of machinery technology present situation, has analyzed the integration of machinery technology trend of development.Key word： integration of machinery ，technology， present situation ，product t，echnique of manufacture ，trend of development0. Introduction modern science and technology unceasing development, impelled different discipline intersecting enormously with the seepage, has caused the project domain technological revolution and the transformation .In mechanical engineering domain, because the microelectronic technology and the computer technology rapid development and forms to the mechanical industry seepage the integration of machinery, caused the mechanical industry the technical structure, the product organization, the function and the constitution, the production method and the management systemof by machinery for the characteristic integration ofdevelopment phase.1. Integration of machinery outline integration of machinery is refers in the organization new owner function, the power function, in the information processing function and the control function introduces the electronic technology, unifies the system the mechanism and the computerization design and the software which constitutes always to call. The integration of machinery development also has become one to have until now own system new discipline, not only develops along with the science and technology, but also entrusts with the new content .But its basic characteristic may summarize is: The integration of machinery is embarks from the system viewpoint, synthesis community technologies and so on utilization mechanical technology, microelectronic technology, automatic control technology, computer technology, information technology, sensing observation and control technology, electric power electronic technology, connection technology, information conversion technology as well as software programming technology, according to the system function goal and the optimized organization goal, reasonable disposition and the layout various functions unit, in multi-purpose, high grade, redundant reliable, in the low energy consumption significance realize the specific function value, and causes the overall system optimization the systems engineering technology .From this produces functional system, then becomes an integration of machinery systematic or the integration of machinery product. Therefore, of coveringtechnology is based on the above community technology organic fusion one kind of comprehensive technology, but is not mechanical technical, the microelectronic technology as well as other new technical simple combination, pieces together .This is the integration of machinery and the machinery adds the machinery electrification which the electricity forms in the concept basic difference .The mechanical engineering technology has the merely technical to develop the machinery electrification, still was the traditional machinery, its main function still was replaces with the enlargement physical strength .But after develops the integration of machinery, micro electron installment besides may substitute for certain mechanical parts the original function, but also can entrust with many new functions,like the automatic detection, the automatic reduction information, demonstrate the record, the automatic control and the control automatic diagnosis and the protection automatically and so on .Not only namely the integration of machinery product is human's hand and body extending, human's sense organ and the brains look, has the intellectualized characteristic is the integration of machinery and the machinery electrification distinguishes in the function essence.2. Integration of machinery development condition integration of machinery development may divide into 3 stages roughly.20th century 60's before for the first stage, this stage is called the initial stage .In this time, the people determination not on own initiative uses the electronic technology the preliminary achievement to consummate the mechanical product the performance .Specially in Second World War period, the war has stimulated the mechanical product and the electronic technology union, these mechanical and electrical union military technology, postwar transfers civilly, to postwar economical restoration positive function .Developed and the development at that time generally speaking also is at the spontaneouscondition .Because at that time the electronic technology development not yet achieved certain level, mechanical technical and electronic technology union also not impossible widespread and thorough development, already developed the product was also unable to promote massively. The 20th century 70~80 ages for the second stage, may be called the vigorous development stage .This time, the computer technology, the control technology, the communication development, has laid the technology base for the integration of machinery development . Large-scale, ultra large scale integrated circuit and microcomputer swift and violent development, has provided the full material base for the integration of machinery development .This time characteristic is :①A mechatronics word first generally is accepted in Japan, probably obtains the quite widespread acknowledgment to 1980s last stages in the worldwide scale ;②The integration of machinery technology and the product obtained the enormous development ;③The various countries start to the integration of machinery technology and the product give the very big attention and the support. 1990s later periods, started the integration of machinery technology the new stagewhich makes great strides forward to the intellectualized direction, the integration of machinery enters the thorough development time .At the same time, optics, the communication and so on entered the integration of machinery, processes the technology also zhan to appear tiny in the integration of machinery the foot, appeared the light integration of machinery and the micro integration of machinery and so on the new branch; On the other hand to the integration of machinery system modeling design, the analysis and the integrated method, the integration of machinery discipline system and the trend of development has all conducted the thorough research .At the same time, because the hugeprogress which domains and so on artificial intelligence technology, neural network technology and optical fiber technology obtain, opened the development vast world for the integration of machinery technology .These research, will urge the integration of machinery further to establish the integrity the foundation and forms the integrity gradually the scientific system. Our country is only then starts from the beginning of 1980s in this aspect to study with the application .The State Councilsummary had considered fully on international the influence which and possibly brought from this about the integration of machinery technology developmenttrend .Many universities, colleges and institutes, the development facility and some large and middle scale enterprises have done the massive work to this technical development and the application, does not yield certain result, but and so on the advanced countries compared with Japan still has the suitable disparity.3. Integration of machinery trend of development integrations of machinery are the collection machinery, the electron, optics, the control, the computer, the information and so on the multi-disciplinary overlapping syntheses, its development and the progress rely on and promote the correlation technology development and the progress .Therefore, the integration of machinery main development direction is as follows:3.1 Intellectualized intellectualizations are 21st century integration of machinery technological development important development directions .Theartificial intelligence obtains day by day in the integration of machinery constructor's research takes, the robot and the numerical control engine bedis to the machine behavior description, is in the control theory foundation, the absorption artificial intelligence, the operations research, the computer science, the fuzzy mathematics, the psychology, the physiology and the chaos dynamics and so on the new thought, the new method, simulate the human intelligence, enable it to have abilities and so on judgment inference, logical thinking, independent decision-making, obtains the higher control goal in order to .Indeed, enable the integration of machinery product to have with the human identical intelligence, is not impossible, also is nonessential .But, the high performance, the high speed microprocessor enable the integration of machinery product to have preliminary intelligent or human's partial intelligences, then is completely possible and essential.In the modern manufacture process, the information has become the control manufacture industry the determining factor, moreover is the most active actuation factor .Enhances the manufacture system information-handling capacity to become the modern manufacture science development a key point .As a result of the manufacture system information organization and structure multi-level, makes the information the gain, the integration and the fusion presents draws up the character, information measure multi-dimensional, as well as information organization's multi-level .In the manufacture information structural model, manufacture information uniform restraint, dissemination processing and magnanimous data aspects and so on manufacture knowledge library management, all also wait for further break through.Each kind of artificial intelligence tool and the computation intelligence method promoted the manufacture intelligence development in the manufacture widespread application .A kind based on the biological evolution algorithm computation intelligent agent, in includes thescheduling problem in the combination optimization solution area of technology, receives the more and more universal attention, hopefully completes the combination optimization question when the manufacture the solution speed and the solution precision aspect breaks through the question scale in pairs the restriction .The manufacture intelligence also displays in: The intelligent dispatch, the intelligent design, the intelligent processing, the robot study, the intelligent control, the intelligent craft plan, the intelligent diagnosis and so on are various These question key breakthrough, may form the product innovation the basic research system. Between 2 modern mechanical engineering front science different science overlapping fusion will have the new science accumulation, the economical development and society's progress has had the new request and the expectation to the science and technology, thus will form the front science .The front science also has solved and between the solution scientific question border area .The front science has the obvious time domain, the domain and the dynamic characteristic .The project front science distinguished in the general basic science important characteristic is it has covered the key science and technology question which the project actual appeared.Manufacture system is a complex large-scale system, for satisfies the manufacture system agility, the fast response and fast reorganization ability, must profit from the information science, the life sciences and the social sciences and so on the multi-disciplinary research results, the exploration manufacture system new architecture, the manufacture pattern and the manufacture system effective operational mechanism .Makes the system optimization the organizational structure and the good movement condition is makes the system modeling , the simulation and the optimized essential target .Not only the manufacture system new architecture to makes the enterprise the agility and may reorganize ability to the demand response ability to have the vital significance, moreover to made the enterprise first floor production equipment the flexibility and may dynamic reorganization ability set a higher request .The biological manufacture view more and more many is introduced the manufacture system, satisfies the manufacture system new request.The study organizes and circulates method and technique of complicated system from the biological phenomenon, is a valid exit which will solve many hard nut to cracks that manufacturing industry face from now on currently .Imitating to living what manufacturing point is mimicry living creature organ of from the organization, from match more, from growth with from evolution etc. function structure and circulate mode of a kind of manufacturing system and manufacturing process.The manufacturing drives in the mechanism under, continuously by one's own perfect raise on organizing structure and circulating mode and thus to adapt the process of[with] ability for the environment .For from descend but the last product proceed together a design and make a craft rules the auto of the distance born, produce system of dynamic state reorganization and product and manufacturing the system tend automatically excellent provided theories foundation and carry out acondition .Imitate to living a manufacturing to belong to manufacturing science and life science of"the far good luck is miscellaneous to hand over", it will produce to the manufacturing industry for 21 centuries huge of influence .机电一体化摘要机电一体化是现代科学技术发展的必然结果,本文简述了机电一体化技术的基本概要和发展背景。
毕业论文外文翻译范例
外文原文(一)Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciple s*M. H. HoeflichFriedrich Carl von Savigny, nobleman, law reformer, champion of the revived German professoriate, and founder of the Historical School of jurisprudence, not only helped to revolutionize the study of law and legal institutions in Germany and in other civil law countries, but also exercised a profound influence on many of the most creative jurists and legal scholars in England and the United States. Nevertheless, tracing the influence of an individual is always a difficult task. It is especially difficult as regards Savigny and the approach to law and legal sources propounded by the Historical School. This difficulty arises, in part, because Savigny was not alone in adopting this approach. Hugo, for instance, espoused quite similar ideas in Germany; George Long echoed many of these concepts in England during the 1850s, and, of course, Sir Henry Sumner Maine also espoused many of these same concepts central to historical jurisprudence in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Thus, when one looks at the doctrinal writings of British and American jurists and legal scholars in the period before 1875, it is often impossible to say with any certainty that a particular idea which sounds very much the sort of thing that might, indeed, have been derived from Savigny's works, was, in fact, so derived. It is possible, nevertheless, to trace much of the influence of Savigny and his legal writings in the United States and in Great Britain during this period with some certainty because so great was his fame and so great was the respect accorded to his published work that explicit references to him and to his work abound in the doctrinal writing of this period, as well as in actual law cases in the courts. Thus, Max Gutzwiller, in his classic study Der einfluss Savignys auf die Entwicklung des International privatrechts, was able to show how Savigny's ideas on conflict of laws influenced such English and American scholars as Story, Phillimore, Burge, and Dicey. Similarly, Andreas Schwarz, in his "Einflusse Deutscher Zivilistik im Auslande," briefly sketched Savigny's influence upon John Austin, Frederick Pollock, and James Bryce. In this article I wish to examine Savigny's influence over a broader spectrum and to draw a picture of his general fame and reputation both in Britain and in the United States as the leading Romanist, legal historian, and German legal academic of his day. The picture of this Anglo-American respect accorded to Savigny and the historical school of jurisprudence which emerges from these sources is fascinating. It sheds light not only upon Savigny’s trans-channel, trans-Atlantic fame, but also upon the extraordinarily*M.H.Hoeflich, Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciples, American Journal of Comparative Law, vol.37, No.1, 1989.cosmopolitan outlook of many of the leading American and English jurists of the time. Of course, when one sets out to trace the influence of a particular individual and his work, it is necessary to demonstrate, if possible, precisely how knowledge of the man and his work was transmitted. In the case of Savigny and his work on Roman law and ideas of historical jurisprudence, there were three principal modes of transmission. First, there was the direct influence he exercised through his contacts with American lawyers and scholars. Second, there was the influence he exercised through his books. Third, there was the influence he exerted indirectly through intermediate scholars and their works. Let us examine each mode separately.I.INFLUENCE OF THE TRANSLATED WORKSWhile American and British interest in German legal scholarship was high in the antebellum period, the number of American and English jurists who could read German fluently was relatively low. Even those who borrowed from the Germans, for instance, Joseph Story, most often had to depend upon translations. It is thus quite important that Savigny’s works were amongst the most frequently translated into English, both in the United States and in Great Britain. His most influential early work, the Vom Beruf unserer Zeitfur Rechtsgeschichte und Gestzgebung, was translated into English by Abraham Hayward and published in London in 1831. Two years earlier the first volume of his History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages was translated by Cathcart and published in Edinburgh. In 1830, as well, a French translation was published at Paris. Sir Erskine Perry's translation of Savigny's Treatise on Possession was published in London in 1848. This was followed by Archibald Brown's epitome of the treatise on possession in 1872 and Rattigan's translation of the second volume of the System as Jural Relations or the Law of Persons in 1884. Guthrie published a translation of the seventh volume of the System as Private International Law at Edinburgh in 1869. Indeed, two English translations were even published in the far flung corners of the British Raj. A translation of the first volume of the System was published by William Holloway at Madras in 1867 and the volume on possession was translated by Kelleher and published at Calcutta in 1888. Thus, the determined English-speaking scholar had ample access to Savigny's works throughout the nineteenth century.Equally important for the dissemination of Savigny's ideas were those books and articles published in English that explained and analyzed his works. A number of these must have played an important role in this process. One of the earliest of these is John Reddie's Historical Notices of the Roman law and of the Progress of its Study in Germany, published at Edinburgh in 1826. Reddie was a noted Scots jurist and held the Gottingen J.U.D. The book, significantly, is dedicated to Gustav Hugo. It is of that genre known as an external history of Roman law-not so much a history of substantive Roman legal doctrine but rather a historyof Roman legal institutions and of the study of Roman law from antiquity through the nineteenth century. It is very much a polemic for the study of Roman law and for the Historical School. It imparts to the reader the excitement of Savigny and his followers about the study of law historically and it is clear that no reader of the work could possibly be left unmoved. It is, in short, the first work of public relations in English on behalf of Savigny and his ideas.Having mentioned Reddie's promotion of Savigny and the Historical School, it is important to understand the level of excitement with which things Roman and especially Roman law were greeted during this period. Many of the finest American jurists were attracted-to use Peter Stein's term-to Roman and Civil law, but attracted in a way that, at times, seems to have been more enthusiastic than intellectual. Similarly, Roman and Civil law excited much interest in Great Britain, as illustrated by the distinctly Roman influence to be found in the work of John Austin. The attraction of Roman and Civil law can be illustrated and best understood, perhaps, in the context of the publicity and excitement in the English-speaking world surrounding the discovery of the only complete manuscript of the classical Roman jurist Gaius' Institutes in Italy in 1816 by the ancient historian and German consul at Rome, B.G. Niebuhr. Niebuhr, the greatest ancient historian of his time, turned to Savigny for help with the Gaius manuscript (indeed, it was Savigny who recognized the manuscript for what it was) and, almost immediately, the books and journals-not just law journals by any means-were filled with accounts of the discovery, its importance to legal historical studies, and, of course, what it said. For instance, the second volume of the American Jurist contains a long article on the civil law by the scholarly Boston lawyer and classicist, John Pickering. The first quarter of the article is a gushing account of the discovery and first publication of the Gaius manuscript and a paean to Niebuhr and Savigny for their role in this. Similarly, in an article published in the London Law Magazine in 1829 on the civil law, the author contemptuously refers to a certain professor who continued to tell his students that the text of Gaius' Institutes was lost for all time. What could better show his ignorance of all things legal and literary than to be unaware of Niebuhr's great discovery?Another example of this reaction to the discovery of the Gaius palimpsest is to be found in David Irving's Introduction to the Study of the Civil Law. This volume is also more a history of Roman legal scholarship and sources than a study of substantive Roman law. Its pages are filled with references to Savigny's Geschichte and its approach clearly reflects the influence of the Historical School. Indeed, Irving speaks of Savigny's work as "one of the most remarkable productions of the age." He must have been truly impressed with German scholarship and must also have been able to convince the Faculty of Advocates, forwhom he was librarian, of the worth of German scholarship, for in 1820 the Faculty sent him to Gottingen so that he might study their law libraries. Irving devotes several pages of his elementary textbook on Roman law to the praise of the "remarkable" discovery of the Gaius palimpsest. He traces the discovery of the text by Niebuhr and Savigny in language that would have befitted an adventure tale. He elaborates on the various labors required to produce a new edition of the text and was particularly impressed by the use of a then new chemical process to make the under text of the palimpsest visible. He speaks of the reception of the new text as being greeted with "ardor and exultation" strong words for those who spend their lives amidst the "musty tomes" of the Roman law.This excitement over the Verona Gaius is really rather strange. Much of the substance of the Gaius text was already known to legal historians and civil lawyers from its incorporation into Justinian's Institutes and so, from a substantive legal perspective, the find was not crucial. The Gaius did provide new information on Roman procedural rules and it did also provide additional information for those scholars attempting to reconstruct pre-Justinianic Roman law. Nevertheless, these contributions alone seem hardly able to justify the excitement the discovery caused. Instead, I think that the Verona Gaius discovery simply hit a chord in the literary and legal community much the same as did the discovery of the Rosetta Stone or of Schliemann’s Troy. Here was a monument of a great civilization brought newly to light and able to be read for the first time in millenia. And just as the Rosetta Stone helped to establish the modern discipline of Egyptology and Schliemann's discoveries assured the development of classical archaeology as a modern academic discipline, the discovery of the Verona Gaius added to the attraction Roman law held for scholars and for lawyers, even amongst those who were not Romanists by profession. Ancillary to this, the discovery and publication of the Gaius manuscript also added to the fame of the two principals involved in the discovery, Niebuhr and Savigny. What this meant in the English-speaking world is that even those who could not or did not wish to read Savigny's technical works knew of him as one of the discoverers of the Gaius text. This fame itself may well have helped in spreading Savigny's legal and philosophical ideas, for, I would suggest, the Gaius "connection" may well have disposed people to read other of Savigny's writings, unconnected to the Gaius, because they were already familiar with his name.Another example of an English-speaking promoter of Savigny is Luther Stearns Cushing, a noted Boston lawyer who lectured on Roman law at the Harvard Law School in 1848-49 and again in 1851- 1852.Cushing published his lectures at Boston in 1854 under the title An Introduction to the Study of Roman Law. He devoted a full chapter to a description of the historical school and to the controversy betweenSavigny and Thibaut over codification. While Cushing attempted to portray fairly the arguments of both sides, he left no doubt as to his preference for Savigny's approach:The labors of the historical school have established an entirely new and distinct era in the study of the Roman jurisprudence; and though these writers cannot be said to have thrown their predecessors into the shade, it seems to be generally admitted, that almost every branch of the Roman law has received some important modification at their hands, and that a knowledge of their writings, to some extent, at least, is essentially necessary to its acquisition.译文(一)萨维尼和他的英美信徒们*M·H·豪弗里奇弗雷德里奇·卡尔·冯·萨维尼出身贵族，是一位出色的法律改革家，也是一位倡导重建德国教授协会的拥护者，还是历史法学派的创建人之一。
毕业论文翻译稿件【范本模板】
本科毕业论文外文翻译外文译文题目：对于E类型的简单生产线平衡问题的解决过程学院: 机械自动化专业: 工业工程学号: 201003166078学生姓名：谭柱森指导教师: 李颖日期: 二○一四年五月A solution procedure for type E simple assembly linebalancing problemNai—Chieh Wei , I-Ming ChaoIndustrial Engineering and Management，I—Shou University，No. 1，Section 1, Syuecheng Rd. Dashu District, KaohsiungCity 84001，Taiwan, ROC.对于E类型的简单生产线平衡问题的解决过程Nai-Chieh Wei , I-Ming Chao工业工程与管理，中华人民共和国，台湾省，高雄市，Syuecheng Rd。
Dashu街一号，义守大学，第一章第一节摘要本文提出了结合SALBP—1和SALBP-2的E型简单装配线平衡问题（SALBP—E），更多的,本研究为提出的模型提供了解决方法。
提出的模型在最小化空闲时间的同时优化装配线平衡率，为管理实践提供了更好的理解,计算结果表明：给出周期的上限ct以后,提出的模型可以最优的解决问题，因为它含有最少的变量,约max束和计算时间。
1前言从研究者第一次讨论装配线平衡问题以来，大约有50年了，在众多有关生产线平衡问题中,最基本的是简单装配线平衡问题，早在1954年，Bryton就定义并且研究了生产线平衡问题。
后一年，Salverson建立了第一个生产线平衡的数学模型并提出了定性的解决步骤,这引来了很大的兴趣，在Gutjahr 和Nemhauser说明生产线平衡是一种NP组合优化难题，大多数研究者希望开发一种能高效解决多种装配线问题的方法。
在随后的几年,生产线平衡成为了一个流行的主题，Kim，Kim，and Kim （1996）把生产线平衡分为五类问题，其中的问题1（SALBP —1）和问题Ⅱ（SALBP—Ⅱ)是两种基本的优化问题。
土木工程毕业论文中英文翻译
外文翻译班级：xxx学号：xxx姓名：xxx一、外文原文：Structural Systems to resist lateral loads Commonly Used structural SystemsWith loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts. Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression.It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts. Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved. Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today’ s technology.Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows:1.Moment-resisting frames.2.Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.3.Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.4.Tube-in-tube structures.5.Core-interactive structures.6.Cellular or bundled-tube systems.Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems. Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings. These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights. This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture. To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect. In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here .The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.Moment-Resisting FramesPerhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints. Such frames are used as a stand-alone system or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads. In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under lateral forces.Analysis can be accomplished by STRESS, STRUDL, or a host of other appropriate computer programs; analysis by the so-called portal method of the cantilever method has no place in today’s technology.Because of the intrinsic flexibility of the column/girder intersection, and because preliminary designs should aim to highlight weaknesses of systems, it is not unusual to use center-to-center dimensions for the frame in the preliminary analysis. Of course, in the latter phases of design, a realistic appraisal in-joint deformation is essential.Braced Frame sThe braced frame, intrinsically stiffer than the moment –resisting frame, finds also greater application to higher-rise buildings. The system is characterized by linear horizontal, vertical, and diagonal members, connected simply or rigidly at their joints. It is used commonly inconjunction with other systems for taller buildings and as a stand-alone system in low-to medium-rise buildings.While the use of structural steel in braced frames is common, concrete frames are more likely to be of the larger-scale variety.Of special interest in areas of high seismicity is the use of the eccentric braced frame.Again, analysis can be by STRESS, STRUDL, or any one of a series of two –or three dimensional analysis computer programs. And again, center-to-center dimensions are used commonly in the preliminary analysis. Shear wallsThe shear wall is yet another step forward along a progression of ever-stiffer structural systems. The system is characterized by relatively thin, generally but not always concrete elements that provide both structural strength and separation between building functions.In high-rise buildings, shear wall systems tend to have a relatively high aspect ratio, that is, their height tends to be large compared to their width. Lacking tension in the foundation system, any structural element is limited in its ability to resist overturning moment by the width of the system and by the gravity load supported by the element. Limited to a narrow overturning, One obvious use of the system, which does have the needed width, is in the exterior walls of building, where the requirement for windows is kept small.Structural steel shear walls, generally stiffened against buckling by a concrete overlay, have found application where shear loads are high. The system, intrinsically more economical than steel bracing, is particularly effective in carrying shear loads down through the taller floors in the areas immediately above grade. The system has the further advantage of having high ductility a feature of particular importance in areas of high seismicity.The analysis of shear wall systems is made complex because of the inevitable presence of large openings through these walls. Preliminary analysis can be by truss-analogy, by the finite element method, or by making use of a proprietary computer program designed to consider the interaction, or coupling, of shear walls.Framed or Braced TubesThe concept of the framed or braced or braced tube erupted into the technology with the IBM Building in Pittsburgh, but was followed immediately with the twin 110-story towers of the World Trade Center, New York and a number of other buildings .The system is characterized by three –dimensional frames, braced frames, or shear walls, forming a closed surface more or less cylindrical in nature, but of nearly any plan configuration. Because those columns that resist lateral forces are placed as far as possible from the cancroids of the system, the overall moment of inertia is increased and stiffness is very high.The analysis of tubular structures is done using three-dimensional concepts, or by two- dimensional analogy, where possible, whichever method is used, it must be capable of accounting for the effects of shear lag.The presence of shear lag, detected first in aircraft structures, is a serious limitation in the stiffness of framed tubes. The concept has limited recent applications of framed tubes to the shear of 60 stories. Designers have developed various techniques for reducing the effects of shear lag, most noticeably the use of belt trusses. This system finds application in buildings perhaps 40stories and higher. However, except for possible aesthetic considerations, belt trusses interfere with nearly every building function associated with the outside wall; the trusses are placed often at mechanical floors, mush to the disapproval of the designers of the mechanical systems. Nevertheless, as a cost-effective structural system, the belt truss works well and will likely find continued approval from designers. Numerous studies have sought to optimize the location of these trusses, with the optimum location very dependent on the number of trusses provided. Experience would indicate, however, that the location of these trusses is provided by the optimization of mechanical systems and by aesthetic considerations, as the economics of the structural system is not highly sensitive to belt truss location.Tube-in-Tube StructuresThe tubular framing system mobilizes every column in the exterior wallin resisting over-turning and shearing forces. The term‘tube-in-tube’is largely self-explanatory in that a second ring of columns, the ring surrounding the central service core of the building, is used as an inner framed or braced tube. The purpose of the second tube is to increase resistance to over turning and to increase lateral stiffness. The tubes need not be of the same character; that is, one tube could be framed, while the other could be braced.In considering this system, is important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy. In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the bending deformation of columns and girders , the webs of the framed tube while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns , the flanges of the framed tube. In a braced tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the axial deformation of diagonals while the flexural component of deflection is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns.Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane , the floor slabs,then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis, will be substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube. However, in the tube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or evenhigher, than the axial stresses in the outer ring. This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of stiffness between the two systems. This is easiest to under-stand where the inner tube is conceived as a braced , shear-stiff tube while the outer tube is conceived as a framed , shear-flexible tube.Core Interactive StructuresCore interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tubes are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame. Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero. The United States Steel Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates the system very well. Here, the inner tube is a braced frame, the outer tube has no shear stiffness, and the two systems are coupled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” structure. Note that the exterior columns would be improperly modeled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” to the foundations; these columns are perhaps 15% stiffer as they follow the elastic curve of the braced core. Note also that the axial forces associated with the lateral forces in the inner columns change from tension to compression over the height of the tube, with the inflection point at about 5/8 of the height of the tube. The outer columns, of course, carry the same axial force under lateral load for the full height of the columns because the columns because the shearstiffness of the system is close to zero.The space structures of outrigger girders or trusses, that connect the inner tube to the outer tube, are located often at several levels in the building. The AT&T headquarters is an example of an astonishing array of interactive elements:1.The structural system is 94 ft wide, 196ft long, and 601ft high.2.Two inner tubes are provided, each 31ft by 40 ft , centered 90 ft apartin the long direction of the building.3.The inner tubes are braced in the short direction, but with zero shearstiffness in the long direction.4.A single outer tube is supplied, which encircles the buildingperimeter.5.The outer tube is a moment-resisting frame, but with zero shearstiffness for the center50ft of each of the long sides.6.A space-truss hat structure is provided at the top of the building.7.A similar space truss is located near the bottom of the building8.The entire assembly is laterally supported at the base on twinsteel-plate tubes, because the shear stiffness of the outer tube goes to zero at the base of the building.Cellular structuresA classic example of a cellular structure is the Sears Tower, Chicago,a bundled tube structure of nine separate tubes. While the Sears Towercontains nine nearly identical tubes, the basic structural system has special application for buildings of irregular shape, as the several tubes need not be similar in plan shape, It is not uncommon that some of the individual tubes one of the strengths and one of the weaknesses of the system.This special weakness of this system, particularly in framed tubes, has to do with the concept of differential column shortening. The shortening of a column under load is given by the expression△=ΣfL/EFor buildings of 12 ft floor-to-floor distances and an average compressive stress of 15 ksi 138MPa, the shortening of a column under load is 15 1212/29,000 or per story. At 50 stories, the column will have shortened to in. 94mm less than its unstressed length. Where one cell of a bundled tube system is, say, 50stories high and an adjacent cell is, say, 100stories high, those columns near the boundary between .the two systems need to have this differential deflection reconciled.Major structural work has been found to be needed at such locations. In at least one building, the Rialto Project, Melbourne, the structural engineer found it necessary to vertically pre-stress the lower height columns so as to reconcile the differential deflections of columns in close proximity with the post-tensioning of the shorter column simulatingthe weight to be added on to adjacent, higher columns.二、原文翻译：抗侧向荷载的结构体系常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重,那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了;确实,较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点;这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地;实际上,正是因为有了这种宏观的构思,新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展,可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了;如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈,高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类：1．抗弯矩框架;2．支撑框架,包括偏心支撑框架;3．剪力墙,包括钢板剪力墙;4．筒中框架;5．筒中筒结构;6．核心交互结构;7．框格体系或束筒体系;特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式,同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力,大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系;而且,就较高的建筑物而言,大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列;将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质;其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展,以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构;这并不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑;正相反,有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了,然而,如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导,那么,得以发展的就只能是好的结构,并非是伟大的建筑;无论如何,要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计,两者都需要最好的;虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论,但是在这里还值得进一步讨论;设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论;设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中;抗弯矩框架抗弯矩框架也许是低,中高度的建筑中常用的体系,它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点;这种框架用作独立的体系,或者和其他体系结合起来使用,以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力;对于较高的高层建筑,可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系,这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度;我们可以利用STRESS,STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析;所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地,由于柱梁节点固有柔性,并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点,所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的;当然,在设计的后期阶段,实际地评价结点的变形很有必要;支撑框架支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强,在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用;这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色,它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑,并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中;尤其引人关注的是,在强震区使用偏心支撑框架;此外,可以利用STRESS,STRUDL,或一系列二维或三维计算机分析程序中的任何一种进行结构分析;另外,初步分析中常用中心距尺寸;剪力墙剪力墙在加强结构体系刚性的发展过程中又前进了一步;该体系的特点是具有相当薄的,通常是而不总是混凝土的构件,这种构件既可提供结构强度,又可提供建筑物功能上的分隔;在高层建筑中,剪力墙体系趋向于具有相对大的高宽经,即与宽度相比,其高度偏大;由于基础体系缺少应力,任何一种结构构件抗倾覆弯矩的能力都受到体系的宽度和构件承受的重力荷载的限制;由于剪力墙宽度狭狭窄受限,所以需要以某种方式加以扩大,以便提从所需的抗倾覆能力;在窗户需要量小的建筑物外墙中明显地使用了这种确有所需要宽度的体系;钢结构剪力墙通常由混凝土覆盖层来加强以抵抗失稳,这在剪切荷载大的地方已得到应用;这种体系实际上比钢支撑经济,对于使剪切荷载由位于地面正上方区域内比较高的楼层向下移特别有效;这种体系还具有高延性之优点,这种特性在强震区特别重要;由于这些墙内必然出同一些大孔,使得剪力墙体系分析变得错综复杂;可以通过桁架模似法、有限元法,或者通过利用为考虑剪力墙的交互作用或扭转功能设计的专门计处机程序进行初步分析框架或支撑式筒体结构：框架或支撑式筒体最先应用于IBM公司在Pittsburgh的一幢办公楼,随后立即被应用于纽约双子座的110层世界贸易中心摩天大楼和其他的建筑中;这种系统有以下几个显着的特征：三维结构、支撑式结构、或由剪力墙形成的一个性质上差不多是圆柱体的闭合曲面,但又有任意的平面构成;由于这些抵抗侧向荷载的柱子差不多都被设置在整个系统的中心,所以整体的惯性得到提高,刚度也是很大的;在可能的情况下,通过三维概念的应用、二维的类比,我们可以进行筒体结构的分析;不管应用那种方法,都必须考虑剪力滞后的影响;这种最先在航天器结构中研究的剪力滞后出现后,对筒体结构的刚度是一个很大的限制;这种观念已经影响了筒体结构在60层以上建筑中的应用;设计者已经开发出了很多的技术,用以减小剪力滞后的影响,这其中最有名的是桁架的应用;框架或支撑式筒体在40层或稍高的建筑中找到了自己的用武之地;除了一些美观的考虑外,桁架几乎很少涉及与外墙联系的每个建筑功能,而悬索一般设置在机械的地板上,这就令机械体系设计师们很不赞成;但是,作为一个性价比较好的结构体系,桁架能充分发挥它的性能,所以它会得到设计师们持续的支持;由于其最佳位置正取决于所提供的桁架的数量,因此很多研究已经试图完善这些构件的位置;实验表明：由于这种结构体系的经济性并不十分受桁架位置的影响,所以这些桁架的位置主要取决于机械系统的完善,审美的要求,筒中筒结构：筒体结构系统能使外墙中的柱具有灵活性,用以抵抗颠覆和剪切力;“筒中筒”这个名字顾名思义就是在建筑物的核心承重部分又被包围了第二层的一系列柱子,它们被当作是框架和支撑筒来使用;配置第二层柱的目的是增强抗颠覆能力和增大侧移刚度;这些筒体不是同样的功能,也就是说,有些筒体是结构的,而有些筒体是用来支撑的;在考虑这种筒体时,清楚的认识和区别变形的剪切和弯曲分量是很重要的,这源于对梁的对比分析;在结构筒中,剪切构件的偏角和柱、纵梁例如：结构筒中的网等的弯曲有关,同时,弯曲构件的偏角取决于柱子的轴心压缩和延伸例如：结构筒的边缘等;在支撑筒中,剪切构件的偏角和对角线的轴心变形有关,而弯曲构件的偏角则与柱子的轴心压缩和延伸有关;根据梁的对比分析,如果平面保持原形例如：厚楼板,那么外层筒中柱的轴心压力就会与中心筒柱的轴心压力相差甚远,而且稳定的大于中心筒;但是在筒中筒结构的设计中,当发展到极限时,内部轴心压力会很高的,甚至远远大于外部的柱子;这种反常的现象是由于两种体系中的剪切构件的刚度不同;这很容易去理解,内筒可以看成是一个支撑或者说是剪切刚性的筒,而外筒可以看成是一个结构或者说是剪切弹性的筒;核心交互式结构：核心交互式结构属于两个筒与某些形式的三维空间框架相配合的筒中筒特殊情况;事实上,这种体系常用于那种外筒剪切刚度为零的结构;位于Pittsburgh的美国钢铁大楼证实了这种体系是能很好的工作的;在核心交互式结构中,内筒是一个支撑结构,外筒没有任何剪切刚度,而且两种结构体系能通过一个空间结构或“帽”式结构共同起作用;需要指出的是,如果把外部的柱子看成是一种从“帽”到基础的直线体系,这将是不合适的；根据支撑核心的弹性曲线,这些柱子只发挥了刚度的15%;同样需要指出的是,内柱中与侧向力有关的轴向力沿筒高度由拉力变为压力,同时变化点位于筒高度的约5/8处;当然,外柱也传递相同的轴向力,这种轴向力低于作用在整个柱子高度的侧向荷载,因为这个体系的剪切刚度接近于零;把内外筒相连接的空间结构、悬臂梁或桁架经常遵照一些规范来布置;美国电话电报总局就是一个布置交互式构件的生动例子;1、结构体系长米,宽米,高米;2、布置了两个筒,每个筒的尺寸是米×米,在长方向上有米的间隔;3、在短方向上内筒被支撑起来,但是在长方向上没有剪切刚度;4、环绕着建筑物布置了一个外筒;5、外筒是一个瞬时抵抗结构,但是在每个长方向的中心米都没有剪切刚度;6、在建筑的顶部布置了一个空间桁架构成的“帽式”结构;7、在建筑的底部布置了一个相似的空间桁架结构;8、由于外筒的剪切刚度在建筑的底部接近零,整个建筑基本上由两个钢板筒来支持;框格体系或束筒体系结构：位于美国芝加哥的西尔斯大厦是箱式结构的经典之作,它由九个相互独立的筒组成的一个集中筒;由于西尔斯大厦包括九个几乎垂直的筒,而且筒在平面上无须相似,基本的结构体系在不规则形状的建筑中得到特别的应用;一些单个的筒高于建筑一点或很多是很常见的;事实上,这种体系的重要特征就在于它既有坚固的一面,也有脆弱的一面;这种体系的脆弱,特别是在结构筒中,与柱子的压缩变形有很大的关系,柱子的压缩变形有下式计算：△=ΣfL/E对于那些层高为米左右和平均压力为138MPa的建筑,在荷载作用下每层柱子的压缩变形为1512/29000或毫米;在第50层柱子会压缩94毫米,小于它未受压的长度;这些柱子在50层的时候和100层的时候的变形是不一样的,位于这两种体系之间接近于边缘的那些柱需要使这种不均匀的变形得以调解;主要的结构工作都集中在布置中;在Melbourne的Rialto项目中,结构工程师发现至少有一幢建筑,很有必要垂直预压低高度的柱子,以便使柱不均匀的变形差得以调解,调解的方法近似于后拉伸法,即较短的柱转移重量到较高的邻柱上;。
毕业论文外文翻译样例
1.Briefly on contractsThe law of contracts is concerned with the enforcement of promissory obligations. Contractual liability is usually based on consent freely given in the form of an express promise or one implied in fact from the acts of the parties. In some circumstances, however, the courts will imply a promise （often called implied in law or quasi contract）in order to avoid unjust enrichment in spite of lack of consent by the party who is bound by it。
The subject matter of contract law comprises capacity，formalities, offer and acceptance，consideration, fraud and mistake, legality, interpretation and construction, performance and conditions of performance，frustration and impossibility, discharge，rights of assignees and third party beneficiaries，and remedies。
It has, to a very considerable extent，preserved its unitary quality ，resisting fundamental distinctions between different classes of contracts according to either the subject of the agreement or the nature of the parties。
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二〇一〇年月日(宋体三号，居中，时间与开题时间一致)
（英文原文装订在前）
Journal of American Chemical Society, 2006, 128(7): 2421-2425. (文献翻译必须在中文译文第一页标明文献出处：即文章是何期刊上发表的，X年X 卷X期，格式如上例所示，四号，右对齐，杂志名加粗。
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