语言学introduction要点
英语语言学知识整理1
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论(现代语言学).
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。
Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。
The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。
A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。
1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
introduction 写作要点
introduction写作要点
introduction写作要点如下：
1.明确主题：在引言中明确指出研究的主题或领域，让读者对文章的主要内容有所了解。
2.背景介绍：简要介绍研究主题的背景信息，说明研究的必要性和重要性。
这有助于建立研究问题的上下文，并为后续的讨论和论证提供依据。
3.研究问题陈述：明确提出研究问题或假设，并简要说明为什么这个问题或假设重要。
确保问题或假设具体、明确，并具有针对性。
4.文献综述：概述与主题相关的先前研究，指出现有研究的不足之处，以及本研究如何填补这些不足。
这有助于确立研究的理论基础和出发点。
5.研究方法：简要说明将采用的研究方法或技术，以及选择这些方法的原因。
这可以为后续的实验或调查提供指导。
6.研究意义：阐述本研究对理论和实践的意义，强调其对特定领域或更广泛的社会、经济、政治等方面的贡献。
7.组织结构：概述文章的结构和主要内容，为读者提供导航指南。
可以简要介绍每个部分的主题和要点。
8.语言和风格：保持引言的语言清晰、简洁，并尽量使用客观、中性的语言。
避免过多的行话和专业术语，以便让更广泛的读者能够理解。
9.引用和参考文献：在引言中引用的观点、数据或结论时，应注明出处。
确保遵循所使用的引用格式要求，并在文末提供完整的参考文献列表。
10.激发读者兴趣：通过提出引人入胜的问题、强调研究的创新点或挑战传统观念的观点等，激发读者对后续内容的兴趣。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short … 2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below … 2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总(word文档物超所值)
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.arranged and combined to form wordssyntax Rules governing the combination of words semantics The study of meaningpragmatics Study the meaning in contextAbove are major or core branches of linguistics;Following are linguistics link with other disciplines. sociolinguistics language and societypsycholinguistics How infant acquire mothertongue,processinformation……（language and brain）Applied linguistics Applied to the recovery oflanguage,language acquisition1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive descriptiveAims to lay down rules for“correct &Describe and analyze the language actually use(modernstandard”;i.e.to tell people what they should sayor notlinguists believe thatwhatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed)synchronic diachronicThe description of a language at some point oftimeThe description of a language as it changes through timeModern linguistics are most synchronic:①Difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development;②Synchronic description are often thought of as being descriptions of a language in its current existence.speech writingSpeech is prior to writing:①writing system is always “invented”by the users to record the speech when the need arises;②speech plays a greater role in terms of amount of conveying information;③speech is always the way native speaker acquire their mother tongue while writing is learn and taught in school;④spoken language reveals more feature of humanspeech,which is authentic while written language is only the revised record of speech.Langue 语言Parole 言语Abstract linguistic system; Relatively stable The realization of language in actual use; Concrete; Vary from person to person & situation to situationProposed by Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20th century:parole is a mass of linguistic facts,to abstract langue from parole.competence performanceThe ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languageThe actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.proposed by American linguist N.Chomsky ,Similar toSaussure,what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence,not the performance.Difference:Saussure took sociological view of language and hi s notion of langue is a matter of socialconvention;while Chomsky looks at psychological point and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Traditional grammar Modern linguisticsPrescriptive;written language is primary; Force language into a Latin-based framework;Descriptive;Spoken language is primary; Trying to set up a universalframeworkModern linguistics begin from the publication of F.de Sassure’s book course in general linguistics1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and whatit stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.1.2.2 Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication systems.Following are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation ofnew signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught andlearned.(language is cultural transmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animal call system is genetically transmitted)1.2.3 Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denial, and in some case even verified.e.g: The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’sfeeling,preference,prejudices and value,etc.I will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson：six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动) context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communioncode-metalinguisticBritish linguistic M.A.K Halliday:①ideational function(语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressive functin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintain social relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to cohere within themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.2.Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;2.2phonetics2.2.1 what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s language.发音语言学听觉语言学)声学语言学)2.2.2 organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉)Nasal cavity（鼻腔）Oral cavity（口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cords2.2.3 orthgraphic representation of speech sounds :broad & narrowInternational phonetic alphabet:letter→soundsBroad(used in textbook):letter symbols [p]Narrow: letter symbols + diacritics(变音符)[p h it] [spit]h→aspiration [phonetician more interested in] 2.2.4 classification of English speech sounds 2.2.4.1 classification of English consonantLiquidsVD L,r（流音）GlidesVD w j （滑音）2.2.4.2 classification of English vowelsMonophthongs：front central back close I: I U: u Semi-close e e:Semi-open e C: open ae a^D a:2.3 phonology2.3.1 phonology & phonetics2.3.4 some rules in phonology2.3.5 suprasegmental features(phonemic features that occur above the level of segments)Stress : N & vTone：四声Intonation： different may convey different meaning even the sentences unchanged3.MorphologyGrammar that is concerned with word formation and word structureWord: the smallest free form found in languageMorpheme: the smallest unit of meaningRoot stem baseRoot: believeStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,留下词根和派生成份)Base：unbelievable (un的词基)Derivational morpheme:change category grammatical class of words Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping（shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]I.e gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]I.e editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sit Butcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift)I.e: N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]C.O.D FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1) the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2) the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3) ContextualismJ.R Firth。
语言学基础introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 Definition: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.language: language in general, not any particular language, e.g. English,Chinese, Arabic, and Latin.1.1.2The Scope of linguisticsA）general linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.basic concepts: language; sentence; wordstheories:descriptions:models:methods applicable in any linguistic study:B) main branches of linguisticsLanguage study focuses on Meaning and Form.i) Form:soundwritten1) PhoneticsThe study of sounds used in linguistic communication.2) PhonologyThe study of the way in which the sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.3) MorphologyThe study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words .4) SyntaxThe study of rules which govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.5) Semantics: meaning in languageThe study of meaning is known as semantics.6) Pragmatics: meaning in contextWhen the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.C) MacrolinguisticsLinguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, artificial intelligence, medicine and education etc. are also preoccupied with language.1) SociolinguisticsThe study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society forms the core of the branch called sociolinguistics.2) PsycholinguisticsIt relates the study of language to psychology.e.g. to study language development in children, such as the theories of languageacquisition;3) Applied linguisticsa) the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.b) the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems. It usesinformation from sociology, psychology, anthropology and information theory as well as linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas.1.1.3 Linguistics as a ScienceThree adequaciesHow can we appraise the extent of success in scientific study? There are three levels to consider, namely observation, description, and explanation. What a linguist seeks for can be summarized as three adequacies correspondingly.a) observational adequacyA successful research is expected to be adequate in observation at first.It is characterized by correctly specifying what is observed to be phonologically, morphologically, syntactically, semantically, or pragmatically well-formed or ill-formed.b) descriptive adequacyProper description is based on adequate observation, and a piece of scientific work is descriptively adequate if it provides a principled account of the native speaker‟s intuiti ons about the structure of the linguistic phenomenon observed.c) explanatory adequacyExplanatory adequacy is the ultimate goal of any scientific exploration.In linguistics, a theory attains explanatory adequacy just in case it provides a descriptively adequate grammar for every natural language, and does so in terms of a maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.The framework of the design features was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Why?a) different languages may have different sounds to represent the same object thatexists in society.b) the same sound may express different meaningsexception: onomatopoeia: based on the natural voices.2)DualityDEFINITION: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.3) ProductivityDEFINITION: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.comparing with animal communication systemse.g. an experiment on bee dance:Bee communication regarding location has a fixed set signals, all of which relate to horizontal distance. The bee cannot manipulate its communicating system to create a “new” message indicating vertical distance.4) DisplacementDEFINITION：Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Animals are under “immediate stimulus control”.Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free.5) Cultural transmissionLanguage cultural transmission means that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.2.2 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2.2.1Language is a systemelements of language are combined according to rules.a) rules of sound systemb) rules of written system1.2.2.2 Language is arbitrary and symbolic1.2.2.3 Language is vocala) the primary medium for all languages is sound.b) writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.c) some language only have sound systems and no writing systems1.2.2.4 Language is human-specific1.2.2.5 communication vs information1.2.3 Knowledge of language: endowed or conventional?TIME-HONORED PROBLEMS•WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE?•WHERE DOES IT COME FROM?Aristotle (384-322 B.C.):Language is arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language.BEHA VIORISMEMPIRICISMOur brain was blank when we were born. Language is a social, empirical entity.B.F. Skinner: the American psychologist and a famous Harvard behaviouristThe famous quotation “language is behaviour ”Verbal behaviour is the same as any other fundamental respect of non-verbal behaviour.The occurrence of behaviours is dependent upon three crucial elements:a stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour;a response triggered by a stimulus;reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response in the future.Verbal behaviour:the stimulus as what is taught (language input),the response as the learner‟s reaction to the stimulus,the reinforcement as the approval or praise (or discouragement) of the teacher or fellow students.Argument for“poverty of the stimulus”●a) The child‟s linguistic experience (stimulus) is not sufficient to justify theadult grammar.●b) As far as a child is concerned, an utterance containing a mistake is justanother piece of linguistic experience to be treated on a par with error-free utterance. But they still know the correct grammar.●c) A child and a chimpanzee both live in the same language environment, onlythe child can learn the language.Plato (427?-347 B.C.)There is a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas.NATIVISMMENTALISMThere is a biological, physiological entity inside our brain which decides that we speak.Language faculty/(LAD=Language Acquisition Device): Human beings do have an inborn knowledge of language which must be universally correct and acceptable, the location of such innate knowledge just in our genes.Experience of L—LF—Grammar of LChomsky’s epistemology of the knowledge of language●The initial state of human language faculty is called UG(Universal Grammar).●UG(universal grammar): Every speaker knows a set of principles which applyto all languages and also a set of (binary) parameters that can vary from one language to another.principles:all human languages have the subject, verb, and object.reflexible pronoun principle: the reflexible pronoun should take the noun in the same clause as antecedent.parameters:binary parameter:the position of the wh-element in the sentence●Due to the effect of later experience, our brain/mind develops from the initialstate into the steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a human language.experienceUG----------------PG (Particular Grammar)PG=a.UG1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.3.1Prescriptive vs. descriptivePrescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. Descriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to describes and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “co rrect and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic--by Ferdinand de Saussure.synchronic study: the description of a language at some point of time in history. diachronic study: the description of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.1.3.3 Speech and writingSpeech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.The spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.1) speech is prior to writing: (from the point of view of linguistic evolution)2)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.3) Spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while writtenlanguage is only the “revised” record of speech.4) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in termsof the amount of information conveyed.1.3.4 Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure.1) definitionA) langue:a) the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community(a social code);b) the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by;c) abstract, it is not the language people actually use.d) relatively stable, it does not change frequently.B) parole:a) the realization of langue in actual use.b) the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.c) concrete, it refers to the naturally occurring language events.d) varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.2) The significances of the distinction:a) it is convenient in that it delimits an area of enquiry which is manageable: thatarea is langueb) the concept of langue can be said to capture the central and determining aspectof language itself.3) The relation between the langue and parolea) Langue comes from parole.b) Parole is guided by langue.1.3.5 competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky.1) definitionCompetence: the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2) The relation between the competence and performancea) competence is essential and primary; performance is the residual category of secondary phenomena, incidental, and peripheral.b) competence and performance are quite different phenomena and you cannotdirectly infer one from the other.3) The difference between the two pairs of concepts: langue vs parole and competence vs performancei)similarities:a) It represents a similar dichotomy of knowledge and behaviour.b) It represents a similar demarcation of the scope of linguistic enquiry.c) They are both be glossed in terms of abstract knowledgeii) differences:a) the nature of knowledge is conceived of in very different ways.--Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.--Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.b) the different study interest--Langue, the focus of attention will be in what makes each language different.--Competence, the focus of attention will be in what makes languages alike.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1) definition:Modern linguistics: The beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure‟s book Course in General Linguistics in the early 20th century.Traditional grammar: The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language over the ye ars, before the book “Course in General Linguistics” was published.2) differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics:a) modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.b)modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the writing.Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, the importance of the written word.c) traditional grammar forces languages into a Latin-based framework, but modernlinguistics does notReading recommendationBeginner-friendly:S. C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 1999; 外语教学与研究出版社2000 （刘润清导读）。
语言学考试要点 考试重点
Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behaviorin using language, . to tell people what they should say and what they should notsay, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age,sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions.(name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establisha comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with allthe sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols together withdiacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But theydiffer in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce duringlinguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned withword formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme thatmust be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control:a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form andwhat it refers to . between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested byOgden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);Thereferent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with theform of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from thispoint of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.。
语言学教程英文版
语言学教程英文版1. IntroductionLanguage is an intricate and complex system of communication between individuals. It is the means by which information can be shared, ideas can be expressed, and relationships can be formed. Studying language is fundamental to understanding all forms of communication, including writing, reading, and nonverbal expression. Linguistics, the scientific study of language, offers us a systematic approach to understanding language and its role in human communication.2. The Branches of LinguisticsLinguistics is a multidisciplinary field that involves various approaches to language study. There are several branches of linguistics, including:2.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, their physical properties, and their production and perception by humans. Phonetics is concerned with the actual sounds used in language, regardless of their meaning. It encompasses the production and reception of speech sounds, including the anatomy and physiology of speech production.2.2 PhonologyPhonology is the study of the sound system of language, including the rules and patterns that govern the use and organization of speech sounds in a particular language. Phonology investigates the systematic relationships between sounds and how they are interpreted to convey meaning.2.3 MorphologyMorphology is the study of the structure of words and how they are formed from smaller units (morphemes) that carry meaning. Morphology is concerned with the internal structure of words, including morpheme identification, inflection, and derivation.2.4 SyntaxSyntax is the study of how words are combined to form meaningful phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is concerned with the rules governing word order, grammatical agreement, and the use of function words (such as conjunctions and prepositions) to establish relationships between words.2.5 SemanticsSemantics is the study of meaning in language, including the meanings of words, phrases, and sentences. Semanticsanalyzes how meaning is conveyed through language and how different words and phrases can have multiple meanings.2.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language use in context and the ways in which speakers convey meaning beyond the literal meaning of words. Pragmatics investigates the social and situational factors that influence language use, including the speaker's intentions, the listener's expectations, and the shared cultural background of both.3. Key Concepts in LinguisticsLinguistics is concerned with understanding how language works and how it is used in everyday communication. There are several key concepts that are central to linguistic analysis: 3.1 Language UniversalsLanguage universals are patterns or tendencies that are found across all languages. These are features of language that are common to all human languages, such as the presence of consonants and vowels or the use of subject-verb word order.3.2 Language RelativityLanguage relativity is the idea that language and culture have a reciprocal relationship, with each influencing andshaping the other. This concept suggests that the structure and vocabulary of a language can shape the way its speakers perceive and understand the world around them.3.3 Language AcquisitionLanguage acquisition is the process by which humans learn a language. The study of language acquisition investigates how children learn to speak and understand their native language and how adults learn a second language.3.4 Language ChangeLanguage change is the process by which language evolves over time. This concept includes changes in the sound, structure, and meaning of language and can be influenced by social, cultural, and historical factors.4. ConclusionLinguistics is a fascinating field that helps us understand the intricate and complex nature of human communication. The study of linguistics provides us with a systematic approach to understanding language and its role in human society. With its focus on language universals, language relativity, language acquisition, and language change, linguistics offers us insights into how wecommunicate, how we learn, and how language shapes our understanding of the world.。
语言学知识点概括(word文档物超所值)
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
《语言学导论》重点整理
《语⾔学导论》重点整理1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ? Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds and meanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. AssignmentsComment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of languageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发⾳语⾳学: the production of speech sounds.Auditory Phonetics听觉语⾳学: the study of the perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语⾳学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity⼝腔3.The nasal cavity⿐腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of languageDifference Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone ⾳素phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]9. Phoneme ⾳位the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme ⾳位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone ⾳位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonological patterning is rule-governed. [blik] and [kilb], though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while [kbil] or [lkib] cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* [tlait] [iltrit]13.Sequential ruleIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation ruleA sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal [in-]Question: What other examples?sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重⾳Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stressStress of compounds: ‵blackbird / black ‵bird; ‵greenhouse / green ‵ houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调）Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" — "unhappy".The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology containsfundamental elements – morphemes rules of combination -- Word Formation Rules4. MorphemesThe elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes" In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s".The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: ? "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) — "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) — "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist ofotherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) -- "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.E.g. Noun--- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: ? person? number? gender ? noun class ? case ? tenseInflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the language derivation compounding derivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion* affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak* compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, motel, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation 4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but 5. Three criteria for judging the word’s categories1.meaning Noun—entity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complementHead: the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier: the words on the left side of the headscomplement: the words on the right side of the headsE.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP →(specifier) X (complement)10. X – theory XP →(specifier) X X - → X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X → X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP →(specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clauseComplement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P Det N| | | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the words "mean/meaning" were distinguished. Here are some of them:John means to write. 'intends’A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance'His look was full of meaning. 'special import'What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey'What does ‘cornea‘(⾓膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'4. What does meaning mean in linguistics?It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts ("meaning" is not some kind of "entity" separate from language - any more than measures such as "height" or "length" have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: "The meaning of a word is its use in the language."5. 4 views concerning the study of meaningThe naming theory The conceptual theory Contextualism behaviorism6. The naming theoryPlato Words are names or labels for things.Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards' TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ \(Sense) / \/ \(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig Wittgenstein Malinowski J.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle'11.3.homonymydifferent words, same soundbear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked'cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'11.4.hyponymysuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 Componential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = [+human] [+adult] [+male]woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female]boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male]stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person]chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person]sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etccow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female]ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male]ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult]lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified?And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1)philosophy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization, learninglaw: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrasecomputer science: processing and representation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning, relativityliterary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.Specify the five major sense relations1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymyDefine the following terms: componential analysis Predication analysis6 Pragmatics1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context2. Contextualist viewLudwig WittgensteinMalinowskiJ.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context3. Some issues in PragmaticsDeixis指⽰ Speech acts⾔语⾏为 Indirect language间接语⾔Conversation会话 Politeness礼貌 Cross-cultural communication跨⽂化交际Presupposition预设4. Pragmatics and Semanticsa There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by theDEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.5. Consider the following sentences:The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because "eat" requires anANIMATE subject.The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIANThe giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today.Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day?6. ContextAccording to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose.Shared knowledge7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningSentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.8. Speech Act TheoryAustin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:I (hereby) declare the fair open. ("hereby" is a good diagnostic of performatives)Performatives⾏事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Constatives⾔事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable9. Three kinds of actsLocutionary act⾔内⾏为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act⾔外⾏为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action;Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something11. Principle of ConversationGrice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey.Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevantThe following discourse represents a failure of cooperation:A: Do you know what time it isB: Yes.Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: "I'm leaving on Monday or Tuesday."12. Four maximsThe maxim of quantity The maxim of qualityThe maxim of relation The maxim of manner13. Conversational Implicatureconversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”. A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.)A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).14. Leech’s Politeness PrincipleTact maxim Generosity maxim Approbation maximModesty maxim Agreement maxim Sympathy maxim15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPtact generosityapprobation modestyagreementsympathy16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other2.Maximize agreement between self and otherSympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other2. Maximize sympathy between self and other18. Politeness scale: DirectnessdirectCould you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefitbenefitHave another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost20. PresuppositionsStatements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. "Leading" questions or statements. "When did you stop beating your donkey?" presupposes:You stopped beating your donkey.You did beat your donkey.You beat something.You have a donkey...."I'll have some more coffee." presupposes that you have already had some.21. assignmentsSpeech act theorycoperative principleconversational implicature7. Language Change1. ReviewPrescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1)The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6)2. All languages change through timeLanguages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.3. The changes of language at different levels (1)Sound changeMorphological and syntactic changea) change in “agreement” ruleb) change in negation rulec) process of simplificationd) loss of inflections4. The changes of language at different levels (2)Vocabulary changea) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing)b) loss of wordsc) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)5. Some recent trendsMoving towards greater informalityThe influence of American EnglishThe influence of science and technologya) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology6. Causes of language changea) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecomb) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter.c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine)cheap-cheaplye) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar7. SummaryThe linguistic change is complex.The linguistic change is gradual.The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples.2. What are the possible causes of language change?8. Language and Society1. The relatedness between language and societyLanguage is used to establish and maintain social relationship.The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background.Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.2. Speech communityFor general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.。
语言学概论第一章要点英语
语言学概论第一章要点(2011-08-26 10:30:48)第一章Introduction1.Linguistics定义It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Nowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.The scope of linguistics语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？1.General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study①Phonetics,which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication②Phonology,which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication③Morphology,which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words④Syntax,which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences⑤Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.⑥Pragmatics,which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use⑦Sociolinguistics,which is the study of language with reference to society⑧Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.⑨Applied linguistics,which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.3.现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.4.Some important distinction in linguistics语言学五对基本概念1、descriptive(描述性) :A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.2、prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.1、synchronic(共时语言学): It refers to the study of variation in language in different places and among different groups at a given point in time.2、diachronic(历时语言学): Studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.什么叫共时研究Synchronic study;？什么叫历时研究diachronic study？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes alanguage as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.1、speech and writing are the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1、langue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.2、parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.1、competence(语言能力):As the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language2、performance(语言应用):the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.5、What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary .because the fact that different languages have different words for the some object.Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.Language is symbols.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6、人类语言的甄别性特征design features是什么？（五个）Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness:任意性there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds .A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language, but it is not entirely arbitrary.Productivity:创造性language make possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it users. Productivity is unique to human language.Duality(二重性):Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.Displacement:移位性Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in past, present or future. or in far-away place. In other words, language can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of speakers.Cultural transmission(文化传递性)While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.5. Chomsky的语言能力和语言使用各指什么？American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.7、Saussure是如何区分语言和言语的？The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract;It is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.。
语言学 Chapter 1 introduction
01 helen Chapter 1_introChapter OneInvitations – A Survey of LinguisticsWhat is linguistics?The scientific study of human language.1. So what is Language?*linguistics is a Scientific study of language•Languages in general: e.g. English, Chinese, Arabic,Latin, and etc..2. Definitions of LanguageLanguage ―is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty‖.--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)―A language is a system of arbitrary vocal sy mbols by means of which a social group co-operates.‖--Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)―A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in t erms of their total culture.‖--George Trager: The Field of Linguistics (1949)―Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.‖--Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)• Human speech;• The ability to communicate by this means;• A system of vocal sounds and combinations ofsuch sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings• The written representation of such a system. • Any means of expressing or communicating, asgestures, signs, or animal sounds• A special set of symbols, letters, numerals, rulesetc. used for the transmission of information .– Webster ’s New World Dictionary―Language is a means of verbal communication.‖–It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.–It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. -- Our textbook (2006) Questions:•compare the previous definitions of ―language‖ andfind out the similarities and differences and explain the significance.•what‘s your definition of language?3. Design Features of Language•- the distinctive features of human language thatessentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animalsHuman language is ‘unique ’ Arbitrariness Duality Creativity Displacement3.1 Arbitrarines•Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning : A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. --“Romeo and Juliet‖•Question: how about onomatopoeic words?• how about Chinese characters? E.g.山, 川, 门, 等•Arbitraryrelationship between the sound of amorpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:–The dog barks wow wow in English but ―汪汪汪‖ in Chinese.•Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is notarbitrary at the syntactic level. –He came in and sat down. –He sat down and came in. –He sat down after he came in.•The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is amatter of convention. E.g. ―this is an idiom.‖•Arbitrariness - > creative; •convention -> laborious• Can we find motivatedness against arbitrariness in language?•中国的象形字违反索绪尔的语言任意性特征么?3.2 Duality•The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:–Primary units ‗words‘ (meaningful) consist of secondary units ‗sounds‘ (meaningless)/or ‗morphemes‘.–E.g. pri.mary, se.con.dary•Hierarchy of language: stratification as ‗the infinite use of finite means‘.–Sounds > syllables > morphemes > words > phrases > clauses > sentences/utterances > texts/discourses •Question: do animal languages or sign languages, e.g. traffic lights, have duality?3.3 Creativity /productivity•Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.•Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.•Birds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures communicate in some way, but the information imparted is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages.•Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.•The recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences.•E.g. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who ...3.4 Displacement•Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.–Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away from us. •Animal communication is normally under ―immediate stimulus control‖. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger.•Human language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state. •The honeybee's dance exhibits displacement a little bit: he can refer to a source of food, which is remote in time and space when he reports on it.•A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days.•Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist. •Displacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Once we can talk about physically distant thing, we acquire the ability to understand concepts which denote ―non-things‖, such as truth and beauty.Is there any other design feature of human language?4. Origin of language•The ‗Divine‘ origin:–―In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.‖(Gospel, John 1: 1)太初有道,道与神同在,道就是神.–―And the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do; and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do.‖ (Genesis, 11: 6)4.1 The “b ow-wow” theory摹声说•In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.–Onomatopoeic words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory. But they are very different in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural sounds. •This theory lacks supportive evidence.4.2 The “pooh-pooh” theory感叹说•In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. As for evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as interjections.–What makes the theory problematic is that there is only a limited number of interjections in almost all languages.–Besides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, aiyos bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and therefore are not good evidence.4.3 The “yo-he-ho” theory哼呦声说•As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.–We do have prosodic use of rhythms in languages, but rhythmic grunts are far different from language in its present sense. The theory is again at most a speculation. •The by-now fruitless search for the origin of languages reflects people's concern with the origin of humanity and may come up with enlightening findings in future.•One thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.Revision of last lecture:•Definition of language•Other design features of language•Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by a social group for communication.•cultural transmission. <-> genetically transmitted•Interchangeability: it permits a speaker to become a listener and vice versa withoutimpairing the function of language, i.e.communication. This property has been namedInterchangeability by C.F. Hockett ( A Course inModern Linguistics). It can also be calledreciprocity,互反性i.e. any speaker/sender of alinguistic signal can also be a listener/receiver. 5. Functions of language•Linguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc.•They summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language.•Roman Jakobson(1896-1982)是位著名的俄羅斯語言學家，興趣著作廣泛，後移居到斯洛伐克共和國與美國，他是｢莫斯科語言學圈｣的主導者，也是布拉格學派的創建人，以他對語言學、文學理論、結構語言人類學、符號學的貢獻來說，堪稱二十世紀最具影響力的知識份子之一。
语言学 第一章
Theoretical linguistics
2.1ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱPhonetics( 语音学） is the study of sounds used in linguistic communication， e g. how a person make a sound 2.2 Phonology(音位学）studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication, for example, the sound /l/
in leap and feel are two different sounds, but they are interchangeable and make no differences in meaning, we can just leave them as one phoneme(音位） /l/
3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic study（共时 的）---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study（历时 的）---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)
2.7 Sociolinguistics(社会语言学）is the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society ,for example, dirty words are spoken in different social classes, but the extent of speaking it is varied concerning different area, education background and so on. 2.8 Psycholinguistics（心理语言学） is the study of language that relates to psychology such as how our mind works when we use language, how we memorize and how we process the information we receive in communication.
语言学知识(专八)
语言学知识语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言，下面介绍一点语言学知识。
I. Introduction1. What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is the scientific study of language.3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).4.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.II. Phonetics(语音学）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调）in the process.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节）by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经）and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送）between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官）the producer of voice（声音发生器官）and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）3. Consonants(辅音）Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology（音韵学）1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的）sound in a language.2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）：word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质）of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节），stress,（重音）word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）.IV. Morphology（词法）1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程）of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系）They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.3. Morpheme(词素）：the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）：some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根）affix（词缀）and stem（词干）.6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.7. Closed-class words(封闭性）and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上）indefinite or unlimited.8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序）which is semantically（语义上）and often syntactically(句法上）restricted.（限制）11. Collocation(搭配）：the habitual(习惯的）co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.V. Syntax (句法）1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序）arrangement of wordsin a language.2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）：the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit .3. Syntactic function(句法功能）：the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语）complements（补语）, etc.4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.VI. Semantics1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的）"associative" bond.（相关了解）2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德）for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定）that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景）in which the speaker utters（说话）it and the response（反应）it calls forth in the hearer."5. functionalism (功能主义）：functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派）linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（争辩）that meaning could only be interpreted （解释）from its use or function in social life.6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词）7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分）analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.VII. Language variation (语言变化）1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in lexis.2. Invention: (新造词）new entities.3. Compounding合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.5. Abbreviation or clipping缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.6. acronym取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰）headword.7. metanalysis再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.8. Back-formation逆构词）It refers to an abnormal(非正常）type of word-formationwhere a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉）an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明）the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合）of some English verbs.10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音）addition,（加音）assimilation,（同化）dissimilation.（异化）12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法）and syntax（句法）are listed under this heading.13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大）narrowing,（语义缩小）meaning shift,（意义转化）class shift（词性转换）and folk etymology.（词源变化）14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。
英语语言学Linguistics 第一章Chapter1 导论Introduction
Displacement移位性/不受时空限制
Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from immedite situation. (P. 9) 用语言谈论超越说话人所处语境的任何人或物或事，语言 使用不受时空限制。
基础 认知 感觉器官↓ ↑认知水平提高 反映 脑神经↓ ↑ 心理现实 编码 离散化分类概括 ↓ ↑表达对象 指称 义（概念范畴） 语言符号 ↓（社会）约定 一般性 音（语音形式） ↑
{
客观现实
{
音响（物质材料 ）特殊性
In the beginning was the word. —John 1:1
Any elements of language not arbitrary?
Arbitrariness任意性
Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated理据 ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…
简明英语语言学知识点汇总
简明英语语言学知识点汇总LG GROUP system office room 【LGA16H-LGYY-LGUA8Q8-LGA162】新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.Some important distinctions in linguisticsWhat is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but insteadhave to be taught and learned.(language is culturaltransmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animal call system is genetically transmitted)Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’s feeling,preference,prejudices and value, will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson：six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动) context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communioncode-metalinguisticBritish linguistic Halliday:①ideational function (语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressivefunctin] is to organize the speaker ’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintainsocial relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to coherewithin themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organ Two major media of communication:speech and writing;what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world ’s language.发音语言学听觉语言学) 声学语言学) organs of speech Pharyngeal cavity(咽喉) Nasal cavity （鼻腔）Oral cavity （口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsh →aspiration [phonetician more interested in] classification of English speech sounds Monophthongs ：phonologyphonology & phoneticsStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,Base：unbelievable (un的词基)Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping（shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sit Butcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift): N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1)the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N ×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3)ContextualismFirth。
语言学知识点总结
语言学知识点总结语言学是一门研究语言的科学，它涵盖了语言的各个方面，包括语言的结构、语言的使用、语言的发展以及语言与社会和文化的关系等。
以下是对一些重要语言学知识点的总结。
一、语音学语音学研究语音的产生、传播和感知。
其中包括元音和辅音的分类、发音部位和发音方法。
例如，元音根据舌头的位置和嘴唇的形状可以分为前元音、中元音和后元音；辅音则可以按照发音方式（如爆破音、摩擦音、鼻音等）和发音部位（如双唇音、齿龈音、软腭音等）进行分类。
在语音学中，还有国际音标这一重要工具，它为准确记录和描述各种语言的语音提供了标准。
二、音系学音系学关注的是语言中语音的系统和模式。
比如，音位是能够区别意义的最小语音单位，音位变体则是同一音位在不同环境中的不同表现形式。
不同语言的音系规则也各不相同。
有些语言可能有复杂的声调系统，而有些语言则更注重辅音和元音的组合规律。
三、形态学形态学研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
词素是形态学的基本单位，包括词根、词缀（前缀、后缀、中缀）等。
通过词素的组合和变化，可以形成不同的词形，表达不同的语法意义。
例如，在英语中，“un”“ness”等都是常见的词缀，“happy”加上“un”变成“unhappy”，“happy”加上“ness”变成“happiness”。
四、句法学句法学探讨句子的结构和组成规则。
句子可以分为简单句、复合句和复杂句。
不同的语言在句法结构上存在差异。
比如，有些语言是主语在前，谓语在后；而有些语言的语序则更加灵活。
句法规则还包括短语结构规则、句子成分（主语、谓语、宾语等）的搭配等。
五、语义学语义学关注语言符号（词、短语、句子等）与它们所指称的对象或概念之间的关系。
词汇语义学研究词的意义，包括词汇的多义性、同义关系、反义关系等。
句子语义学则研究句子的意义，包括语义的真值条件、语义的组合性等。
六、语用学语用学研究语言在实际使用中的语境和意义。
它关注语言使用者如何通过语言来实现交际目的，以及语言的理解和解释如何依赖于语境。
语言学chapter1Introduction
语言学chapter1Introductionchapter 1Chapter 1 IntroductionAims:To inform the students of the definition, functions and design features of language;To make the students have a general idea of the concept of linguisticsand its main branches;To make the students have a good understanding of some importantdistinctions in linguistics.1. What is language?1.1 Definition of language1.1.1 Charles F. Hockett’s view1.1.2 Edward Sapir’s definition1.1.3 David Crystal’s view1.1.4 R. H. Robins’ definition1.1.5 Hu Zhuanglin’s definition (P3)“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com-munication.”Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according tocertain rules; they can not be combined at will. Language is arbitrary in thesense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the object.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains thesymbolic nature of language: Words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention, they are just labels or symbols of objects. We say language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing system. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific; that is, it is very differentfrom the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as birdsongs and bee dances.1.2 Design features of languageDesign Features refer to the defining properties of human language thatdistinguish it from any animal system of communication. The following are the frequently discussed ones.1.2.1. ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is nological connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is thefact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitraryby nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. There are some onomatopoeic words inevery language that imitate natural sounds. Besides, some compound words arealso not entirely arbitrary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophis-tication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source ofexpressions.1.2.2. DualityLanguage is a system. This system has two sets of structures, one ofsounds (lower or basic level) and the other of meaning (higher level). A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into infinite number of sentences.1.2.3. CreativityUsers can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. Everyday we sent messages that have never before been sent and understand novel messages. Much of what we say and hear we say and hear for the first time; yet there seems no problem of understanding. Creativity seems peculiar / unique to human language.1.2.4. DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in far away place. In other words, language can refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speakers. This property of language provides speakers with anopportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from the barriers caused by remoteness in time and place. No animal calls are mainly uttered inresponse to immediate changes of situation.1.2.5 Cultural transmissionAnimal call systems are genetically transmitted. That is, animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. Withhuman beings, things are different: a Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching andlearning, rather than by instinct. This does not deny that human capacity forlanguage has a genetic basis; in fact only human beings can learn a humanlanguage at birth and he has to be exposed to a language inorder to acquire it.1.3 Functions of language1.3.1 Phatic communion (应酬语、寒暄语)Language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells, andcomments on the weather serve this function.1.3.2 Emotive functionIt is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitu-des of the speakers. It can also change the emotional status of an audience. It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communi-cation to others.1.3.3 Performative （行事话语）It refers to, in speech act theory, an utterance which performs an act,such as watch out (=a warning), I promise not to be late (=a promise), There is a vicious dog behind you (=an implied warning). Language itself is alsoused to “do things”, to perform actions.eg. I name this ship “Elizabeth”.I bet you five yuan it will rain tomorrow.I do.1.3.4 Interpersonal functionPeople establish and maintain their status / relationships in a society bythis function. This function is concerned with the interaction between theaddresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.1.3.5 InformativeThis function, the major role of language, is to give information aboutfacts, or to reason things out. This function is characterized by the use ofdeclarative sentences and is most often used in all branches of learning.1.3.6 Recreational functionRecreational function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy, such as a baby’s babbling, a chanter’s chanting or the widespread use of verbaldueling.1.3.7 Metalingual functionThe language can be used to analyze or describe or talk about itself. For example, in English, the phoneme /b/ is a voiced bilabial stop, is themetalingual function of language. It explains that b-sound in English is made with vibration of the vocal cords and with the two lips stopping the air stream from the lungs.2 What is linguistics?2.1 Definition of linguisticsLinguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. We cansimply say that a scientific study is one which is focused on the systematicinvestigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory oflanguage structure.In linguistics, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and datawithout being explained by some theory remain a muddle mass of things.2.2 Main branches of linguistics (microlinguistics / general linguistics)2.2.1 PhoneticsIt studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, howspeech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds ofspeech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connect-ed speech, etc.The three branches of phonetics are: articulatory phonetics, acoustic (trans-mitted) phonetics and auditory (received) phonetics. Of the three branches ofphonetics, the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is articulatory phonetics. We focus onarticulatory phonetics.2.2.2 PhonologyIt studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequence ofspeech sounds and the shape of syllables. That is, how sounds are puttogether and used to convey meaning in communication.Pay attention to the difference between phonetics and phonology. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creatingwhereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitutelanguage and meaning. The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses onorder.2.2.3 LexicologyIt is the study of the vocabulary items (lexemes) of a language, including their meanings and relations, and changes in their form and meaning through time. It deals with the external relationship among words.2.2.4 MorphologyIt is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the mini-mal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation process. Althoughmany people think of words as the basic meaningful elements of a language, many words can be broken down into still smaller units, calledmorphemes.Morphemes serve different purposes. Some derive new words by changing the meaning or the part of speech, others only refine and give extra grammaticalinformation about the already existing meaning of a word.2.2.5 SyntaxIt is about the principles of forming and understanding correct Englishsentences. It studies the rules which govern the combination of words orphrases into permissible and grammatical sentences. These rules specify wordorder, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.2.2.6 SemanticsThe ultimate objective of language is not just to create grammatically well-formed sentences, but to convey meaning. So the study of meaning is gradual-ly developed and becomes known as semantics. It examines how meaning isencoded in a language.2.2.7 PragmaticsLanguage communication does not occur in a vacuum. It always occurs in a context, i.e., it always occurs at a certain time, at a certain place, between participants with particular intention. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in con-text. It is concerned with the way language is used to communicate ratherthan with the way language is structured.2.3 Macrolinguistics (Applied Linguistics)2.3.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology, investigatesthe interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utter-ances and in language acquisition. It aims to answer suchquestions as howthe human mind works when we use language, how we as infants acquire our mother tongue, how we memorize, and how we process the information wereceive in the course of communication.2.3.2 SociolinguisticsLanguage and society are closely connected. The language a person usesoften reveals his social background, and there exist social norms thatdeter-mine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion; andlanguage changes are often caused by social changes. The study of all thesesocial aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of thebranch called sociolinguistics.Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers asthese three constantly interact and change within a speech community. In gene-ral, it studies the relationship between language and society, studies languagevariation caused by social factors, such as age, education, gender and so on.2.3.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the history and structure of formerly un-written languages, studies the emergence of language and the divergence oflanguages over thousands of years.2.3.4 Computational linguistics (CAI)Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers aroundthe use of computers to process or produce human language.2.3.5 Applied linguisticsFindings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. Broadly speaking, applied linguistics uses information from sociology, psychology, anthropology and infor-mation theory in order to develop its own theoretical models of language andlanguage use. The study of such application is generally known as appliedlinguistics.In a narrow sense, applied linguistics studies the application of linguistictheories into language teaching. Some important distinctions in linguistics.2.4 Some important distinctions in linguistics2.4.1 Descriptive and prescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed or the language people actually use; it is prescriptiv e if it tries to lay down rules for “correct behavior”.Linguistic studies before this century are largely prescriptive in the sensethat many early grammars were based on “high” written language. It tells thelearner what he should say, or what is supposed to be correct usage. Onthe other hand, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Linguistic study is sup-posed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed todescribe the langue people actually use, be it “correct” or not.2.4.2 Synchronic and diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of alanguage at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of alanguage as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronicstudy of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. In modern linguistics, synchronic studyseems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. Why?2.4.3 Language and paroleThis distinction was made by Swiss linguist F. de Saussure early thiscentury.Langue refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized language, or reali-zation of langue in actual use. What are the differences between langue andparole?LangueParoleIt is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.It is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use.Parole is specific and concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.Parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of languagefor serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply amass of linguistics, toovaried and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists shoulddo is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study oflinguistics.2.4.4 Competence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky definescompetence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language (A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence), and performance the actual realization of this knowledgein linguistic communication. (performance refers to the actual use of languagein concrete situations.).In his point of view, which should be studied? Why?卢梭，让－雅克，《论语言的起源》，上海人民出版社，20031、“言语（speech）区分了人与动物；语言（language）区分了不同的民族；人只要一开口，就会显示出他来自何处。
语言学基础教程知识点总结
语言学基础教程知识点总结语言学是研究语言的学科，它涉及语音、语法、语义、语用、语言变迁等多个方面。
在本文中，我们将对语言学的基础知识点进行总结，主要包括语音学、语法学、语义学和语用学四个方面。
希望通过本文的总结，读者能够对语言学有一个基本的了解，并能够在相关领域进行更深入的学习和研究。
一、语音学1. 语音学概述语音学是研究语音的学科，它主要涉及语音的产生、传播和接收等方面。
语音学包括音韵学和声学两个方面，音韵学主要研究语音的基本单位音素，声学则研究语音的物理和声学特性。
2. 语音的分类语音可以根据发音部位和发音方式进行分类。
根据发音部位可以分为唇音、齿音、舌音、软腭音和喉音等；根据发音方式可以分为清音、浊音、塞音、擦音、鼻音、侧音等。
3. 语音的产生机制语音的产生主要通过呼吸、发音器官和声带的协调完成。
呼吸提供气流，发音器官包括喉、嘴和鼻腔等，声带则通过震动产生声音。
4. 语音的变化规律语音的变化规律主要包括语音变调、重音位置和音位变异等方面。
语音的变化规律是语音学研究的一个重要内容，也是语言变迁的基础。
二、语法学1. 语法学概述语法学是研究语言结构和句子构成规律的学科，它包括句法学、词法学和形态学等内容。
语法学主要研究句子构成规律、词类和句法成分等方面。
2. 句子成分句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语和补语等。
不同语言的句子成分可能存在差异，但大致都包括这几个方面。
3. 句子结构句子结构主要包括主谓结构、主谓宾结构、主系宾结构等。
句子结构是句法学的重要内容，也是句子的基本构成规律。
4. 语法规则语法规则是语言中的基本规律，它包括词汇、句法和语用等方面。
语法规则是语法学研究的核心内容，也是语言学习的重要内容。
三、语义学1. 语义学概述语义学是研究语言意义的学科，它主要包括词义学、句义学和话语义学等方面。
语义学主要研究词义、句义和话语意义的内在规律。
2. 词义及词义辨析词义是词语的意义，它包括词语的词义、义项和词义辨析等方面。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
I．要点语言和语言学语言：语言的定义及定义的理解。
/ 语言的甄别性特征/语言的功能/语言的起源。
语言学：语言学的定义及定义的理解。
/普通语言学及其研究范围。
/常见的重要区别性概念。
1.什么是语言？如何理解语言的定义语言的定义似乎很简单，其实是一个另人头疼的问题。
很多人认为语言不过是一种交际工具而已。
语言确实是一种交际工具，但是有的时候，假如你触景生情即兴吟诵一首诗，没有交际对象，很明显不能算交际，但是通过语言来完成的。
另外除了语言，还有很多交际工具，例如，旗语，花卉语。
Language is a means of verbal communication.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人跟人互通信息，用发音器官发出来的，成系统的行为方式。
（赵元任）“语言是存在之居所”（海得格尔）“语言是人类最后的家园”（钱冠连）目前国内采用比较多的就是下面的这个定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是用于人类交际的，任意的，有声的符号系统)。
System：语言首先是个系统。
所谓系统就是指语言要素按照一定的语言规则组合而成，可以体现在词，短语和句子等不同层面。
Arbitrary：语言的任意性说明了语言是社会约定俗成的产物。
体现在层面上。
V ocal：指语音相对于拼写系统而言是所有人类语言的第一重要媒介。
口语一定是出现在书面语之前。
Symbols：指语言的词是通过约定俗成与外界的物体、行为、思想相联系。
任意性和符号性是联系在一起的。
Human：指语言是人类独有的。
2．语言的区别性特征指那些把人类语言和其他动物交际系统区别开来的本质性特征。
1）Arbitrariness：指语言的语音和意义之间没有逻辑联系。
三个层面2）Duality：指语言是一个由两层结构组成的系统，一层结构为语音，低级结构，另一层为高级结构，有意义，比如词。
低级结构的个体，也就是孤立的音素是没有意义的。
动物的交际信号系统是没有二重性的。
3）Creativity：指语言具有让它的使用者生成和理解新句子的特点。
例如：一只三只眼的白猴子在法国国王的床上酣然入睡。
4）Displacement：指语言可用来指发生的眼前的或不在眼前的，甚至是遥远的，过去的，现在的，将来的，真实的或者想像的事情。
5）Culture transmission：文化传递。
指一方面人的语言能力具有遗传的基础，即我们生下来就具有习得语言的能力；另一方面任何语言系统的细节都不是随基因传递的，相反必须要教和学。
6）Discreteness：离散性。
指语言的每个部分，每个词都是由个体的语言单位构成。
例如：bet 是由/b/，/e/，/t/构成。
3．语言的功能1）informative: 语言被用来告知说话者的信念，提供关于事实的信息或考虑解决问题的办法，就是在行使信息功能。
例如：水在摄氏100度沸腾。
2）interpersonal function：人际功能：语言行使着建立和维持社会地位，社会关系的功能。
例如，称呼语，使用不同的称呼语表明了不同的关系定位。
3）performative: 言语行为功能。
就是指语言用来“做事“，履行行为。
4）emotive function: 情感功能。
指运用语言来唤起听者的某种感情，透漏说话者的情感和态度。
例如，天啊，我的上帝！“我们对此深表遗憾”。
5）phatic communion指语言被用来建立一种氛围或保持社会接触而不是用来交换信息或思想。
例如，问候语，告别语，谈论天气等。
7）Recreational function语言被用来娱乐的时候，语言行使娱乐功能。
例如：幼儿口中含混不清的自语，儿童的语言游戏，成年写诗，对歌等。
8）Metalingual function若语言被用来谈论和研究语言本身时，语言行使元语言功能。
例如：语义成分分析法，把man分成三个义素+HUMAN +MALE +ADULT 大写的三个成分都是元语言，用大写区别于自然语言。
4 语言的起源“Bow-wow”theory：摹声说“pooh-pooh”theory：本能的呼喊说“yo-he-ho”theory：劳动号子说5．什么叫语言学The science of language./ The scientific study of language.这里有三个关键词，要把握。
一：“语言”，前没有任何的修饰成分，意思是说语言学是以所有人类的语言为研究对象而非某一具体的母语。
二：第二关键词是“科学”，通常的科学研究要满足四个原则：穷尽原则，要求语言研究者收集所有相关的材料并给予充分的解释。
一致原则要求语言研究者在整个研究表述的不同部分不能前后矛盾。
经济原则就是在其他情况不变的条件下，尽量使用经济，易懂而不是冗长、晦涩的表述。
客观原则，就是指语言研究者在描写和分析语料的时候要做到尽可能客观，不要让个人偏见影响了研究结论。
第三个关键词是“研究”，研究就不是学习，科学研究具有其内在规律，往往是一个提出假设，验证假设的循环过程。
6．语言学的研究范围7．Langue and parole这一区别性概念是由瑞士语言学家Saussure在20世纪初提出来的，是现代语言学最重要的一对基础区别性概念之一。
语言指一个言语集团的所有成员共享的抽象语言系统；言语则指语言在实际使用中的实现。
语言和言语具有不同的特点。
语言是所有语言使用者都要遵循的一套习惯和规则；语言是抽象的、相对稳定的；言语是习惯和规则的具体运用，言语是具体的，因人因情境而异。
例如，英语中的基本句子顺序是主语、谓语，这是所有英语使用者通常要遵循的规则，即语言；但具体的实现方式，比如用什么成分恰当，用什么时态等则视具体情境和说话者而定，这就是言语。
Saussure 区别语言和言语的目的是为了找准现代语言学应该研究的方向。
8 Competence and performance这对区别性概念是Chomsky20世纪50年代提出来了。
语言能力指一个理想语言使用者的关于语言规则系统的潜在语言知识；语言运用则指在语言交际中这种语言知识的实际使用。
Chomsky认为，一个语言使用者具有一套内在化的语言规则，这套规则使他能够说出和理解无限多的句子并能够辨别句子是否合乎语法和是否具有歧义。
语言能力和语言运用是有差异的。
尽管一个语言使用者的语言能力是完美的，但他在实际使用中还会犯错误，比如，口误、偏离、不符合语法、不必要的停顿等。
这种不完美的语言运用现状主要是由一些社会和心理的因素造成的。
Chomsky提出这对区别概念的目的也是为了找准语言学研究的方向。
他认为语言学家应该研究一个理想语言使用者的语言能力而不是语言运用，因为语言是稳定的，具有普遍性；而语言运用则是易变化的，具有太大的偶然性。
对比Chomsky 和Saussure的区分概念，二者既有相同点，又有差异。
相同点是二这都倾向于把语言分成两个层次，由表及里，由现象入手进而探讨语言内在的规则系统。
不同的是Saussure采用的是社会的观点，认为语言是社会的产物，是适用于一个言语集团的一套约定俗成的习惯和规则；而Chomsky从外部转向内部，采用的是心理学的观点，认为语言能力是每个人大脑的特征，与生俱来，并在外部环境的作用下逐步发展成为成熟的语法。
他们实际上想探求的是同一种东西，既语言规则，但二者采用的途径和对语言规则的“藏身之处”的判断不同，结果导致了不同语言学流派的产生。
9．Synchronic and diachronic语言存在于时间维度中并随着时间的流逝而变化。
在某一个时间点上对语言的描写是一种共时研究；在某一个时间段内对语言的描写是一种历时研究。
例如，莎士比亚时代英语特征的研究将是一个典型的共时语言研究，自那时以来英语所经历的变化将是典型的历时语言研究。
10．Descriptive and prescriptive如果一种语言研究是描写和分析人们实际使用的语言，那么这种研究就是描写性研究；如果一种语言研究的目的是为人们如何正确使用语言规定规则，即告诉人们他们应该说什么，不应该说什么，那么这种研究就是规定性研究。
描写性的还是规定性的是区别现代语言学和传统语法的重要标准。
Saussure 以前的语言学主要研究宗教文学的书面语，从中抽象出语法规则让语言使用者遵守；而现代语言学绝大多数是描写性的，这样才能保证现代语言学研究是客观的、科学的。
语言学作为一门科学的本质决定它是描写性的而非规定性的。
11．Etic and emic (唯素的与唯位的)美国语言学家Pike首先在语音学和音位学的研究中提出了这一区别性概念。
Etic指具有“素”的语音单位，如音素、词素，是对语言事实的细节描写，而不具有区别性特征，最早用于音素描写。
Emic 指具有“位”的抽象语言单位，如音位、词位，是对语言规则的抽象，具有区别性特征，最早用于音位描写。
例如英语中的音素[p]在语言使用中有送气、在[s]因后浊化和词尾失去爆破三种情形，这三种情形就属于唯素的，清楚地描写了其具体发音细节，但不区别意义。
忽略这三种情形的具体细节进行抽象，就可得到一个音/p/，/p/是一个抽象单位，具有三种实现方式，可以区别意义，如在top 和pop这一对词中，第一个/p/就把这两个词的意义区别开来，所以/p/和/t/分别构成了两个音位。
唯素的和唯位的使用现在已经超出了语音学和音位学的范围。
再例如：英语过去时的词尾“ed”有三种读音[-t]，[-d]，[-id]，视具体形态和语音环境而定。
那么｛-id｝就是一个形位，具有区别意义，是唯位的；其三种读音不区别意义，只引起读音不同，是唯素的。
12. 微观语言学：（Microlinguistics：internal linguistics）至少有六个分支：语音学（可分为声学语音学，听觉语音学，发音语音学）、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学。
13．宏观语言学：（Macrolinguistics：external linguistics）指语言的跨学科研究，象心理语言学、社会语言学、人类语言学、计算语言学等。
II．重要术语1 Language: is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2 Linguistics: it is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3 Design features: refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.4. Arbitrariness: it is the core feature of language, which means that there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds.5. Duality: it means that language is a system, which consists of two levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; as the higher level there is the structure of words.6. Creativity: language is productive in that users can understand and produce novel sentences that they have never heard before.7. Displacement: language can be used to refer to things that are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in the faraway places.8. cultural transmission: refers to, on the one hand, human language has a genetic basis, in other words, we are born with the capacity to acquire human language; on the other hand, the details of any human language are passed on from onegeneration to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by gene.9. informative function: language serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out.10. interpersonal function: is the most important sociological use of language by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.11. performative function: it means that speech can be used to “do things”, performing acts.12. emotive function: is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. It changes the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. The aim is to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry or please.13. phatic function: refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. For instance: greetings, farewells, talking about weather are all instances of phatic function.14. recreational function: refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.15. Metalingual function: when language is used to talk about and study language itself language is performing metalingual function.16. General linguistics: the language of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.17. synchronic linguistics: the descripition of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study, also called synchronic linguistics.18. Diachronic linguistics: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study, also called diachronice linguistics.19. Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.20. Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use.21. competence: refers to the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.22. performace: refers to the actual realization of the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication.23. etic: refers to the linguistic units containing “-etic”, for example: phonetic, morphetic, which are used to describe linguistic facts in detail without distinctive features, are firstused to describe sounds.24. emic: refers to the linguistic units containing “-emic”, for instance, phonemic, morphemic, which are used to describe abstract linguistic rules with distinctive features, are first used to describe phonemes.25. phonetics: it is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description , classification and transcription.26: phonology: it is the branch of linguistics which studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.27．Morphology:it is the branch of linguistics which studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.28. syntax: the words combination is rule-governed, the study of these rules is called syntax as a major branch of linguistics. 29. semantics: the study of meaning of language is known as semantics.30. pragmatics: the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning in the contex of use is called pragmatics.31. Psycholinguistics: it is the interdisciplinary study which examines the relationship between language and human brain.32. sociolinguistics: it is the interdisciplinary study of the relationship between language use and the structure of soceity.33. anthropological linguistics: it is the investigation that used the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to human cultural patterns and beliefs.34. computational linguistics: as a branch of communication engineering, it is the use of computers and computer techniques to further linguistic research and specific problem solving.35. Neurolinguistics: it is a branch of linguistics concerned in principle with the physical representation of language or linguistic processes in the brain.36. linguistic potential: Halliday thinks that with language, there is a wide range of things a speaker can do in the culture he is in. the set of possibility for “doing”is termed linguistic potential from a functional language’s view.37. actual linguistic behavior: what a speaker actually says on a particular occasion to a particular individual is what he has selected from the many possible things he could have said. This actual selection of things from what one could have said is termed actual linguistic behavior.。