语言学相关知识

1. Discuss the role of L1 in L2 acquisition. (20’)Gass (2001) believes that transfer from NL plays a “rocky” role in the course of SLA and in a L2 learning situation. L1 has a great influence on L2 in phonology, morpheme, syntax, semantic, pragmatic, discourse and so on. Therefore, the role of L1 in L2 acquisition can be concluded in one word, that is, transfer, which means the influence that the learner‟s L1 exerts over the acquisition of an L2 apparently in many aspects in Ellis‟s view. Here, I divide transfer into four kinds, that is, negative transfer, positive transfer, avoidance and over-use.Negative transfer can also be called interference, is caused by the sharp differences between L1 and L2. When learners transfer their L1 habits into the L2, errors are made if the habits of L1 differ greatly from those of L2. For example, Chinese learners find very difficulty to learn attributive clause in English because there is little use in Chinese. But some scholars thought that it is not agreeable that whether errors made are the results of transfer or are intra-lingual in nature. Some experiments indicate that both the two factors influence L2 learning. Whether or not an agreement on how much negative transfer acts in L2 acquisition, the fact that the langua ge phenomenon “transfer” exists will not be denied. Different L1 habits will prevent successful L2 learning in all.Positive transfer L1 facilitates L2 learning but it doesn‟t mean the absence of errors. Instead, it means the reduction of errors. Positive transfer occurs when there are similarities between L1 and L2, thus learners can use L1 habits to understand L2 more easily and better. Studies done by linguists illustrate how transfer has a facilitative or positive effect. Zoble (1980) investigated some adult English learners of French of the placements of “verbs” and “objects”. Because there are the same word-order type of verb-object exists in English, so these learners find easier to learn this kind of knowledge in French. They quickly grasp the pattern through their NL (English) transfer positively. Hyltemstam (1984) made an investigation on relative clauses in L2 Swedish, a language that does not permit pronoun retention. He investigated 45 adult subjects from 5 different language backgrounds. The languages were ranged in the extent to which they prohibit retentive pronouns. The result shows that the learners with the most similar language rules learn his TL fast. The more similarities exist in L1 and L2, the easier to grasp L2. All these serve as the positive transfer in SLA.Avoidance can also occur when the differences between L1 and L2 are so sharp that learners can not find any clues from L1. L1 habits don‟t exist in L2. The classic study of avoidance done by Schachter (1974) shows that Chinese and Japanese learners of English made fewer errors on relative clauses thanPersian and Arabic learners, not because the former mastered the TL better than the latter, but because they reduced the amount of using relative clauses or simply avoided using them.Opposite to avoidance, the over-use, or overgeneralization refers to the frequent use of certain linguistic rules of structure of the L2. For example, L2 learners have often been observed to use the regular past tense inflection to irregular verbs in L2 English, such as “comed”, “goed”, and “runned”, etc. L2 learners overuse linguistic rules when they think overuse of rules in L1 can get right answers.2. Comment on Krashen’s Monitor Model (main ideas and potential problems with this model). (20’)There a re five hypotheses of Krashen‟s Monitor Model, that is, the Acquisition/Learning Model, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Monitor Hypothesis, the Input Hypothesis and the Affect Filter Hypothesis.The Acquisition/Learning Model states that there are two ways of mastering a second language, that is, learning and acquisition. Learning is a conscious process which is done with the help of peers, parents, teachers, etc. Education is the most common way for learning. However, acquisition is a subconscious process. Acquisition means things that are innate, that one person processes when he/she is born. Acquisition and learning are two distinctive and independent processes of mastering a second language. Unfortunately, Krashen doesn‟t point out that learning can be come acquisition. He gives some evidence such as sometimes acquisition can occur without learning, sometimes one can also break the rules though he knows them etc. He thinks learning doesn‟t precede acquisition but he doesn‟t think the other hand, which means learning can precede acquisition. Besides, Krashen doesn‟t define conscious and unconscious. He also doesn‟t point out how do learning and acquisition differ in behavioral terms. What‟s more, there is logical inconsistency in this hypothesis. If most L2 is acquired unconsciously then how can learning, which is conscious, contribute to the development of L2 competence. This hypothesis also claims that adults can access same LAD as children.The Monitor Hypothesis concerns about the relationship between acquisition of language and learning of language. Acquisition contributes to the fluency in a language while learning plays the role of monitor or corrector in acquiring a language. Krashen lists some sufficient conditions in which the Monitor can be made full use. 1) time (sufficient time is necessary for the consciously think about and use rules effectively);2) focus on form (performers must pay attention to what is corrected); 3) knowledge of the rule. However, there are some deficiencies of this hypothesis. Firstly, Kreshen claims that learning is available only for use in production instead for comprehension but he doesn‟t give some evidence. Secondly, focus on form means focus on the correctness, there is no distinction between form and content. But sometimes letters with different forms such as site iru and sitte iru also have different meanings. Thirdly, knowing the rules ofa language is absolute in that different learners have different understanding of the rules. They can also use the rules from their own perspective to use and comprehend language even though some of them are incorrect for linguists. Krashen neglects the diverse standards of rules of different people and he also thinks that children don‟t use Monitor.The Natural Order Hypothesis explains that the rules of the language (grammatical structures) are acquired in a predictable order, some rules tending to come early and others later. However, there are some problems left for this hypothesis. Firstly, Krashen doesn‟t point out what is a …structure‟? Learner has to acquire many structures of a language such as tense endings. Secondly, there is no definite order of developing a language. Individual variation makes the different order for different person. If the structures are divided into varying numbers of ordered sets, it is needless to talk about a …natural order‟.Krashen‟s Affective Filter Hypothesis is one of the most significant and well-known hypotheses in second language acquisition. It shows the relationship between affect and seco nd language learning. What‟s more, this hypothesis elucidates why some learners can learn second language well while some can‟t to a large degree. Affect, from Krashen‟s perspective, is intended to include factors such a motivation, attitude, self-confidence, and anxiety. Low anxiety, high motivation, self-confidence and comprehensible input are the ideal conditions for learner‟s successful language acquisition. If the filter is up, input is prevented from passing through, thus learners cannot acquire language. If the filter is down, and if the input is comprehensible and adequate, the acquisition will take place. To summarize, according to Krashen, two conditions are necessary for successful acquisition. One is comprehensible input and the other is low affective filter. The deficiencies of this hypothesis are the following. Firstly, this hypothesis also intends to explain child and adult differences. The Filter is not present in children but is present in adults. But questions such as “How does it work? How is the input?” are not answered. Secondly, Krashen doesn‟t point out why this hypothesis cannot be applied to L1?Comprehensible Input Hypothesis is one part of Krashen‟s Monitor Hypothesis. Krashen thought second language is acquired by learners‟ receivin g understandable information, which means the comprehensible input. Essentially, the input should be slightly ahead of a learner‟s current state of grammatical knowledge. If the input is the one that learner has already learned, the acquisition is meaningless though the input is comprehensible. If the input is largely ahead of a learner‟s current state grammatical knowledge, acquisition is also meaningless in that the input is far beyond learner‟s current comprehension. Krashen considered a learner’s current state of knowledge as i and the next stage as i + 1. Therefore, the input must be at the i+1 level in order to be comprehensible. In all, the comprehensible inputhypothesis involves three main issues. Firstly, this hypothesis has close relationship with language acquisition instead of language learning. Secondly, with the help of extra-linguistic information, learners can understand new information which is a bit beyond their current language level. Thirdly, i+1 can emerge automatically if the input is comprehensible and adequate. Deliberate provision of i+1 will have negative effect on learners‟ language acquisition. Some problems are also left for this hypothesis. Firstly, Krashen doesn‟t point out what does i stand for in that i has two ambiguous meani ngs. One means the next structure to be acquired. The other means the learner‟s competence at one stage after stage i. Secondly, this hypothesis explains that extra-linguistic knowledge helps learner learn new knowledge a bit beyond his current language knowledge. However, extra-linguistic knowledge only provides the context for learner to comprehend new knowledge. Although learner can understand the meaning of new information, he cannot really understand the new rules and he may overuse them. Thirdly, outp ut is not important in Krashen‟s view, but he doesn‟t give his reason.3. Explain the components of communicative competence and their relevance to successful communication. (20’)There are some classical classifications of communicative competence. Canale and Swain (1980) divide communicative competence into four components, that is, grammatical competence, discourse competence, strategic competence and sociocultural competence. Sociocultural competence requires an understanding of the social context in which language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the function of the interaction. In my opinion, communicative competence involves the following components. The first one is pronunciation competence which concerns about the pronunciation of words. Because only when the speaker pronounces words correctly, I mean that the native speaker uses, can he convey his meaning successfully. The second one is spelling competence in that correct spelling that is accepted by native speakers guarantee successful communication especially in writing and reading. The third one is phrase competence which means speakers or listeners can understand the underlying and superficial meaning of phrases. Sometimes, we know the meaning of both the two words, but we cannot understand the meaning of the combined two words. Therefore, meanings of phrases do not just combine the meanings of the words comprised of the phrase together sometimes. We should know about the meanings of some frequently used phrases which fall into the above category in order to facilitate our communication. The fourth one is discourse competence with which speakers and listeners can convey/comprehend the meaning of the sentences and then the discourse successfully and they can also learn about the cohesion and organization of the text. The fifth one is grammatical competence. Correctgrammatical rules are the ones accepted by native speakers in my opinion in that they involves both those taught by teachers /grammar books and those used by native speakers but not in official grammar books. Sufficient grammar knowledge guarantees speakers/listeners make clear of the different parts of sentences, for example. Grammar knowledge involves phonology knowledge, morpheme knowledge, syntax knowledge, semantic knowledge which are necessity for successful communication. The sixth one is pragmatic competence which means how to express what to whom in which situation. Different listeners require different speaking style and content. Different situation or context requires different ways of speaking. The seventh one is strategic competence which concerns about how to express and convey your ideas to others correctly and quickly in order to establish and maintain social relationships.4. Comment on the focus on form and focus on forms instructions (20’)I Focus on form instruction requires learners to pay little attention to grammar with no or little interruption to communication. Focus on forms instruction requires learners pay separate attention to grammar and neglect communication.II Form in focus on form instruction refers to language form in general which in close relationship with meaning. Forms in focus on forms instruction refers to discrete, isolated, specific language forms.III Focus on form instruction means occasional shift of attention to form. Focus on forms means most attention to form.IV Focus on form instruction means learners‟ first engagement is in meaning, and then they explore some linguistic knowledge. Focus on forms requires learners to pay primary attention to form.V Focus on form instruction applies an analytical approach while focus on forms instruction applies a syntactical approach.VI Focus on form instruction teaches linguistic knowledge in context while focus on forms instruction teaches linguistic knowledge in isolation.VII Focus on form instruction mainly uses task-based and content-based language teaching approach and process syllabus. Focus on forms instruction mainly uses grammar-translation teaching approach and structural syllabus.5. Read the passage below and then answer the following questions. (20’)The tragic case of “Genie” bears directly on the critical period hypothesis. Genie was discovered in 1970, at the age of thirteen, having been brought up in conditions of inhuman neglect and extreme isolation. She was severely disturbed and underdeveloped, and had been unable to learn language. In the course of her treatment and rehabilitation, great efforts were made to teach her to speak. She had received next to no linguistic stimulation between the ages of two and puberty, so the evidence of her language-learning ability would bear directly on the Lenneberg hypothesis. Analysis of the way Genie developed her linguistic skills showed several abnormalities, such as a marked gap between production and comprehension, variability in using rules, stereotyped speech, gaps in the acquisition of syntactic skills, and a generally retarded rate of development. After various psycholinguistic tests, it was concluded that Genie was using her right hemisphere for language (as well as for several other activities), and that this might have been the result of her beginning the task of language learning after the critical period of left-hemisphere development. The case was thus thought to support Lenneberg’s hypothesis, but only in a weak form. Genie was evidently able to acquire some language from exposure after puberty (she made great progress in vocabulary, for example, and continued to make gains in morphology and syntax), but she did not do so in a normal way. Question: What can you learn from this passage about language learning? And what implications can you draw for second language acquisition?Critical period is a relatively short period within which childre n‟s acquisition and learning of second language can be more rapidly and easily. Specifically, the hypothesis posits that children between birth and somewhere around the age when a child enters puberty can more easily acquire language than post-pubescent children. Learners of a second language that begin the learning process after this critical period are indeed still able to acquire a second language. The foundation of the critical period hypothesis rests on neurological research that suggests that brain functions become lateralized after puberty. As we know there are two sides of the human brain - the right and the left. Some language functions appear to be controlled or stationed in the right while others are located in the left portion. Language functions appear mainly controlled by the left side. It is believed that, before puberty, these functions are not completely assigned to either portion of the brain. The specific assignment or lateralization of brain functions is believed to be complete and set sometime during or just after puberty. The pre-pubescent brain can absorball new information easily. Some scholars thought this "absorption" of aspects of language to non-specific locations in the brain supposedly makes the learning of language, first or second language, easier for children than adults or older adolescents.Therefore, children need to learn a second language before their critical period in order to acquire a natural pronunciation and grasp some basic linguistic rules gradually. For adult learners, on the other hand, it doesn‟t mean they can not acquire second language. Although they miss the critical period, thus they may find more difficulties in acquiring second language, such as pronunciation, certain linguistic rules, they can also acquire second language with their mutual cognitive system and efforts.。