语言学第一章笔记和习题
胡壮麟语言学第1章笔记
[语言]（什么是语言）●语言是人类用于交际的任意的声音符号系统●语言是言语交流的一种方式（简洁地说）●语言是人类最重要的交际工具、思维工具、认识成果的贮存所●语言是实用性的●语言是社会的、约定俗成的●语言是把人和其他动物区别开来的一个重要标志●语言有四个本质特征：任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性*实用性的——因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为*社会的、约定俗成的——因为语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非谚语的暗示、动机、社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行。
[语言的本质特征]*（Russell）“不管一只狗可以多么流利地吠叫，它无法告诉你它的父母贫穷但又诚实。
”本质特征是决定我们人类语言性质的特征，包括任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性。
1 [任意性]由Saussure最先提出●指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系如果人类第一次看到猪是把它叫成“狗”，那么现在我们所知道的“猪”便叫做“狗”。
不同的语言中有不同的词来表达相同的概念：酒店—hotel，狗—dog同一语言中由于方言、历史、地理位置等原因也会出现这一特性：素质—质素，公鸡—鸡公，客人—人客●是人类语言多样性的一个重要原因●有不同的程度：（1）语素的音和义之间的任意性狗叫：wow wow—wang wang拟声词的发音看上去代表了他们所描述的词，但实际上任意性和拟声是可以同时起作用的（2）句法上的任意性对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。
因为句子序列和真实发生的事情之间有着一定程度的对应关系He came in and sat down.He sat down and come in.功能语言学家认为语言最严格的任意性在于对立的语音，通过它我们辨别各组词。
（3）约定性语言学上意义和符号之间是约定俗成的关系，所以语言有约定性，即任意性的相反面任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，约定性又使学习语言变得费力。
《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。
语言学教程习题答案第一章
语言学教程习题答案第一章语言学教程习题答案第一章在语言学的学习过程中，习题是非常重要的一部分，通过习题的练习可以帮助我们巩固知识，提高对语言学理论的理解和应用能力。
本文将针对语言学教程第一章的习题进行解答，并对其中一些重要的概念进行深入探讨。
1. 什么是语言学？语言学是研究语言的科学，它涉及到语言的结构、语音、语法、语义、语用等方面的研究。
通过对语言的研究，我们可以了解语言的起源、发展、结构以及语言与思维、文化之间的关系。
2. 语言学的研究方法有哪些？语言学的研究方法包括田野调查、实验研究、文献研究等。
田野调查是指通过对语言使用环境的观察和实地访谈等方式，收集语言数据并进行分析。
实验研究则是通过实验室环境下的控制变量实验，来研究语言现象。
文献研究则是通过对已有的语言学文献进行分析和综述，来推测和总结语言学理论。
3. 语言学的研究对象是什么？语言学的研究对象是语言。
语言是人类交流的工具，它包括语音、词汇、语法等方面的内容。
通过对语言的研究，我们可以了解语言的结构、规律以及语言与思维、文化之间的关系。
4. 什么是语言的层次结构？语言的层次结构是指语言的组成部分之间的关系。
从上到下，语言的层次结构包括语言（language）、语言系统（linguistic system）、语言单位（linguistic unit）以及语言要素（linguistic element）。
语言单位是指语言中的最小有意义的单位，如音素、词素、词等。
语言要素则是指构成语言单位的基本成分，如音素、词素中的音素。
5. 什么是语音学？语音学是研究语言中的语音现象的学科。
它研究的内容包括语音的产生、传播和接收等方面。
通过对语音的研究，我们可以了解语音的分类、规律以及语音与语义、语法之间的关系。
6. 什么是语音？语音是语言中的声音现象。
它是通过声带、口腔、鼻腔等发声器官的协调运动而产生的。
语音可以分为音位和音素两个层次。
音位是语言中的最小音位单位，它是语音的抽象概念。
邢福义《语言学概要》笔记和课后习题详解(语言和语言学)【圣才出品】
第1章语言和语言学1.1 复习笔记一、语言的性质和范围1．语言的性质（1）语言的定义①从结构上看，语言是一个复杂的符号系统。
语言是由词语符号构成的复杂系统，具有符号性和系统性。
②从功能上看，语言是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。
人们需要而且可以用语言来进行社会交际，用语言来认识世界，思考问题。
（2）语言的符号性①能指与所指a．用甲事物代表乙事物，而甲乙两事物没有必然联系，甲事物就是代表乙事物的符号；b．甲事物是符号的能指（形式），乙事物是符号的所指（内容、意义）；c．能指与所指的关系是人为约定的，没有必然的因果关系。
②语言符号的主要特征a．任意性任意性是指符号的能指和所指之间没有必然联系，用什么能指代表什么所指是任意的。
第一，同样的语音形式可以代表不同的语义内容，如多义词、同音词；第二，不同的语音形式可以代表相同的语义内容，如同义词；第三，不同的语言可以用不同的语音形式代表相同的语义内容，如汉语的“马”[ma214]和英语的horse都可以指马。
b．稳固性稳固性是指语音和语义一旦约定俗成就稳固下来，不可随意改变。
因为语言是人们社会交际的工具，语音和语义关系的随意改变会导致社会交际无法正常进行。
（口令、暗号的意义不属于一般语言意义。
）c．渐变性渐变性是指语言符号随着社会的发展发生渐变。
第一，语言是社会交际的工具，为了适应社会的发展变化，语言符号会发生变化；（例如，古代汉语中很多词语的音和义发展到现代汉语都发生了明显的变化。
）第二，语言符号一般只能采取渐变方式，因为突变会破坏语言符号的稳固性，影响正常交际。
其他的一些符号有的可以发生突变，如密电码一旦泄密，就可以随时更换。
d．线条性线条性是指说话时语言符号在时间上依次出现，像一根线条一样。
第一，人的发音器官只能依次发出一串音素、音节或词语；第二，语言符号在言语中只能有时间上的前后相继的关系，不能有空间上的上下相叠的关系。
（3）语言的系统性①语言系统性的内涵系统指由若干互相联系的元素构成的整体，而系统性则是指系统元素之间的联系性。
语言学概论笔记(邢福义)
语言学概论笔记（邢福义）语言学概论第一章语言与语言学第一节语言的性质和范围一、为什么说社会性是自然语言的本质属性？为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？二、什么是符号？语言符号有什么特点？三、语言和言语有什么区别和联系？四、口语和书面语有什么区别？为什么会有区别？五、什么是副语言和人工语言？二者有什么关系？1、语言：从结构上看，语言就是由词语这种符号构成的复杂系统。
从功能上看，是人类进行社会交际和思维认识的工具。
语言具有符号性、系统性、社会性及其他属性{民族性和生成性（指人们可以根据有限的语言符号和组合规则生成无限的句子）模糊性}2、语言的能指和所指（什么是符号）：用甲事物代表乙事物，而甲乙两事物之间没有必然联系，甲事物就是代表乙事物的符号，其中甲事物就是符号的能指（形式），乙事物就是符号的所指（内容和意义）。
符号的能指和所指之间的关系是人为约定的。
3、语言符号的特征：语言中的词语就是一种符号，具有符号的特征。
1、语言符号的任意性（用什么能指代表什么所指是任意的）2、稳固性（语言符号一旦约定俗成以后就具有稳固性）3、渐变性（为了适应社会发展的变化，采取渐变的方式）4、线条性（语言符号在言语中只能有时间上的前后相继的关系）4、语言的社会性：语言是社会交际的工具，社会是语言的本质属性。
自然语言系统和规则是由特定的社会群体共同约定俗成的，而不是由个别人或少数人创造的语言的发展变化离不开社会，无论是新词语的产生，还是旧词语的消亡，都取决于社会交际的需要。
由于自然语言从生到长到死的整个过程都取决于整个社会，所以说社会性是自然语言的本质属性。
语言虽然不是人类唯一的交际工具，还有其他副语言如文字、体态等交际工具，但是副语言只是辅助性的交际工具，一般使用范围有限，语言是一种独立的交际工具，是第一性的，副语言是建立在语言的基础之上的，是第二性的。
因而，语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
5、语言和言语的区别：语言有广义和狭义之分，广义的语言包括语言系统、言语活动和言语作品，狭义的语言只指语言系统，而言语则包括言语活动和言语作品。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(1-6章)【圣才出品】
第1章导言1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3.The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4.Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。
(2)语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
2.有关语言的常考考点(1)语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2)语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3)语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。
)本章内容索引：I.Definition of linguisticsII.Linguistics vs.traditional grammarIII.Scope of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsIV.Definition of languageV.Origins of language1.Ding-Dong Theory2.Sing-Song Theory3.Pooh-Pooh Theory4.Yo-He-Ho Theory5.Ta-Ta Theory6.Bow-Wow TheoryVI.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Interchangeability5.Displacement6.Specialization7.Cultural transmissionVII.Functions of language1.Phatic function/communion2.Directive functionrmative function4.Interrogative function5.Expressive function6.Evocative function7.Performative functionVIII.Some major concepts in linguistics1.Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsngue and parolepetence and performance5.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6.Functionalism and formalismI.Definition of linguistics(语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language,which is always guided by the-three canons ofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。
《语言学纲要》(修订版)学习指导书练习参考答案(完整版)
《语言学纲要》学习指导书（修订版）第一章语言的功能一、填空1、语言的功能包括（社会）功能和（思维）功能。
2、语言的社会功能包括（信息传递）功能和（人际互动）功能。
3、在各种信息传递形式中，（语言）是第一性的、最基本的手段。
4、人的大脑分左右两个半球，语言功能及计数、推理能力等由（左）半球掌管，音乐感知、立体图形识别等能力由（右）半球制约。
5、儿童语言习得一般经过（独词句）阶段和（双词句）阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。
二、判断正误（对）1、文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式。
（错）2、当说话者陈述一个客观事实时，话语中不具有主观性。
（错）3、书刊上的话语不具有人际互动功能。
（对）4、抽象思维要以语言为形式依托。
（错）5、布洛卡区在大脑的右半球前部。
（错）6、聋哑人不会说话，所以不具有抽象思维的能力。
（对）7、不同语言结构的差异体现出思维方式的不同。
（错）8、汉语名词没有数的变化，所以汉语没有区别单数和多数的概念。
三．思考题1、为什么说语言是人类最重要的信息传递的手段？除了语言之外，人们还使用其他的信息传递工具：（1）文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式等辅助性的交际工具（2）体态语等伴随性的副语言交际工具，（3）盲文、手语等类语言交际工具。
但这些交际工具或者使用范围的有限，或者运用效率低下，或者使用频率不高，很难与语言这种交际工具相提并论。
文字记录语言，打破了语言交际中时间和空间的限制，在社会生活中起着重大的作用，中小学语文教学主要就是教学生识字、阅读、写作。
但是，文字在交际中的重要性远不能和语言相比。
一个社会可以没有文字，但是不能没有语言；没有语言，社会就不能生存和发展。
文字是在语言的基础上产生的，只有几千年的历史。
在文字产生以前，语言早已存在，估计有几十万年。
今天世界上没有文字的语言比有文字的语言多得多。
文字产生以后要随着语言的发展而演变，它始终从属于语言，是一种辅助的交际工具。
语言学教程课后习题与答案第一章
语言学教程课后习题与答案第一章Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoreti cal ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displa cement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system ofgrammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.l angue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After careful ly comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differencesamong the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicatea degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981:15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual s equence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we c an feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not adouble-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we sl id to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but hon est”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, ma ybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like t hese to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a longstory short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often? ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only makea more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because languagechanges and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guid elines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescrip tive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided asit is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistictheories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why? It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation.(M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the systemof rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding i s in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for w e can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard(e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say“gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。
语言学笔记第一章
I. INTRODUCTION1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Branches of linguistics:phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics Linguisticspsycholinguistics sociolinguistics applied linguistics1.1.3 Some important distinction in linguistics1) Prescriptive and descriptiveThey are two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “ correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2) Synchronic and diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.3) Speech and writingThey are the two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is prior to writingfor the following reasons:From the point of view of linguistic evolution, writing system os any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedSpeech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.4) Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of he conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.5) Competence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure's book "Course in General Linguistics" in the early 20th century.a) Linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.A linguistist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of "correctness".b) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.c) Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework. However, for a long time traditional grammar assumed that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit.1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definition of language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. First, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.2.2 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The framework was proposed by an American linguist, Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary because there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entire arbitrary; certain words are motivated.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is the way they can produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native languages, including sentences that we have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4) DisplacementHuman language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmissionThe details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Though the capacity for language in human beings has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one.1.2.3 Functions of language1. Language is used for communication2. Three main functionsA)Descriptive function(cognitive, referential, or propositional function)--- it is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.B)Expressive function(emotive or attitudinal function) --- supplies information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.C)Social function, also referred to as interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relation between people.3.Function models by structural linguist Roman JakobsonHe identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser--- EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication. Addressee--- ConativeThe addresser aims to influence the addressee's course of action or ways of thinking. Context --- ReferentialThe addresser conveys a message or information.Message --- PoeticThe addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.Contact --- Phatic communicationThe addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee.Code --- MetalinguisticThe addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.4.Three macrofunctions by M. A. K. HallidayIn the early 1970s the British linguist Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions and there is close correspondence language between form and function. But as a child grew into an adult the seven functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract, but also simpler system of functions. This system contains three macrofunctions.Ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer's experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function discussed above, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker's attitude, evalution, his feelings and emotions.The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker's role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.。
语言学概论经典复习笔记(全)
第一章．语言学的对象和任务1. 什么是语言功能角度的定义语言是人类最重要的交际和交流思想的工具。
信息论角度的定义语言是信息的载体和传播信息的媒介。
认知科学角度的定义语言是认知的工具汉语名词性偏正结构的表达顺序：用偏正结构表达两个物体的空间关系，采用“参照物——目的物”的认知顺序是汉语的一种优势语序。
这是汉语名词性偏正结构的表达原则，反映了汉语“由大到小”的表达习惯。
2. 什么是语言学定义语言学是研究语言规律的科学，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识语言的起源A. .“神授说”基督教<圣经>关于人类语言起源的传说: <圣经>解释: 上帝谴责人类罪过和妄行的结果.B.“摹声说”。
古希腊哲学家柏拉图Plato早在公元前5世纪就提出了这种理论。
他认为，名称不过是它所表示的事物的声音的模拟。
这是一种朴素的唯物主义观点，它把语言的起源归结为客观世界的产物。
十八世纪德国的赫德尔发展了这一观点。
他认为，在原始社会，人们为了表达想要表达的各种动物对象，模仿那种动物的发声，比如拟声词。
C.“感叹说”。
古希腊哲学家伊壁鸠鲁(Epicurus, 公元前341~前270年)是其代表人物这种理论认为，原始人的感情冲动、受到惊恐后发出的喊叫等，也就是出于内心和外来的感受而发出的声音逐渐发展为感叹词，最终形成了语言。
D.“号子说”。
19世纪的法国哲学家努阿尔认为，原始人在集体劳动时会发出“咳哟”、“啊哈”等声音，以协调劳动的一致性，大致相当于今天的劳动号子，这就形成语言最初的成分——动词。
E.“劳动说”。
恩格斯首先提出来的。
恩格斯认为：一方面“劳动的发展必然促使社会成员更紧密地互相结合起来因为它使互相帮助和共同协作的场合增多了，并且使每个人都清楚地意识到这种共同协作的好处。
另一方面，劳动还使人的发音器官和大脑发达起来。
这些都是语言诞生的必要条件。
3语文学A 定义:为注解古代经典（如政治、哲学、历史、文学等经典作品），而对其中的文字\词汇\语法所作的研究.语文学是经学的附庸,没有把语言作为独立的学科研究. 又叫“前语言学”.印度宗教经典梵语：语音、语法研究西欧（希腊-罗马）古典拉丁文：语法、修辞、逻辑中国先秦典籍：汉字形音义研究三个重要的传统古印度巴尼尼<梵语语法>古希腊-罗马底奥尼修<希腊语法> 瓦罗《论拉丁语》中国“小学”中国第一部语法专著马建忠《马氏文通》(1898)采用的也是拉丁语的体系。
语言学概论 (00541)知识点汇总(第一章)
语言学概论（00541）知识点汇总第一章语言和语言学（一）语言和民族、国家的关系★★1.一个民族使用一种语言，这种说法（不正确）2.一般而言，一个民族使用同一种语言，语言是民族的重要标志3.同一民族使用多种语言，不同民族使用同一语言的现象客观存在。
语言不是识别民族的可靠标志（二）语言特点和语言类型★★★1.从语言历时演变角度来划分不同的语言，可以建立语言的（谱系分类）2.与英语亲缘关系最近的是（德语），都属于印欧语系-日耳曼语族3.根据语言是否有形态变化，可以分为分析性语言即（孤立语）和形态语即（屈折语、黏着语）4.汉语属于（分析性语言/孤立语），没有丰富的形态变化，主要由词序和虚词来体现各种结构意义5.德语、俄语属于形态语中的（屈折语），日语、朝鲜语、维吾尔语、芬兰语属于（黏着语）（三）“语言”和“言语”★★1.区分“语言”和“言语”的主要目的是（明确语言学的研究对象）2.（语言）是由有限材料、有限规则组成的系统，是社会的，如“语言能力是每个正常人都具有的”3.（言语）是具体的、无限的、个人的，如《红楼梦》的语言、“法官认为证人说的话可信”中的“话”（四）“口语”和“书面语”★★★1.口语就是有声的口头语言，任何一种语言都有口头存在形式，它是书面语产生的基础。
2.书面语：是用文字记录的语言形式，是文字产生后在口语的基础上产生的，书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。
3.书面语与口语基本一致，但不是口语绝对忠实的记录，也不是口语的机械记录和重复。
（五）“能指”和“所指”★★★★★1.属于符号的是（语言、文字、红绿灯、旗语）2.符号中能够指称某种意义的成分被称为（能指），符号所指的意义内容是（所指）3.语言符号的能指是（语音），语言符号的所指是（意义）4.首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是（索绪尔）5.能指和所指的关系是（不可分割）的，一旦分开，语言符号就不存在了。
（六）“约定”和“任意”★★★★★1.交通信号灯中红灯表示“停”的意思，红灯和“停”之间的关系是（约定的）2.语言符号的任意性是指（语言符号的物质实体和意义内容之间没有必然联系），即：声音和意义之间没有必然联系的理据关系，在语言符号产生之初，它的声音和意义的结合是任意的，是由社会约定俗成的，它们之间的关系是不可论证的3.语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的（任意性）4.语言符号的强制性是指（个人不能任意改变已经约定的符号）（七）“线性”和“离散”★★★1.语言结构的线性特征：语言符号的结构必须是按照时间顺序成一条线的样子排列。
语言学笔记大全
语言学笔记大全第一章语言的社会功能一、什么是语言？什么是说话？语言是音义结合的符号系统，人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具。
说话是人们运用语言工具跟人们交流思想的行为。
二、语言和说话的关系要弄清楚“什么是语言”的问题，首先要弄清楚的是，语言和说话不是一回事。
语言不等于说话，也不等于说出来的话。
说话是运用语言跟人们交流思想的行为，本身不等于语言。
但是，另一方面，语言的存在又必须以说话为前提，一个人如果长期生活在孤岛上，没有说话的需要，不跟人交谈，他就会失去语言能力。
如刘连仁的例子（课本37页）。
这件事告诉我们语言与说话的联系与区别：语言好象是一种工具，需要人去用，不用就会“生锈”，就会“退化”。
而说话则是人们运用语言工具跟人们交流思想的行为，说出来的话是这种行为“生产”出来的“产品”，是为了适应他人的需要而存在的，没有这种需要，人们就会丧失说话的语言能力，这就是等于说：语言不等于说话，也不等于说出来的话。
那么，什么是语言？它在哪儿？回答是：语言存在于说话之中，人们可以从所说的话中找出语言来。
三、语言的作用是什么？语言是人类社会的交际工具。
每个社会，无论它是经济发达的社会，还是经济十分落后的社会，都必须有自己的语言，都离不开语言这个交际工具，语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素，是人类与动物相区别的重要特征之一。
语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带，没有语言，人类无法交际，人与人之间的联系就会中断，社会就会崩溃，不复存在。
四、什么是社会？什么是交际工具？所谓社会，就是指生活在同一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体，既一般所说的部落、部族和民族。
交际工具是指人们用来交流思想，进行交际的工具。
五、为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？人们在进行社会交际的时候，除了运用语言传递信息外，也可以借助其他手段传递信息，表达思想。
比如运动场上，篮球教练用手势表示谁犯规、谁发球等内容，不用语言；部队用长短不同的号声表示起床、集合、冲锋、撤退等信息；在海上，船与船之间用旗语传递信息等等。
语言学第一章习题(含答案)
第一章语言的功能一、填空题.从语言的社会功能上看，语言是人类独有的最重要的交际工具和思维工具：从语言的内部结构上看，语言是一套音义结合的符号系统。
1 .文字是建立在语言基础上的最重要的辅助交际工具:旗语之类是建立在语言和」^基础上的特殊领域的辅助交际工具。
2 . 一种语言的句子数量是无限的，但无限的句子中却包含着有限的博鼠和为数不多的规则。
3 .人类的交际工具分的交际工具和身势等非语言的交际工具。
4 .语言是一种特殊的社会现象的含义是，语言具有全人类性，没有阶级性。
5 .思维的类型可分为宜.观动作思维、表象思维、抽象思维。
抽象思维的三种形式是概念、判断、推理。
6 .人和动物的区别是人会制造工具，而且人类有语言，这是人和动物相区别的重要标志之一。
7 .在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务，例如汉民族点头袤示同意，摇头表示不同意，咬牙切齿表示愤怒，手舞足蹈京示激动或高兴°.人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的上半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性思维。
8 .汉语的哥哥、弟弟，英语用brother表示:汉语的舅妈、姑妈、姨妈、婶婶，英语用aunl 表示。
9 .英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个.儿童最早的智力活动就是学习^10 .如果一个病人大脑&半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出他家的地址，却认得自己的家门。
相反，大脑）半球发生损伤，他尽管能说出他家的地址，却找不到自己的家门。
二、判断题.从理论上来说，句子的长度是可以无限的。
（1 .语言是在文字基础之上产生的人类最重要的交际工具。
（X）.文字始终是从属于语言的。
（X）2 .在一定的条件下，身势等伴随动作也可以脱离语言而独立完成一些交际任务。
（J）.现代社会沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性正日渐削弱。
（X）3 .语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。
（J）.我们常听人们说“工人有工人的语言，农民有农民的语言”，这说明语言是有阶级性的。
语言学概论笔记(第一章)
语言学概论笔记第一章：语言和语言学一、识记内容。
1、口语：语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言。
2、书面语：文字出现以后，语言的第二种客观存在形式。
3、符号：指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。
4、能指：语言符号的物质实体能够指称某种意义的成分。
5、所指：也就是“能指成分”，即特定的物质实体，所指的意义内容。
6、聚合关系：在同一个位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中，因而聚合成为一个类。
7、组合关系：组合关系体现为一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位，或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系，也体现了部分与整体之间的关系。
8、语言学：是研究语言的科学。
9、普通语言学：语言学界把研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一般理论。
10、理论语言学：把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等，把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学。
11、应用语言学：把侧重语言学理论和成果的实际应用。
12、传统语言学：一般泛指20世纪以前的语言学，特别是指索绪尔开创的结构主义语言学以前的语言学。
13、结构主义语言学：索绪尔创立的语言学可以称为“结构主义语言学”，至于我国内常说的“结构主义语言学”、“结构主义语法”，往往只是指在国外影响较大并且我国语言学界比较熟悉的美国结构主义描写语言学，那只是当代结构主义语言学的一个流派，并不等于受索绪尔影响的整个结构主义语言学。
二、领会内容（不用识记，大体知道即可）1、言语交际是一个编码和解码的过程。
答：人要说话所需要的因素：生活经历、社会环境、当前处理的问题、社会问题、文化问题、哲学问题、逻辑问题。
人要接受语言所需要的因素：组织与分析的能力、心理、生理问题；发音、听音的器官和神经网络及机制和能力；复杂的生理和物理问题。
总之一句话，言语交际是通过许多因素对语言进行编码和解码的过程，言者编码，听者解码。
语言学纲要笔记 第一章：语言学概论语言学纲要笔记 第一章：语言学概论
hunters歧义。
转换的意思是：一个长句子可以转换成各种短句子 例如：无形的上帝创造了有形的世界。这句话是 有三个核心句子构成：
上帝创造了世界 上帝是无形的 世界是有形的
转换语法可以分解the shooting of the hunters的 义。因为它可以转换为： 1 they shoot the hunters。 2 the hunters shoot a tiger。
• 数理语言学：用代数、计算机科学、统计学等领 域中的概念和方法研究语言的数学属性等问题。
• 计算语言学：用计算机科学的技术和概念研究语 言，特别是研究语言的理解和处理、机器翻译、 情报检索等问题
• 实验语音学：用各种实验仪器分析语音，研究语 音的识别和合成等问题。
第一章 语言的社会功能 第一节 语言是人类最重要的交际工具
一部解释词义的书，是中国古代的词典。
• 扬雄《方言》 、刘熙《释名》 • ——小学：文字、音韵、训诂
印度的语言研究
古代印度人研究语言主要是为了保存口头相传的婆罗 门教义《吠陀经》的原文和梵语文学，使之不致因时间的 流逝而面目全非。例：波尼尼（潘尼尼、巴尼尼 Pānini） 《八书》。
古印度语言学最突出的成就表现在语音学上。例如：
雅科布逊（1896年— 1982年） （区别特征学 说）《语音分析初探》（1951）
马德修斯（1882年—1945年）
该学派于1926年创建。其研究重点是：把语言 作为一种功能体系来进行研究和分析。特别重视音
• 哥本哈根学派 • 成立时间：1931 • 代表人物：叶尔姆斯列夫 • 代表作：《结构语言学》（布龙达尔1931）《语言理论
导论》（叶尔姆斯列夫 1953）、 《语符学纲要》（乌尔达尔 1957）、
(NEW)戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
目 录第1章 导 言1.1 复习笔记1.2 课后习题详解1.3 考研真题与典型题详解第2章 音位学2.1 复习笔记2.2 课后习题详解2.3 考研真题与典型题详解第3章 形态学3.1 复习笔记3.2 课后习题详解3.3 考研真题与典型题详解第4章 句法学4.1 复习笔记4.2 课后习题详解4.3 考研真题与典型题详解第5章 语义学5.1 复习笔记5.2 课后习题详解5.3 考研真题与典型题详解第6章 语用学6.1 复习笔记6.2 课后习题详解6.3 考研真题与典型题详解第7章 语言变化7.1 复习笔记7.2 课后习题详解7.3 考研真题与典型题详解第8章 语言与社会8.1 复习笔记8.2 课后习题详解8.3 考研真题与典型题详解第9章 语言与文化9.1 复习笔记9.2 课后习题详解9.3 考研真题与典型题详解第10章 语言习得10.1 复习笔记10.2 课后习题详解10.3 考研真题与典型题详解第11章 第二语言习得11.1 复习笔记11.2 课后习题详解11.3 考研真题与典型题详解第12章 语言与大脑12.1 复习笔记12.2 课后习题详解12.3 考研真题与典型题详解第1章 导 言1.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4. Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
胡壮麟语言学教程第5版笔记和考研真题详解
胡壮麟语⾔学教程第5版笔记和考研真题详解胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题详解第1章 语⾔学导论1.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and the design features of language语⾔的定义与特征2. The origin and the function of language语⾔的起源和功能3. Main branches of linguistics study语⾔学研究的范围和内容4. Important distinctions in Linguistics语⾔学的⼀些重要区分本章考点：1. 有关语⾔的常考考点语⾔的定义；语⾔的基本特征(任意性、⼆重性、多产性、移位性、⽂化传递和互换性)；语⾔的功能(提供信息、⼈际交往、施为、表达情感、寒暄、娱乐、元语⾔)；语⾔的起源(神授说，⼈造说(“汪汪”，“噗噗”，“哟-嘿-吼”理论)，进化说)等。
2. 有关语⾔学的常考考点(1) 语⾔学的定义，现代语⾔学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别。
(2) 语⾔学研究的四个原则及其简要说明。
语⾔学中⼏组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3) 普通语⾔学的主要分⽀学科及各⾃的研究范畴。
(4) 宏观语⾔学及应⽤语⾔学的主要分⽀及各⾃的研究范畴。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of languageII. Design features of language1. Arbitrariness2. Duality3. Creativity4. Displacement5. Cultural Transmission6. InterchangeabilityIII. Origin of language1. The Biblical account2. The bow-wow theory3. The pooh-pooh theory4. The yo-he-ho theory5. The evolution theoryIV. Functions of language1. Informative function2. Interpersonal function3. Performative function4. Emotive function5. Phatic function6. Recreational function7. Metalingual functionV. Definition of linguisticsVI. Branches of linguistics1. Microlinguistics2. MacrolinguisticsVII. Important concepts and their distinctions1. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive2. Synchronic vs. Diachronic3. Langue vs. Parole3. Langue vs. Parole4. Competence vs. Performance5. Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Grammar6. Linguistic Potential vs. Actual Linguistic BehaviorI. The definition of language (语⾔的定义)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic and most importantly human-specific.语⾔是⼈类以⼝头交流的任意的符号系统。
语言学chapter1课后练习答案
Chapter 1Revision exercises reference1.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is thescientific study of language?Refer to section1.1.1Linguistics investigates not any particular language, e.g. English, Chinese, Arabic and Latin, but language in general. Its ultimate goal is to find the rules that govern the structure and use of language that can be applied to all human languages. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of objective linguistic data, not sentence made up by linguists themselves. In their investigation linguistics follow a procedure quite similar to that of natural scientists. First of all they have to observe and collect language facts, i.e. the language people actually use. Based on the data thus obtained, they make some hypotheses about the structure of the language. Then the hypotheses have to be checked again and again against more language data before its validity is fully proved. Only at this stage can the linguists draw a conclusion. From the way the linguists work, we can say their study of language is objective and scientific.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Refer to section1.1.2The major branches of linguistics include the following:Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistics communication.Phonology: The study how sounds are put together and are used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology: The study of how morphemes, i.e. symbols, are arranged and combined to form work.Syntax: The study of rules that govern the grammatical formation of sentences.Semantics: The study of language meaning.Pragmatics: The study of how language is used in actual communication.The study of language can also be combined with other branches of learning of the humanities. These include the following:Sociolinguistics: The study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholinguistics: The study of how the mind works when language is used.Applied linguistics: The study of how findings in linguistics studies can be applied to the solution of practical problem, such as the recovery of speech ability and foreign language teaching and learning.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditionalgrammar?Refer to section 1.1.3, part 6.Modern linguistics and traditional grammar differ in at least the following three ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A modern linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said.He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of “correctness”.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Thirdly, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists, it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another.4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic because modern linguists believe that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather thanto writing?Refer to section 1.1.3, part 3.First, from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. Above all, for modern linguistics, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech .Thus the former is authentic language in their eyes, and thus the source of data for their investigation.6.How i s Saussure’s distinction between language and parole similar toChomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?According to Saussure, language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use. Language is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of theconventions and application of the rules. Chomsky defines competence as the id eal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. The similarity between the two distinctions is that Saussure’s language and Chomsky’s competence refer to what the lang uage user knows about his language, and Saussure’s parole and Chomsky’s performance refer to the actual use of language.7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good,comprehensive definition of language?A comprehensive definition of language should include the following features:1) Language is governed by rules; thus it is a system, or it is systematic.2) Language is primarily spoken, rather than written; therefore the system ofsymbols used in language is vocal rather than written.3) The symbols used in language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connectionbetween the symbols and meanings.4) Language is used by humans to communicate with each other.5) And finally language is human-specific, i.e. it is unique to the human species.All the five features mentioned above are included in the following concise definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?In the coursebook five of the twelve features of human language specified by C.Hockett are discussed: arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement, and cultural transmission.By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary,i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for.This feature may seem to be shared by animal communication systems, as the means used by animals to communicate are also arbitrary. But the arbitrary nature of human language is a sign of sophistication and makes it possible for human language to have an unlimited source of expression.The feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. This feature is undoubtedly human-specific for animals have, if any, a very limited number of signals for communication.Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system, which consists of two levels. At the lower or the basic level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless, while at the higher or the superficial level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units, unlimited in number. This enables language users to express whatever they want to express. This feature is not possessed by anyanimal communication system.The feature “displacement” means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or unreal, in the past, present, or future. This means that the expressive power of human language is not restricted to “the here and now.” In contrast, animal communication is restricted to the current time and circumstances. Cultural transmission, in contrast to genetic transmission, refers to the fact that human babies, though born with the ability to acquire a language, must be taught to use it. The ability to use a language is not transmitted genetically from our parents. But young animals seem to be born with the ability to use particular ways to communicate with their fellow creatures.9.What are the major functions of the language? Think of your own examplesfor illustration.Refer to section 1.2.3.To answer this question, you can base yourself on either tripartite framework or Jakobson’s model of language functions.According to the tripartite framework, there are three main functions: descriptive, expressive, and social.In Jakobson’s model, six functions have been specified: emotive, conative, referential, poetic, phatic communication, and metalinguistic.Supplementary exerciseWhy do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can beformed out of a small number of elements -----for instance, tens of thousands of words out ofa small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, whichin turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systemsdo not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, it will be like animal communicationalsystem which will be highly limited . It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations ( e.g. words ), which are distinct in meaning.。
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Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言。
The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentMonthly examExaminationReference Books戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。
胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。
胡壮麟，李战子，《语言学简明教程》，北京大学出版社刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。
Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLanguage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.The pooh-pooh theoryLanguage arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.To sum up:The divine-origin theory: language is a gift of god to mankind.The invention theory: imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together.The evolutionary theory: the result of physical and psychological development.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention.V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.―Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intendedmeaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words. Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Productivity/Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ‗new‘. In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cannot create a ‗new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.g. human vocal tractFunctions of language (3+6+7+3)1. Three main functionsthe descriptive function: the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.the expressive function: it supplies information about the user‘s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values. the social function：also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people2. The Russian-born structural linguists Roman Jakobson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function. That is, in conjunction of the six primary factors of any speech event, he established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication in his famous article: Linguistics and PoeticsAddresser—Emotive (intonation showing anger)Addressee—Conative (imperatives and vocatives)Context—Referential (conveys a message or information)Message—Poetic (indulge in language for its own sake)Contact—Phatic communion (to establish communion with others)Code—Metalinguistic (to clear up intentions, words and meanings)3. In the early 1970s the British linguist M.A.K. Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions, namely, instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic, and imaginative. This system contains three macrofunctions—the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual function.three meta-functions proposed by M. A. K. Halliday(1) The ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information. It constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations(2) The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community. It enacts social relationships(3) The textual functionTo form a text. It creates relevance to context.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actualrealization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentrates primarily on what speakers do with language which led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In Halliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the public ation of F. de Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psych ological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B。