克拉申第二语言习得理论-PPT课件
第二语言习得-971PPT课件
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“习得”与“学习”的定义
“习得”是指在自然状态下下意识地、非正式 地学习语言。毫不费力地获得第二语言。
“学习”是指有意识地、正式地学习语言。 这种状态下的学习获得的是一种“元语言知 识 ”(metalanguage knowledge)。即学习 者有意识地学习语言的规则，如语法规则等。 这种学习相对于习得来说，需要耗费时力。
现在人们开始转向课堂教学环境的第二语 言习得，并试图说明教学对第二语言习得 的影响。目的是为了提高语言教学的效率。
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第二语言习得常见概念
1、母语与目的语 2、第一语言与第二语言 3、习得与学习 4、第二语言习得与外语习得 5、语言能力和交际能力 6、中介语
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1.母语与目的语塞林克：中源自语Selinker (1972)“Interlanguage”
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三 第二语言习得主要解决的问题
1. 学习者在L2习得过程中获得了什么 为了弄清楚这个问题，学者们收集了大
量的学习者的语言材料，并对这些材料 进行系统的描写，试图发现学习者习得 第二语言的规律。 早期的第二语言习得研究主要集中在学 习者的语言系统的描写上。
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一 第二语言习得研究的内容
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二 学科建立的标志
有学者把拉多“跨文化语言学”
（Lado (1957)”Linguistics Across Culture”）
一书看作第二语言习得的开始。
大多数学者认为以下两篇论文是学科建立的标志。
科德：学习者语言偏误的意义
Corder (1967 ) “The significance of learners’ errors”
第二语言习得理论一PPT课件
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零级：指两种语言中相同的成分，在 学习中产生正迁移，而不会发生困难。
一级：在第一语言中分开的两个语言 项目，在目的语中合成一项。学习者 可以忽略在第一语言中两个项目的区 别而逐渐习惯合并后的项目。
请第一组的同学列举零级和一级 的例子（英语或其他语言）
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5. “对比分析假说”在上个世 纪60年代曾占支配地位，欧美许多 国家都成立了“语言对比研究中 心”。
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6.对比分析的步骤
描写：对目的语和第一语言进行详细的、 具体的描写；
选择：在两种语言中选择进行对比的某 些有意义的语言项目或结构；
对比：把选择好的语言项目或结构进行 对比，找出两种语言的异同之处；
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评价：
引起争议——克拉申过分强调潜意识的 习得在成人第二语言获得中的作用，而 贬低有意识、特别是课堂学习的作用， 引起了很多人的反对。
教育实践证明，在课堂学习中获得的语 言知识经过反复练习，也可以变成自动 的行为（潜意识的行为），同样能运用 于交际活动中。
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学习和习得不是截然分开的，而是 一个连续体。第二语言学习者开始时， 学习的成分多一些，以后习得的成分逐 渐加大。
现在进行时的词素ing表示复数的s系动词tobehebig助动词torunning冠词thea不规则的动词过去时态went规则的动词过去时态ed一般现在时态第三人称动词单数s名词所有格词尾sthegirlsfood63潜意识有意识交际话语对输出的言语形式进行检查和监控301441comprehensibleinput6842i1i1i0i2694370克拉申认为理想的输入应具备以下几个特点
第五讲第二语言习得与学习策略PPT课件
两种语言习得都是为了培养言语交际能力。
（一）第一语言习得与第二语言习 得的相同之处：
两种语言习得都必须掌握语音、词汇、语 法等要素和受文化制约的语用规则，都必 须形成听说读写的技能。
第五讲：第二语言习得与学习策略
一、第一语言习得与第二语言学习对比 二、第二语言习得理论和假说 三、学习者的个体因素 四、语言学习环境
整体概述
概述一
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概述二
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概述三
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一、第一语言习得与第二语言学习 对比
（一）第一语言习得与第二语言习得的相同 之处：
（二）第一语言习得与第二语言习 得的不同点
5、主体的生理、心理特点不同。
这是最基本的不同，是由儿童和成人的年 龄差异决定的。
可见，第一语言的习得过程伴随着学习者 人之常情、情感、生理等方面的发展变化， 而第二语言习得则是在上述变化基本完成 以后进行的。
二、第二语言习得理论和假说
第二语言习得研究的历史及范围的大概情况如 何？
（一）对比分析假说
拉多在上世纪50年代中期行为主义鼎盛时 期提出的。
1、第二语言的获得是通过刺激-反应-强化形 成习惯的结果。
2、正迁移与负迁移 3、只强调学习者通过刺激反应被动地养成一
定的语言习惯，否认学习者语言习得的认 知过程。忽视人的能动性和创造力。 4、是视听法和听说法的理论根据。
（二）中介语假说
造成过滤的是一些心理因素，如学习的动 力、对所学语言的态度、自信心、是否紧 张焦虑，是否处于防卫状态，怕出丑等。 这是对第二语言学习具有深远意义的假说。
克拉申第二语言习得理论33页PPT
31、只有永远躺在泥坑里的人，才不会再掉进坑里。——黑格尔 32、希望的灯一旦熄灭，生活刹那间变成了一片黑暗。——普列姆昌德 33、希望是人生的乳母。——科策布 34、形成天才的决定因素应该是勤奋。——郭沫若 35、学到很多东西的诀窍，就是一下子不要学很多。——洛克
克拉申第二语言习得理论
36、“不可能”这个字(法语是一个字 )，只 在愚人 的字典 中找得 到。--拿 破仑。 37、不要生气要争气，不要看破要突 破，不 要嫉妒 要欣赏 ，不要 托延要 积极， 不要心 动要行 动。 38、勤奋，机会，乐观是成功的三要 素。(注 意：传 统观念 认为勤 奋和机 会是成 功的要 素，但 是经过 统计学 和成功 人士的 分析得 出，乐 观是成 功的第 三要素 。
二语习得ppt课件
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一、语言输入与语言形式调整的研究
（一）“外国人话语”的特点
“外国人话语”——指外国人的话语？（×） ——指对外国人说的话语。
Ferguson：“外国人话语”是指说某语言的人对该 语言能力有限者或者根本没有该语言能力者所使用 的一种简化的语体。 “外国人话语”与标准英语有三方面不用：
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“外国人话语”与标准英语有三方面不用： 1.语音方面：语速慢、发音清楚、停顿、重音、夸
Hatch and Wagner-Gough,1976 Hatch ,1978a Peck,1978
早期关注是学习者的语言产出 语言输入与互动
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研究材料来自母语者与学习者交流的转写材料，这些 材料使研究者不仅能观察到学习者的语言产出过程， 即学习者是怎么说的，同时也可以观察到母语者为学 习者提供语言输入的过程，即母语者对学习者是怎样 说的。
• 另一方面，外在的语言输入为学习者提供的仅仅 是关于目的语结构规则的“正面证据”（ positive evidence），缺少“反面证据”（ negative evidence）。
• 结果： 知道“怎样说”，不知道那些规则“不能 说”。
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对“儿向语言”的研究
• 有学者发现：儿童的父母或保姆为儿童提供的都是符合规 则的话语，几乎很少纠正儿童的语法错误，为儿童提供不 合规则的反面证据。
例：你是哪国人？ 你，哪个国家的？
教师语言：对外汉语教学课堂 例：请大家打开书。 书Book，打开Open
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第二语言习得发展的重要影响
1、母语者与第二语言学习者交流使用的话语具有的“外国 人话语”“教师语言”特点，这种特定的语域风格的话语 为第二语言学习者提供了一个可理解输入环境。
第二语言习得PPT
I. IntroductionII. Individual differences in SLAIII. Input and inter-languageIV. Contrastive analysis and error analysisV. Foreign language teaching approachesI. IntroductionThe term Applied Linguistics (AL) is an Anglo-American coinage.AL in the past based itself mainly on the findings of theoretical linguistics especially in language teaching.1.1 Definition of Applied LinguisticsCorder 1974---Crystal 1985---Richards 1985---Steven 1992Corder 1974:AL is the utilization of the knowledge about the nature of language achieved by linguistic research for the improvement of the efficiency of some practical task in which language is a central component.Crystal 1985: AL is a branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience.Richards et al. 1985: AL covers two main points:1.The study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.2.The study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems.Steven 1992:AL is a multidisciplinary approach to the solution of language-related problems.The problems it attempts to solve include speech pathology, machine translation, national language planning policy, various facets of communication research and many others.HU Zhuang Lin 2004:Applied Linguistics (AL) serves as a mediating area which interprets the results of linguistic theories and makes them user friendly to the language teacher and learner.1.2 EFL and ESL(EFL) ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE : Learning English in a community that doesn’t speak English.(ESL) ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE: Leaning English in a place where it is the spoken language.According to UNESCO, second language is a language acquired/learned by a person in addition to his mother tongue.1.3 Learning and AcquisitionLearning is a deliberate, conscious attempt to master a language, while acquisition is a less deliberate, subconscious process of mastering language.As a L2 learner, you can hardly speak in the same way as a native speaker. Phonologically, morphologically, syntactically, semanticallyand pragmatically, there bound to be some differences.1.4 First and Second Language AcquisitionThink about a baby acquiring his first language.Think about a person acquiring a second language.What similarities and differences are there in the two processes? Second language learning :painstaking unsuccessfulFirst language acquisition: unconscious successfulFeature 1: Commandchildren normally achieve perfect L1 masteryadult L2 learners are unlikely to achieve perfect L2 mastery Feature 2: Successsuccess guaranteed complete success rareFeature 3: Intuitionschildren develop clear intuitions about correctnessL2 learners are often unable to form clear grammaticality judgments (The house is easy to catch fire.)Feature 4: Negative evidencecorrection not found and not necessarycorrection generally helpful or necessaryFeature 5: GoalsTarget language competenceL2 learners are more concerned with fluency than accuracy, as targetlanguage competence is too difficult to achieve.II. Individual differences in SLAIndividual differences: Age, Personality traits, Cognitive style, Learning strategies, Motivation, Language aptitude2.1 Age and Second Language AcquisitionIs it better to learn a second language when one is young or when one is older? Why?Lenneberg (1967) stated that L2 is best learned between age 2 and puberty.Case studyDo we actually find such a critical period for L2 acquisition?What would a critical period for L2 acquisition look like?Do late learners ever attain nativelikeness?Critical period for L2 acquisitionGeometric features”Heightened sensitivity at beginningClear point where offset (decline) beginsFlat period when critical period is overTemporal features”Heightened sensitivity through early childhoodSensitivity bottoms out when full neurocognitive maturity is reached Continued low sensitivity throughout adulthoodTentative conclusionsIs there a sharp cutoff point where sensitivity begins to decline? NO Does sensitivity flatten out in adulthood? NOIs there a significant change in sensitivity when maturation is reached? NOAdvantages to being a younger learnerMore likely to develop a native-like accentLess to learn to be considered proficientMore likely to receive comprehensible inputAdvantages to being an older learnerCan consciously use strategies to aid learningHas knowledge from L1 to draw fromHas greater control over inputGrammatical CompetenceMastery of language code: Lexicon (vocabulary), Word formation rules, Sentence formation rules, Pronunciation rules, Spelling rules Sociolinguistic CompetenceMastery of appropriate language use in different contextsHow to speak to a friendHow to speak to someone in authorityHow to speak socially vs. ProfessionallyDiscourse CompetenceMastery of how to combine meanings and forms to create a text in different modesExamples: Telephone inquiry ,Narrative text, Oral reportStrategic CompetenceMastery of verbal and non-verbal strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communicationExamples: How to ask for help How to rephrase a statement2.2 MotivationThere isn’t much theory that “provides an all-round explanation of what we do and why.”(Dörnyei 2003:1)“Motivation is a multifaceted construct, and the exact nature of the constituent components activated in a particular situation depends greatly on contextual factors.”(Dörnyei 2003:1) Instrumental motivation--- Immediate achievement Go abroad Social responsibility Individual development----Instrumental motivationCultural motivation---Intrinsic interest Go abroad Social responsibility Information medium---Integrative motivation Interest motivationSituational motivation---Learning situation---Situational motivation Metacognitive strategiesA. Centering your learningB. Arranging and planning your learningC. Evaluating your learningAffective strategiesA. Lowering your anxietyB. Encouraging yourselfC. Taking your emotional temperatureSocial strategiesA. Asking questionsB. Cooperating with othersC. Empathizing with othersResearch has demonstrated(1) Learners are actively involved in their learning.(2) Learners use different kinds of strategies(3) Learners have different beliefs about strategy use and learning approaches(3) Several factors have powerful influence on strategy choice/use: motivation, proficiency, years of study,sex, major, if requirementThe good language learner:(1) is guesser, but an accurate guesser!(2) has a strong drive to communicate.(3) is not often inhibited (a risk-taker).(4) focuses on communication, but also attends to form.(5) practices—and creates opportunities to do so.(6) knows what is appropriate.(7) monitors his own and the speech of others.(8) attends to meaning.(9) Actively participates (aloud and silently).III. Input and Inter-language3.1 Input theory by Krashen Interaction theory by Long Output theory by Swain3.2 InterlanguageDefinition of inputQuestion：Could you explain “input”in second language acquisition？Learners' most direct source of information about the target language is the target language itself. When they come into direct contact with the target language, this is referred to as "input." (/wiki)Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books andarticles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.3.1 Krashen’s Input HypothesisKrashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:1) the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,2) the Monitor hypothesis,3) the Natural Order hypothesis,4) the Input hypothesis,5) the Affective Filter hypothesis.Input Hypothesis"The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production."The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language.This hypothesis claims that “humans acquire language in only one way-by understanding messages or by receiving ‘comprehensibleinput’”（Krashen, 1985:2)Comprehensible input: i+1; output plays little role.Comment on Input theoryInfluential: application in SLT, Types of input, Ways of input, Variety of input, Sufficiency of input, Efficiency of input Controversial:How to quantify and qualify the “i”and “1”in “i+1”Ignorance of outputViews diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be provided for language learners.Authentic input, Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1 Premodified input, Interactively modified inputInput-based teachingDirect method, Natural approach, Total physical response, Communicative approach, Community language learning (CLL) , Suggestopedia, Silent wayLong’s Interaction HypothesisLong's interaction hypothesis proposes that language acquisition is strongly facilitated by the use of the target language in interaction. In particular, the negotiation of meaning has been shown to contribute greatly to the acquisition of vocabulary (Long, 1990).Study: NSs-NNSs, negotiation for meaning---comprehensible inputThe Interaction Hypothesis highlights the role of social interaction in increasing the amount of comprehensible input that students receive. This interaction includes students asking for help when they do not understand input. Perhaps, the collaborative setting in groups and the trust that can grow among groupmates make it more likely that students will have opportunities to repair comprehension breakdowns.Swain’s Output HypothesisMerrill Swain(Ph.D., University of California)She is Professor in the Curriculum, Teaching and Learning department at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto. website: http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/mlc/swain.htmThe output hypothesis claims that the act of producing language (speaking or writing) constitutes, under certain circumstances, part of the process of second language learning.It states that while comprehensible input is necessary for L2 learning, learners also need to speak and to write, i. e., produce output, in their L2.Three functions of output in second language learning:1) the noticing/triggering function 发现所想与所能之间的差别2) the hypothesis-testing function 测试语言假设3) the metalinguistic (reflective) function.增加元语言知识没有输出需要的输入不易转化为程序性知识没有输入帮助的输出不利于语言体系的拓展输出-输入结合的教学活动更具有交际的真实性（文秋芳,2008）3.2 InterlanguageThe type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.It is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.E.g. data from SWECCLInterlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level.Can be done in two ways:investigating the psychological, biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage; investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage.Concerning the linguistic features of interlanguage, the following questions can be asked:Linguistically, how is interlanguage in general different from the target language or the native language?In what way is lower level interlanguage different from higher levelinterlanguage?How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning?IV. Contrastive Analysis and Error AnalysisWe assume that the student who comes into contact with a foreign language will find some features of it quite easy and others extremely difficult. Those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult. Lado, 1957, 24.1 Contrastive Analysis (1940s ---1960s)Paul Nation is Professor in Applied Linguistics at the School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies (LALS) at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.“Research shows that the first language has a small but important role to play in communicating meaning and content.”(Paul Nation, in his article, The Role of the First Language in Foreign Language)4.1.1 Definition of Contrastive Analysis (CA)A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not in a second language learning situation. (Gass & Selinker, 2001:72) An approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 todetermine similarities and differences”(Saville-Troike, 2006: 34) 4.1.2 Objectives of CAProviding insights into similarities and differences between languages;Explaining and predicting problems in L2 leaningDeveloping course materials for language teaching4.1.3 Contrastive Analysis HypothesisMain assumptions1) L2 learning involves overcoming difficulties in the linguistic systems of the target language;2) The main difficulties in learning a L2 are caused by interference from the L1;3) Contrastive analysis can predict, or at least account for, difficulties in L2 learning, so teaching materials based on contrastive analysis can reduce the effects of interference and difficulties, and facilitate L2 learning.Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis"Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result." (Larsen-Freeman & Long 1991: 53)3 versions of the CA hypothesisThe Strong Version: Fries & LadoIt (a priori) claimed that prediction of difficulties in learning L2 could be made based upon a comparison of two languages. This starts with a crosslinguistic analysis and then attempts to predict trouble spots.The Weak Version: Wardhaugh (1970)It (a posteriori) claimed that cross-linguistic comparison could help to explain learner errors. This starts with learner errors and attempts to account for them with cross-grammatical comparisons.The Moderate Version: Oller & ZiahosseinyIt differs from the above two in that it emphasizes the significance of minimal distinctions, which may actually cause the greatest interferences and difficulties.4.1.4 Procedures of CA2 principles of CA as proposed by Halliday:Describe before comparingComparing patterns, not whole languagesSteps:The separate description of the relevant features of each language; The establishment of comparability;The comparison and contrast.4.1.5 Evaluation of CAHA. Application, Prediction & Diagnosis of errorsTesting, Course design, Selection, Grading,Contrastive teaching B. Problems with contrastive analysisProblem #1The predictions made by proponents of the CAH were often inaccurate, or even false.There was underprediction (i.e. the CAH failed to predict some errors).There was overprediction (i.e. the CAH predicted errors that did not materialize).French object pronouns precede the verb: Je les vois "I them see." English L1 learners of French will say:*"Le chien a mange les" instead of "Le chien les a mange*"Il veute les encore" instead of "Il les veut encore"" (Ervin-Tripp, 1974)But, French L1 learners of English do not say"I them see." (Je les vois) instead of "I see them"Why does it work one way but not the other?Problem #2It is not true that similarity always equals ease of learning and difference always equals difficulty; (sometimes it’s the other way round)Problem #3L1 transfer is effected by other factors, e.g. the amount and type of TL exposure learners receive.Problem #4Many studies have shown SLLs from very different L1 backgrounds make similar errors.This suggests that many of the most common learner errors are not due to interference of native language.See Ortega, 2009. Section 3.1 p. 310nly about 30% of errors have been attributed to L1. This ranges from 3% for child Spanish learners of English (Dulay & Burt, 1973) to 50% for adult Chinese ESL (Tran Chi Chau 1975)ConclusionWhile interference plays a role in SLA, so do many other factors and thus the role of the first language is less than what was thought by proponents of CA.4.2 Error AnalysisEA refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners.Purposes of EA:1) identify strategies which learners use in language learning;2) identify the causes of learner errors;3) obtain information on common difficulties in language learning,as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.4.2.1 Error and mistakeError: Systematic deviation by learners who have not yet mastered the rules. More difficult to correct. Indication of learner’s attempt to figure out the L2 systemMistake: Random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc. Readily self-corrected.4.2.2 Types of errorsStructural errors (breaking of a rule)e.g. (1) The fast economic growth causes people’s living condition has improved.(2) The job is fit me very well.(3) 报有希望carry the hope; entertain the hope(4) 找借口look for an excuse; make an excuse(5) rather proud, good, young, fresh, practicalquite annoyed, nervous, wrong, serious, limited, difficult, common Non-structural errors,deviations from some kind of norm ('breaches of code') quantitative differences (overuse, underuse)E.g. No smoking, please.Overuse of “make”, “happy”, “glad”.Underuse synonyms of “happy”such as cheerful, light-hearted,delighted etc.Interlingual errors (transfer errors): misuse of an item because of L1 influence. based on cross-linguistic comparisonsIntralingual errors (developmental errors): within L2 (e.g. overgeneralization) based on language being learned4.2.3 Procedure of error analysis1. Collection of samples of learner language2. Identification of errors3. Description of errors4. Explanation of errors (Ellis 1994)4.2.4 Problems with Error Analysis1) Focus on errors mean that researchers ignored what the learner did right.2) Empirically it was difficult to identify the source of many errors.3) It doesn't account for all the problems that learners have, e.g. Avoidance. Learner avoids a certain word or structure.V. Foreign Language Teaching MethodologyDiscussion:What teaching method do you know in ELT?On which theory is it founded?A Retrospective of Foreign Language Teaching Methodology Traditional gramma: Classical language teaching (before 1880)Grammar- Translation MethodStructuralism: Beginning of Modern Language Teaching (from 1880 to the 1st world war): Direct methodMentalism: Development of Modern Language Teaching (from the 1st World War to ’70) : Cognative MethodFunctionalism: Intensification of Modern Language Teaching (after ’70): Communicative MethodConstructivism: Improvement of Modern Language Teaching( after 1980’s) : Constructivist MethodPost-modernism : Perfection of Modern Language Teaching(after1990’s): Post-method1) Traditional grammar---Grammar-Translation Method Correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, the priority of the written languageTextbook takes prominent writers as language models.Teaching involves the presentation of numerous definition, rules and explanations.2) Structuralist linguistics---Direct methodThe spoken language in people’s communication.The focus on the grammatical structures of a language.A pattern drill technique aiming at the learner’s automatisms for language forms.3)Mentalism/Transformational-GenerativeLinguistics---Audio-lingual Method把语言看成一个内在的规则系统( a system of innate rule)，认为语言学习者有一种普遍的语言知识(linguistic competence)。
语言学-二语习得课件PPT
1. What is language acquisition?
the learning and the development of a person’s language.
It is studied by linguists, psycholinguists and applied linguists to enable them to understand the processes used in learning a language, help identify stages in the developmental process, and to give a better understanding of the nature of language. It focuses on the study of the development of phonology, grammar, vocabulary and communicative competence.
2. Contrastive analysis / CA
a procedure designed to find out the differences and similarities between languages in order to help teachers and learners, and not produce errors at all. It was developed and practiced in the 1950s and 1960s. It was more successful in phonology than in other areas of language, and declined in the 1970s as interference was replaced by other explanations of learning difficulties.
二语习得ppt课件
教师语言：对外汉语教学课堂 例：请大家打开书。 书Book，打开Open
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第二语言习得发展的重要影响
1、母语者与第二语言学习者交流使用的话语具有的“外国 人话语”“教师语言”特点，这种特定的语域风格的话语 为第二语言学习者提供了一个可理解输入环境。
2、母语者与第二语言学习者的交流除了话语形式的调整， 还有话语结构和功能的调整。这种互动环境对第二语言学 习者的语言习得过程也会产生重要的影响。
Hatch and Wagner-Gough,1976 Hatch ,1978a Peck,1978
早期关注是学习者的语言产出 语言输入与互动
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研究材料来自母语者与学习者交流的转写材料，这些 材料使研究者不仅能观察到学习者的语言产出过程， 即学习者是怎么说的，同时也可以观察到母语者为学 习者提供语言输入的过程，即母语者对学习者是怎样 说的。
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一、语言输入与互动的含义
• 两种不同的语言输入环境 语言输入：为学习者提供的单向的语言信息。 例：听广播、看电视等。 学习者没有交流和沟通的机会。
互动：双向的语言沟通和交流。 例：母语者或教师与学习者之间的交流和沟通， 学习者之间的交流和沟通。 构成了语言习得发生的互动环境。
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• 显示出一种特定的语域风格 保姆语言（儿语、母亲语言）：母亲对学说话的儿童 外国人话语：母语者与第二语言学习者
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二、 三种不同的语言 输入观
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狼孩
“狼孩”刚被发现时，生活习性与狼一样； 不会讲话，每到午夜后像狼似地引颈长嚎。
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卡玛拉经过7年的教育，才掌握4、5个词,勉强地学 几句话，开始朝人的生活习性迈进。她死时估计已 有16岁左右，但其智力只相当3、4岁的孩子
第二语言习得理论PPT课件
语言能力是关于语言的知识； 语言表达是关于语言运用的知识。
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第二节 第二语言习得研究的学科性质
一 第二语言习得研究与语言学 1 研究对象不同 2 目的不同 3 方法不同
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第二节 第二语言习得研究的学科性质
二、第二语言习得研究与心理学 1 研究目的不同 2 研究范0
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二 第一语言和第二语言
第一语言是指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的 语言。
第二语言是相对于学习者习得的第一语言 之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。
第二语言强调语言习得的先后顺序，与语 言习得的环境无关。
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三 习得与学习
习得（acquisition）指非正式的语言获得 （informal learning），儿童大多是通过这 种方式来获得母语的。（下意识，隐性知 识）
有指导的第二语言习得是以教学指导的方 式获得第二语言，语言习得通常是在课堂 教学环境中发生的。
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六 语言能力与语言表达
语言能力（competence）是由交际双方内在语 法规则的心理表征构成的。语言能力是一种反应 交际双方语言知识的心理语法。
（隐性语言知识-对句子合法性的直觉判断）
语言表达（performance）是交际双方在语言的 理解与生成过程过程中对其内在语法的运用。
外语习得指学习者所学的语言在本国不是作为整 个社团的交际工具，而学习者所学的语言主要是 在课堂学习的。
第二语言习得与外语习得是指两种不同的语言环 境而言的。
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五 自然地第二语言习得与有指导的 第二语言习得
自然的第二语言习得是指以交际的方式获 得第二语言，而且语言习得通常是在自然 的社会环境下发生的。
二语习得课件打印
General Theories of Second Language Learning 3-25Wood, Xiangtan UniversityOutlineCharacteristics of SLATheories of L2 LearningBehaviorismInnatismConnectionism, InteractionismCharacteristics of SLATheories of L2 LearningBehaviorismMain accounts of BehaviorismLearning as habit formationHabit: the association of a particular response withparticular stimulusobservable & automaticStimulus —— Responsible —— ReinforcementLanguage learning, first and second, was most successful when the task was broken down into a number of stimulus and response links, which could be systematically practiced and mastered one at a time.Errors are undesirableInterference: old habits get in the way of learning new habits.The grammatical apparatus programmed into the mind as the first language interferes with the smooth acquisition of the other.Behaviorism‘s predication:Differences between L1 and L2 → create difficultiesSimilarities between L1 and L2 → facilitate learningErrors: evidence of non-learning, of the failure to overcome theexisting habits.There is a danger of errors becoming habits in their ownright if they were tolerated.The Corresponding Linguistic Theory of BehaviorismStructural linguistics/StructuralismAmerican StructuralismBloomfield:Suppose a boy and his GF are talking in a walk. The girl is hungry and sees some apples on the tree. She makes some sounds and the boy jumps over the fence, climbs up the tree, picks an apple, gives it to the girl and the girl eats it.(1) the practical event prior to the act of speech——the girl‘s hunger, the sight of apples, and herrelationship with the boy (Stimulus)(2) speech ——―some sounds‖ (Response/Stimulus)(3) the practical event prior to the act of speech——the boy‘s reaction to the speech (Response)Methodology adopted by Behavioristic L2 Learning TheoryContrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Strong form of CAHAll L2 errors can be predicted by identifying the differences between the target language and the learner‘s L1.Lee(1968: 180): the prime cause, or even the sole cause, of difficulty and error in foreign language learning is interference coming from the learner‘s native language.Weak form of CAHCA can be used to identify which errors are the result of interference.Implicit assumption of weak version: NOT all errors are the result of interference.Contrastive Analysis in Linguistic sense—— Comparative LinguisticsStructural linguistics emphasizes the differences among languages.Bloomfield (1933): The differences (among languages) are great enough to prevent our setting up any system of classification that would fit all languages.Description → Selection → Comparison → Prediction陆俭明（2003: 225）：我们的汉语研究一直是在强调汉语特点的呼声中推进的，上个世纪80年代到90年代，对汉语特点的强调可以说达到了顶峰。
二语习得理论ppt课件
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在整堂课的教学中，刘教师总是让学 生带着 问题来 学习， 而问题 的设置 具有一 定的梯 度，由 浅入深 ，所提 出的问 题也很 明确
Negative Transfer
Lado proclaimed that most of the difficulties originated from the differences between L1 and L2. He believed that the more different the two languages are, the more difficult learning would be, and by knowing this, we could predict what errors would appear.
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在整堂课的教学中，刘教师总是让学提 出的问 题也很 明确
Contrastive Analysis (CA)
Contrastive Analysis was rooted in the practical need to teach a L2 in the most effective way possible. It’s psychological base is behaviorism and linguistic base is structuralism.
Many of the errors which learners make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH.
1. Some errors are similar across learners from a variety of L1 backgrounds.
《第二语言习得》PPT课件
4. 学习者语言偏误的解释
• 对学习者偏误的解释需要对偏误的来源进 行分析，通过分析来建立与第二语言习得 相关的过程。
• 因而，对学习者偏误产生的来源的分析， 是基于偏误产生的过程的分析。
• 通过过程的分析对作为产出结果的偏误进 行解释。基于过程的偏误分析和解释才有 意义。
5. 学习者语言偏误的评价
• 对比分析的两种版本：
• 强势版本：用对照分析方式来预测困难等 级的方法。
• 弱势版本：使用对照分析法来解释可以观 察的到困难。Oller和Ziahosseiny提出细微 差异(subtle differences)版的对照分析假说 理论：“不管在单一或多种语言系统间， 即使他们的差异极为渺小，终究还是会产 生困惑。”
• 事实上，在汉语学习中，学习者的许多困难以及 学习者所犯的许多错误都与汉语和母语之间文化 方面的差异有关。
从“偏误分析”到“中介语” 到“学习 者语言
• Corder (1967 ) “The significance of leaners’ errors”
• Selinker (1972)“Interlanguage
学习者的水平、母语背景、习得的环境 • （3）语料收集的方式： • 自然表达、面谈、诱导、实验；横向与纵向；
2. 学习者语言偏误的鉴别
• 问题之一： “偏误”和“失误”的鉴别问 题
• 鉴别困难的原因： • 把学习者“语言能力”看做是“单质”
（homogeneous）的，因而无法解释学习 者语言偏误中出现的“变异” 现象； • 问题之二：如何区分学习者的“显性偏误” 和“隐性偏误” 。
• 选择。由于不可能对有关的两种语言所有的方面 都进行比较，因此，必须对要比较的某些语言形 式做些选择。
克拉申第二语言习得理论-PPT课件
The Five Hypotheses
启示我们课堂上提问学生要有一定的等 待时间，据说有人作过调查发现大部分老 师在课堂上的实际等待时间都少于他对学 生们所说的时间。
The Five Hypotheses
The Input Hypothesis It states that ‘acquisition’ takes place as a result of the learner having understood input that is a little beyond the current level of his competence (i.e. the i+1 level). Input that is comprehensible to the learner will automatically be at the right level.
The Five Hypotheses
Learned competence (学习的能力) (the monitor)
Acquired competence (习得的能力)
Output (输出)
A model of adult second language performance
The Five Hypotheses
The Five Hypotheses
• In performance, ‘acquired’ knowledge serves as the major source for initiating both the comprehension and utterances. • ‘Learnt’ knowledge is available for use only by the Monitor
第二语言习得PPT课件
六、“语言能力”与“语言表达”
• “语言能力”（competence）： • 反映交际双方语言知识的心理语法。 • 母语使用者对句子的合语法性的直觉判断所依据的隐性语言知
识。 • “语言表达”（performance）： • 交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的运用。 • 区别：语言能力是关于语言的知识，语言表达是关于语言运用
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第 要•• 一二三回、十第世节顾二纪语6第0言年二习代语得末研：言究习的发得端研究的发端与发展的简
• 1. Corder：《学习者偏误的意义》 • 2. Selinker：《中介语》 • 二、第二语言习得研究发展的途径 • 1. 50-60年代：理论初创 • 2. 70年代：理论大发展 • 3. 80年代中期至今：新兴研究领域与方法 • 三、汉语作为第二语言习得的研究 • 80年代、90年代和90年代后
• 描写（Description)：对两个语音系统进行细 致描写。
• 选择(selection): 结合偏误找出困难语项。 • 比较（comparison）：对选定语项进行分析对
比，寻找共同处与不同处。 • 预测（prediction）：在对比基础上预测可能
出现的错误。 • 2、难度等级：根据相同与不同点难度上的差异
进行了分级。认为差异越大难度越大，其实也 不尽然。
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四、对比分析的局限
对比分析在60年代盛行，在70年代衰落。 对比分析的局限性主要表现在： 1、心理学基础为行为心理学，其核心思想“刺激—反应”理论受到乔姆斯基的猛
烈抨击和批判。 2、结构主义语言学并没有为对比分析找到解决问题的出路。（有共同范畴与否） 3、将“差异”等同于“难度”是不符合逻辑的。 4、其他理论假设也受到来自实验研究和教学实践的挑战和质疑。
第二语言习得理论课件
具体步骤是：模仿——强化——重复——成 形。
影响行为形成的要素有三：模仿、 强化、扩展（类比）。
遵循六原则： 结果控制原则 对可观察现象的测量 邻近原则 反应强度原则 概括原则 连锁和定型原则
受其影响的教学法：听说法。
忽视了人的主观能动性、创造性。
过分强调语言学习之外在行为，忽视语 言学习的内在过程。这样使语言学习过 程机械化简单化，不利于对语言学习的 研究。
阶段1 阶段2 阶段3 阶段4 ……
母语
中介语
目的语
中介语的特点
可渗透性：中介语是非封闭的，是一个有待 充实完善的系统，并非“紧实”，可受来自 母语、目标语规则的渗透。
渐变性（动态性）：学习者的中介语始终处 于变化发展当中，且朝着目标语方向发展。
化石性（僵化）：指中介语某些项目的僵化 。
反复性（多变性）：中介语不是直线型发展 的，而是曲折发展的，会反复、多变。
将“差异”、“难”、“错误”这些概念简单的画上 等号是不对的。
将语言看作是可以分割的结构的组合，语言习得是掌 握各种结构的积累过程：1+1=2+1=3+1=4+……忽视能 动性、创造性。1+具 有很大的局限性。
偏误分析
1967年科德（Corder）发表了《学习者言语错 误的重要意义》一文，从一个全新的角度来 看待学习者的错误及第二语言习得研究。
※我和丈夫、女儿在留老师楼租了一个房间。
※愤怒的老百姓在广州附近杀害了外国人。
※去中国的人都要去看看世界文明的万里长城 。
※我来中国以后，第一次经验北京的夏天。
※方便的时去自选商场，要求服务高级、商品 高级的时去百货商场。
第二语言习得研究概述PPT课件
L2习得的研究领域
SLA是20世纪50年代开始出现的一门新兴学科。 R.Ellis(1986)在其著作Understanding Language Acquisition中提出了一个研究SLA 的框架，他称所列因素为SLA的“key issues”, 这些因素是：情境因素、语言输入、学习过程、 学习者的差异、语言输出。 除了如上关键问题，SLA研究还较多地关心如 下两个问题：1.第一语言的作用；2.正规训练
上世纪70年代，第二语言习得研究已经发展成 为一个独立的研究领域。
这个时期是第二语言习得研究理论大发展的阶段， 对比分析衰落之后，偏误分析应运而生， Lightbown (1985) 指出，在第二语言习得研究领域， 学者们大都把Corder 1967年发表的 “The significance of leaners’ errors” 以及Selinker 1972发 表的 “Interlanguage” 这两篇文章看作这个学科建 立的标志。
上世纪60年代，乔姆斯基对行为主义学习理论的 批判对第二语言教学领域曾经产生过巨大的影响。
正象Corder（1967）指出的那样，这种影响之 一就是第二语言教学领域以教学为中心向以学习 为中心的转变。
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第二语言习得研究的简要回顾
在70年代还有两个重要的理论研究和创建， 一个是以Dulay和Burt为代表的第二语言习
SLA这一术语也可以指一门学科，即研究习得第二语 言过程和规律的学问。SLA是应用语言学的一个分支， 已经发展成为一门诸多学科交叉的有明确研究对象及 一整套独立于普通语言学、母语习得理论的完整知识 体系和研究方法的独立学科, 并迅速发展成为当代应用 语言学的前沿阵地和相关学科( 如外语教学法理论)的 基础理论研究。
第三章-对外汉语-第二语言习得理论1课件PPT
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4、语言功能论
代表人物是英国语言学家韩礼德。 语言功能论是从语言交际功能的角度研
究儿童语言的发展。认为儿童习得母语 的过程，应看做是逐步探索并掌握用语 言来表示功能的各种方式的过程。
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评价
功能论触及到语言的核心——语言的交 际功能，从一个全新的角度说明第一语 言的习得过程。语言功能理论也影响到 功能法教学流派的形成。该理论着重阐 述儿童对语言意义和功能的掌握，而对 语言结构的发展则论述不多。
一、流派 “对比分析假说”有两派：强硬派和温和派。
强硬派宣称：第二语言所有偏误都可以通过对 比目标语和母语来预测。
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温和派认为：并非所有偏误都来源于母语干 扰；对比分析需要跟偏误分析共同进行；偏 误应来自学习者的真实语言，而不是从语言 对比中推测出来；对比分析可以证实哪些偏 误是由第一语言和第二语言的区别引发的。
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二、学习与习得的联系
学习与习得这两种获得语言的途径，并 非完全隔绝或相互排斥，而是相互交叉、 相辅相成。
学习与习得不仅相互交叉，而且还主要 体现在不同的学习阶段。
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三、第一语言习得和第二语 言学习的差异
（一）主体
第一语言习得的主体是幼儿。 第二语言学习的主体是成年人。
（二）动机
幼儿习得母语，是生存的本能。 成人学习第二语言，目的不一。
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评价
（1）人脑中存在的语言习得机制只是 一种假说，是思辨的结果，究竟有没有 LAD很难通过实验来证明。
（2）语言习得机制如果只是指人类具 有的语言习得能力，不会有争议，但如 果指的是普遍语法，就产生了疑问。
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Introduction
Stephen Krashen is professor emeritus at the University of Southern California, who moved from the linguistics department to the faculty of the School of Education in 1994.
Introduction
• He is a linguist, educational researcher, and activist. • Dr. Krashen has published more than 350 papers and books, contributing to the fields of second language acquisition (SLA), bilingual education, and reading. • He is credited with introducing various influential concepts and terms in the study of second language acquisition, including the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the input hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the affective filter, and the natural order hypothesis.
The Five Hypotheses
The ‘acquisition-learning’ distinction
1. ‘Acquisition’ occurs subconsciously as a result of participating in natural communication where the focus is on meaning. 2. In storage, ‘acquired’ knowledge is located in the left hemisphere of the brain (in most users) in the language areas; it is available for automatic processing. • ‘Learning’ occurs as a result of conscious study of the formal properties of the language. • ‘Learnt’ knowledge is metalinguistic in nature. It is also stored in the left hemisphere, but not necessarily in the language areas; it is available only for controlled processing.
The Five Hypotheses
The acquisition-learning hypothesis The ‘acquisition-learning’ distinction has already been considered in Chaper9(the role of formal instruction). The distinction lies at the heart of Krashen’s theory. It is applicable to the process of internalizing new L2 knowledge, to storing this knowledge, and also to using it in actual performance. 监控假说
The Affective The Input Filter Hypothesis Hypothesis 语言输入假说 情感过滤假说
The Five Hypotheses
早在1970 年代初克拉申就提出了“监 控模式”(The Monitor Model) ,该模式以 “监控假说（ The Monitor Hypothesis）” 为核心;80 年代中叶,克拉申对之进一步扩 充修订,转为以“输入假说”(The input hypothesis) 为中心,形成了“输入假说模 式”。
The Five Hypotheses
• In performance, ‘acquired’ knowledge serves as the major source for initiating both the comprehension and utterances. • ‘Learnt’ knowledge is available for use only by the Monitor
Introduction
斯蒂芬•克拉申(Stephen Krashen)1941年出生于美国芝加哥，现为 美国南加州大学荣休教授，他毕生致力于 第二语言获得的研究，这为他赢得了世界 了性声誉。克拉申在20世纪中叶以来提出 的第二语言学习得的“输入假说模式”， 这是近几十年来影响广泛、解释全面又很 具争议性的理论。
The Five Hypotheses
任何科学理论都是 由一系列的 假设组成的
The Five Hypotheses
The Monitor Model
The Acquisition The —Learning Natural Order Hypothesis Hypothesis 语言习得自然顺序假说 学得假说