胡壮麟语言学名词解释

第一章介绍
Applied linguistics运用语言学：findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.
Descriptive描述性的：if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.
Prescriptive规定性的：if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what the should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
Synchronic共时的：the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. synchronic study共时研究: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a synchronic study.
Diachronic历时的：the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. Diachronic study历时研究: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study.
Langue语言：refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Langue is abstract.
Parole言语：refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Parole is concrete.
Competence：(N. Chomsky) defines as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languag e. Performance：defines as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
Design features?
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 设计特点是指界定性质的人类区别于其他动物的交际系统。

特点：
(1) arbitrariness. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For example: the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.
(2) productivity生成性: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
(3) duality双重性：language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels.
(4) displacement移位性：language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
(5) cultural transmission文化的传播: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.
第二章phonology音系学
phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介.
These three branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics发声语音学, auditory phonetics听觉语音学, and acoustic phonetics声响语音学respectively.
辅音分类见本子
Phone音素：is a phonetic语音的unit or segment.
Phoneme音位：is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.
Allophone s音位变体：refers to the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic
environments. For example [l] and [l]
Phonemic contrast音位对立：phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.
Complementary distribution互补分布：if they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments.
Minimal pair最小对：when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. For examples, pill and bill are a minimal pair.
第三章morphology形态学
Morphology: refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
Morphemes词素—the minimal units of meaning. The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.
Derivational morphemes派生词素(do not change grammatical class)：a verb, for example is formed by adding –en to the adjective black, --blacken. –en, -ate,-ic are thus called derivational morphemes, because when they are conjoined to other morphemes(or words)a new word is derived, or formed.
Inflectional morphemes屈折词素：they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.
第四章syntax 句法学
Syntactic categories句法范畴：a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.
Modifiers修饰语：still another kind of element we have not touched upon so far is modifiers, which specify optionally选择expressible properties of heads.
第五章semantics 语义学
Contextualism语境论: they hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behaviour. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
Behaviorism行为主义：defines as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.
Sense意义：is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
Reference所指：means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
Predication述谓结构：in G. Leech’s framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument变元and predicate谓语.
第六章pragmatics 语用学
Pragmatics: can be defined that it is the study of how speaker of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Context语境：is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.（various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e. g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge
about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. ）
Constatives叙事话语：were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable; Performatives行事话语：the idea of doing something while speaking can certainly be broadened to include non-conventional acts such as stating, promising, requesting, and suggesting.
locutionary act言内行为：is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. (the act by the speaker is his utterance of all the words “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.)
illocutionary act言外行为：is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.(the act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.)
Perlocutionary act言后行为：is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance.
Searle’s classification of speech acts:
1. representatives阐述类: sating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.
2. directives指令类：trying to get the hearer to do something.
3. commissives承诺类：committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.
4. expressives 表达类：expressing feeling or attitude towards an existing state.
5. declarations宣告类：bringing about immediate changes by saying something.
Cooperative Principle(C P)合作原则：Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
1.the maxim of quantity数量准则。

2.the maxim of quality质量准则。

3.the maxim of relation 相关准则。

4.the maxim of manner方式准则。

第八章language and society 语言和社会
Speech community语言社区：the social group that is singled out for any special study is called speech community.
Speech variety言词变化：(or language variety),refers to any distinguishable 可区分的form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.
Varieties of language语言变体：the varieties of a language are the actual manifestations of the general notion of a language are the actual manifestations of the general notion of the language and they are assumed to be related both to the language user and use to which the language is put.
第九章language and culture 语言和文化
SWH(Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说：He believe that language filters people’s perception 观念and the way they categorize 分类experiences.
Acculturation文化互渗：we need to learn enough about the language’s culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the linguistic competence but also the pragmatic or communicative competence as well.
第十章language acquisition 语言习得
Language acquisition: refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.
LAD (Language Acquisition Device)语言习得装置：Children need access to the samples of a natural
language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language’s structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.
UG (Universal Grammar)普遍语法is a set of principles that provide parameters参数which are given particular settings in different languages.
Critical Period Hypotheses（CPH）关键时期假设：refers to a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.
第十一章second language acquisition 第二语言习得
Second language acquisition (SLA): refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.
Positive transfer正迁移：would facilitate使容易target language learning, and results in correct performance.
Negative transfer负迁移：would interfere干扰target language learning, and results in errors.
补充
predicate谓语:A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence
cognates同源词: a word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because both languages have descended from a common source
creole克里奥尔语: A creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community. When a pidgin comes to be adopted by a population as its primary language, and children learn it as their first language, then the pidgin language is called a creole.
overt thought线性思想: A term used to refer to speech when language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard speech as “overt thought.”
instrumental motivation工具性动机: the learner’s desire to learn a second language becau se it is useful for some functional, “instrumental” goals, such as getting a job, passing an examination, or reading for information.
right ear advantage右耳优势:linguistic stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is called the right ear advantage.
free morpheme自由语素: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. For example: “help”, “table”, “room” are all free morphemes.
euphemism委婉语: a word or expression that is thought to be mild, indirect, or less offensive and used as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression.
Broca’s area布罗卡区: refers to the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere, which is vital to language. This area is discovered by Paul Broca, a French surgeon and anatomist.
bound morphemes粘着词素: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. For example: “-er”, “dis-“, “-less” are all bound morphemes.
deep structure深层结构: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure. (Phrase structure rules + the lexicon→D-structure → Movement rules → S-structure) hyponymy上下义关系: refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
sound assimilation语音的同化: refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of
place or manner of articulation, or of haplology.
idiolect习语: is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another
interference干扰: the use of one’s first language rule which leads t o an error or inappropriate form in the target language, because the L1 pattern is different from the counterpart of the target language.
Grimm’s Law格林定律: Because these sound changes were so strikingly regular and law-like, they became known as Grimm’s Law. According to this law, the Germanic languages were subject to a rule that changed all voiceless stops into fricatives after they split off from other Indo-European languages. registers寄存器: a functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.
voicing浊音: Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.
Voiceless清音: when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.
finite clause定式子句: a clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. (A simple sentence satisfies the structural requirements of a finite clause.) epenthesis增音；插入字母: the insertion of the consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word. compounding复合词: can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.
internal borrowing内部借用: the application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy（类推，类似）to its earlier operation.
interpersonal communication人际传播: means language users use language to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to another, or to control eac h other’ s behavior.
fossilization石化现象: a process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent or a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.
general linguistics普通语言学：The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.
narrow transcription窄式音标: is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.
componential analysis成分分析:is a way to analyse word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.
assimilation rule同化规则
derivational affix派生词缀
hierarchical structure分层结构
semantic triangle语义三角
grammatical meaning语法意义
high variety高规格
social dialects社会方言
embedded clause嵌入式句子，子句
descriptive linguistics描述性语言学
diphthong双元音
morphological rules形态规则
case condition格条件
collocational synonyms搭配同义词
linguistic relativism语言相对论
the nativist view of language acquisition本土的语言习得观synchronic linguistics共时语言学
liquids流音
language centers语言中心
formal instruction正式指示
major lexical category主要词汇范畴
behaviourism as a semantic view行为主义（语义观）stylistic synonyms文体同义词
sentence stress句子之重读
diacritics变音符号
phrase structure rule短语结构规则
presupposition假定
Wernicke’s area韦尼克区
Overthought
General linguistics。