语言学第一单元总结

1：Definitions of Language:
Language is a means of verbal communication.
It is instrumental; it is social and conventional.(P3)
Generally Accepted Definition
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
1)Why a system?
Language is a system--rule-governed, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly, they can not be arranged at will.
e.g. He the table cleaned.
2）arbitrary?Why
no intrinsic (logic) connection between the word and the thing it denotes.
e.g. "pen" by any other name is the thing we use to write with
3）Why vocal?
Language is primary vocal--the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form
4) Why symbols?
Words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.
5)Why human?
Language is human-specific.
Human being have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.
6)Why communication?
In this process information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener.)
2. Design Features of Language
Design features (本质特征) refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
2.1 Arbitrariness(任意性)
It means there is no logical connection between the sound of a word and its meaning.
Onomatopoeia (拟声词) refers to a word that sounds like what it represents.
Can onomatopoeia change the arbitrary nature of language?
Why not?
Every language has only a small amount of onomatopoeic words.
Different languages use different words to describe the same sound
Ducks “嘎嘎”in Chinese, “quack [kwæk]”in English, “gack”in German.
Arbitrariness and convention
Human language is arbitrary and conventional.
Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.
Conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.
2.2 Duality (双重性)
Duality means that language has two levels of structure, the primary level and the secondary level.
At secondary level are elements which have no meaning but which combine to form units at primary level which do have meaning.
Secondary level is made up of meaningless sounds, and primary level of meaningful words.
2.3 Creativity（创造性）
By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.
Recursiveness （递归性）means that one sentence can expand into endless possible sentences in a way of recurring. e.g. He came into a room that had a big shelf which was full of books which were covered by magazine which were put there by the lady who used to …
e.g. The man in a coat on a bus with his wife…
2.4 Displacement （移位性）
It means that we can communicate things, concepts which are not present at the right time or place of communication
we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2500 years and the second is situated far away from us .
Displacement enables us to talk about a wide range of things.
3. The origin of language
The creation theory
the divine origin theory
The invention theory
the “bow-wow”theory
the “yo-he-ho”theory
the “pooh-pooh”theory
The evolution theory
4.Functions of language
Functions of language（4.1 Informative 4.2 Interpersonal function 4.3 Performative 4.4Emotive function 4.5. Phatic communion 4.6 Recreational function 4.7 Metalingual function）
4.1 Informative (信息功能)
It is to offer information about facts and to tell what the speaker believes.
e.g. “Tomorrow is Tuesday.”“Linguistics is a scientific study of language.”
4.2 Interpersonal function(人际功能)
It embodies the use of language to express, establish and maintain social relations.
Give me that teapot. leader
Could you please give me that teapot? Equal
4.3 Performative(施为功能)
It means that language is also used to “do things”, to perform actions.
It is primarily to change the social status of a person, or the state of a thing.
“I declare the meeting open”
“I sentence you to the ten years of hard labor”
“I now pronounce you husband and wife”
4.4 Emotive function(感情功能)
It is the use of language to reveal some feelings and attitudes of the speaker.
1.“Good heavens!”“My God”, or “Ouch”
2.“Friday afternoons are dreary”
3.“I’m extremely sorry about…”
“We’re most grateful for this”
It is raining. Informative It’s bloody pissing down again. emotive
4.5 Phatic communion(寒暄功能)
It refers to language used for maintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas.
e.g. I would ask you “how are you today?”I am not really interested in your health, but expressing good will.
e.g. “A nice day, isn’t it?”
4.6 Recreational function(娱乐功能)
It refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.
e.g. In the verbal dueling(对歌), people just take delight in playing on language.
e.g. Some people write poems just in order to enjoy the beauty of language.
4.7 Metalingual function(元语言功能)
The metalingual function is used to clarify meanings or what the other person has said.
Every kind of dictionaries serves this function, for words or phrases are defined and interpreted in the dictionaries.
----- “The Sophomore was plucked.”
----- “What does sophomore mean?”
----- “A sophomore means a second-year student.”
5.What is linguistics?
What is Linguistics? Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. 6.Important Distinctions
6.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 6.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic
6.3 Langue vs. Parole 6.4 Competence vs. performance
6.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive (描写式和规定式)
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for correct behavior.
“What is in language?”“What people actually say?”Descriptive
“What is in language?”“What people actually say?”Prescriptive
You should never use a double negative. You should not split the infinitive. Prescriptive
Descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which are just described.
6.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic（共时和历时)
The description of a language at any one time is a synchronic study; the description of
a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
If the linguist studies: modern English of the present day Shakespeare’s English ;Chinese from the Tang Dynasty to the Qing dynasty
6.3 Langue vs. parole （语言与言语）
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.
N Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
langue: abstract parole: specific
langue: stable and systematic
parole: subject to personal and situational constraints
As a social product, langue is a set of conventions that members of a speech community seem to abide by. Parole, on the other hand, is the concrete use of the conventions.
6.4 Competence vs. performance(语言能力和语言运用)
Competence is the language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.
Performance is the actual realization of language in concrete situation.
Does our performance math our competence?A speaker’s competence is s__table___, but his performance is often influenced by p____sychological_______ factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed compentence.
Where does the knowledge of language come from?
Chomsky’s solution is to invoke the innate properties of the mind.
What is the Similarity between these two pairs of distinction?
Similarity: langue and competence both refer to the abstract knowledge, parole and performance both refer to the actual use knowledge.
What is the difference between these two pairs of distinction?
Difference: Langue: a social product
Competence: a property of the mind of each individual
Saussure looks at language from a __sociological_________ point of view;
Chomsky looks at it more from a ____psychological_________ point of view.。