耶鲁大学-心理学导论class05
耶鲁大学开放课程
耶鲁大学开放课程1。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：聆听音乐》(Open Yale course：Listening to Music)[YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2832525/2。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：基础物理》(Open Yale course：Fundamentals ofPhysics)[YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2834907/3。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：生物医学工程探索》(Open Yale course：Frontiers of Biomedical Engineering) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2834278/4。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：1871年后的法国》(Open Yale course：France Since 1871) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2835256/5。
《耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡》(Open Yale course—Philosophy：Death) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2824902/6。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：金融市场》(Open Yale course：Financial Markets)[YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2830134/7。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论》(Open Yale course：Introduction to Psychology) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2827597/8。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：博弈论》(Open Yale course：Game Theory)[YYeTs人人影视出品] [中英双语字幕]/topics/2832107/9。
《耶鲁大学开放课程：1648-1945年的欧洲文明》(Open Yale course：European Civiliza tion,1648-1945) [YYeTs人人影视出品][中英双语字幕]/topics/2832611/10。
耶鲁大学开放课程《心理学导论》第一讲摘录
耶鲁大学开放课程《心理学导论》第一讲摘录耶鲁大学开放课程《心理学导论》第一讲摘录Paul Bloom教授：欢迎来到《心理学导论》课堂。
我是Paul Bloom博士，这堂课的讲师。
本课程将对人类心理学进行全面的介绍，课程涉及内容广泛，包括大脑、儿童、语言、性、记忆、疯狂、作呕、种族歧视和爱，以及其他方面。
我们要讨论一些内容，例如，为什么会有男女差别？动物能否学会语言？是什么让我们作呕？为什么我们当中有些人暴饮暴食，如何纠正？为什么有人会发疯？为什么一些人会变得抑郁而其他人不会？《心理学导论》是讲什么的？与其他课程不同的是，一些人是带着特殊目的来学习这门课的。
或许你觉得你疯了，希望能减轻这种症状；或许你想了解怎样提高学习成绩，怎样改善性生活，怎样实现理想，或是怎样结交朋友以及影响他人【笑】。
这些原因都不无道理，除了改善性生活，这门课确实能帮到你不少。
学习科学心理学能增加你对与我们日常生活所发生的问题息息相关的现实世界的了解。
当遇到这些问题时，我会强调这些问题，并希望你们思考我接下来要讲的这些实验室里的研究工作对你的日常生活会产生多大影响，包括你如何学习，如何与人交往，你如何说服别人接受另一种观点，怎样的治疗对你最有效。
我认为你从这门课程学到的东西要远比你想象的有趣得多。
首先我们要介绍一个最重要的话题：我们。
人类的大脑是怎样工作的？我们怎样思考？是什么使我们成为现在这样的人？我们将从几方面来讲授这些内容。
心理学通常分为五个板块：1、神经科学，通过观察、了解大脑的反应来研究心理学。
2、发展心理学，这是我重点研究的领域，研究人们如何成长、发育和学习。
3、认知心理学，对这个术语一些同学可能不太熟悉，它通过计算机来进行研究，观察并分析人的行为，例如，理解语言、认知物体和做游戏之类。
4、社会心理学，研究人在群体中的行为、交往方式。
5、临床心理学，听到心理学一词时，或许人们第一个想到的就是临床心理学，这部分是研究心理健康和心理疾病的。
Lecture+18(耶鲁大学-心理学导论讲稿)
Lecture 18
Yale University
I am extremely pleased to introduce the fourth and final guest lecture of the semester. Professor Susan Nolen-Hoeksema. Susan is a professor in the Department of Psychology and the Director of Graduate Studies. She is well known for her work in clinical psychology and especially her research in depression, the nature and causes of people with depression, with special focus on sex differences in depression. She basically does everything someone can do. She is a noted scientist, winning many awards and publishing massive amounts of work in scientific journals. She is an award-winning teacher and has authored what, in my mind, is the very best textbook in her area. And she's a noted popular writer who has written popular and accessible books bringing the message and ideas and theories of clinical psychology to the broader public. The only other thing I'll mention before we welcome her is that she's going to teach next year her course in clinical psychology, which has a superb reputation as an extremely interesting course. If you are interested in what you hear today and you want to learn more about it, that's the course you should take. So, let's please welcome Dr. Susan Nolen-Hoeksema. [applause] Professor Susan Nolen-Hoeksema: Thank you Paul. Can everybody hear me okay? Okay. So, what I want to do today is to give you a very brief overview of how modern clinical psychology looks at mental disorders, some of the ways we think about what constitutes a mental disorder, some of the characteristics that kind of cut across mental disorders, and then I'm going to use the case of mood disorders, that is depression and what is now called bipolar disorder, what you may know more popularly as manic-depression, as sort of examples of how we think about a particular set of disorders and some of the ways we go about researching the theories -- different theories for the disorders and some of the prominent treatments for disorders these days. Okay? So, I'm going to do both a fair amount of lecturing, and then I've got lots of video clips to show you as well. So, I'm going to be roaming around and changing venues here fairly often. So, the first and most fundamental question in clinical psychology is, "What is abnormality?" Where do we draw the line between normal, healthy, typical behavior and what we might want to call abnormal, atypical, deviant, unhealthy, maladaptive mental problems? We tend to have an intuitive sense of what we mean by abnormality, and we'd like to believe--a lot of people who come into my course say, "Well, of course, you know, you guys have figured it out. You know where to draw the line. You have criteria. You have blood tests, right? --that tell me whether I have depression or schizophrenia or one of the things I've read about." Well, the reality is that we don't. First of all, there is no biological test for any of the known mental disorders right now. And instead what we have is a set of behavioral criteria for how to diagnose different mental disorders. And what I mean by behavioral criteria is a set of symptoms that the person reports to you about how they feel, how they think, and a set of observations about their behavior and how typical or atypical it is. And you take the sort of set of symptoms the person shows or reports, and you match them up against the existing criteria for different mental disorders. And then it comes down to a fairly subjective judgment call about whether the person meets the criteria or not. Unfortunately, these judgment calls, because they are so subjective, can be influenced by a lot of factors. And we won't have a chance to go into these too much today, but just to highlight a few of them. The first is social norms. Whether you get labeled as having a mental disorder or a problem depends very heavily on what your social or cultural norms are. So, a woman wearing a veil in a Muslim community or culture
耶鲁大学心理学导论（第五课）
心理学导论第五课我们这些天所讲的Most of what we do these days,各种方法理论思想our methods, our theories, our ideas,它们的形成都在一定程度上are shaped, to some extent,受到了皮亚杰的影响by Piaget's influence.所以这堂课我想And so, what I want to do is begin this class通过他的理论 that's going to talk about cognitive development来讲讲认知发展by talking about his ideas.皮亚杰认为儿童是主动思考者His idea was that children are active thinkers;他们试图去理解世界they're trying to figure out the world.他常把儿童称为小科学家He often described them as little scientists.我想顺便提一下他为何会去研究儿童And incidentally, to know where he's coming from on this,他有着一个宏伟且远大的目标he had a very dramatic and ambitious goal.他研究的初衷并不是出于对儿童的兴趣He didn't start off because he was interested in children.而是出于He started off他对认识产生的一般规律的兴趣because he was interested in the emergence of knowledge in general.皮亚杰主张发生认识论It was a discipline he described as genetic epistemology 即认识的起源the origins of knowledge.但是由于他深信But he studied development of the individual child个体儿童的发展because he was convinced能够表现出认识发展的一般规律that this development will tell him所以他才选择去研究个体儿童的发展about the development of knowledge more generally.有一个听上去很傲慢的短语There's a very snooty phrase that--不知你们之前是否已经有所耳闻I don't know if you ever heard it before.这是一个很非常了不起的短语It's a great phrase.叫做"胚胎重演律"It's "Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny."这个短语的意思是And the idea of this--What that means is个体的发展that development of an individual模拟或重演了种族的发展mimics or repeats development of the species.现在看来这个观点完全错误Now, it's entirely not true,但这却是个美妙的短语but it's a beautiful phrase皮亚杰对此深信不疑and Piaget was committed to this.他常说He was very interested in saying,"只要能够理解儿童如何发展"Look. We'll figure how a kid develops and就能够理解认识发展的一般规律"that will tell us about the development of knowledge more generally."皮亚杰将儿童视为科学家So, Piaget viewed the child as a scientist认为儿童能够形成关于世界的who developed this understanding, these schemas, 一系列看法图示或者说小型理论these little miniature theories of the world.而这一过程可以通过两种机制实现And they did this through two sorts of mechanisms:同化和顺应assimilation and accommodation.同化是指So, assimilation would be the act of expanding反应范围的扩大the range of things that you respond to.皮亚杰举例说Piaget's example would be一个习惯吸吮乳房的婴儿a baby who's used to sucking on a breast可能会去吸吮奶瓶或是拨浪鼓might come to suck on a bottle or on a rattle.这就是在改变反应范围了That's changing the scope of things that you respond to.顺应是改变你的行为方式Accommodation is changing how you do it.婴儿会因为吸吮物体的不同A baby will form his mouth differently而改变他的嘴型depending on what he's sucking on.所以你们听到的这些过程And so, these processes where you take in--我刚才是从生理的角度来谈论这些过程的I'm giving this in a very physical way, 从心理上来讲but in a more psychological sense你拥有一种看待世界的方式you have a way of looking at the world.你将新信息纳入已有的认知结构中You could expand it to encompass new things, 便是同化assimilation.你改变已有的认知结构But you could also change以适应新的环境和信息your system of knowledge itself,便是顺应accommodation.皮亚杰认为这两种学习机制And Piaget argued that these two mechanisms of learning帮助儿童跨越各个阶段drove the child through different stages.他提出了一个阶段理论And he had a stage theory,这个阶段理论与我们之前所介绍的which was quite different from the Freudian stage theory弗洛伊德的阶段理论有着很大的不同that we have been introduced to.他所用的研究方法是So his methods要求儿童解决问题were to ask children to solve problems并询问他们一些问题and to ask them questions.他发现And his discoveries that--儿童在不同的年龄拥有不同的行为方式they did them in different ways at different ages他根据这一发现提出了阶段理论led to the emergence of the Stage Theory.皮亚杰认为第一个阶段 So, for Piaget, the first stage是感知运动阶段is the sensorimotor stage或者说感知运动期or the sensorimotor period.在此阶段儿童只是个纯粹的自然生物For here the child is purely a physical creature.儿童对于外部世界并没有什么真正的认识The child has no understanding in any real way of the external world.他们对于过去There's no understanding of the past,未来稳定差别no understanding of the future, no stability,没有任何的概念no differentiation.儿童只是触摸和观看The child just touches and sees,但还不能进行逻辑推理but doesn't yet reason.在这一阶段儿童逐渐发展起And it's through this stage that a child gradually comes to acquire客体永存性的概念object permanence.客体永存性是指Object permanence is知道某人或某物虽然现在看不见the understanding that things exist但仍然是存在的when you no longer see them.前面的各位So those of you in front,你们看着我躲在这里you're looking at me and I go.如果我突然在后排出现It occurred to me it'd be a great magic trick那就是非常精彩的魔术了if I then appeared in back.但我没动我还在这But no, I'm just here.这就是客体永存性That's object permanence.如果我蹲在这里有人说If I went under here and then the people said,"他去哪了下课了耶""Where the hell did he go? Class is over,"这话就表现出他缺乏客体永存性的概念that would show a lack of object permanence.成年人是拥有客体永存性概念的So, adults have object permanence.皮亚杰认为婴儿并没有这一概念Piaget's very interesting claim is that kids don't.皮亚杰发现在六个月之前Before six-month-olds, Piaget observed,你将婴儿喜欢的物体比如说拨浪鼓you take an object the kid likes like a rattle,藏起来隐藏在某物的后面you hide it, you put it behind something,就像这东西消失了一样it's like it's gone.皮亚杰认为And he claimed婴儿真的会以为the child really thinks他喜欢的东西就这么凭空消失了it's just gone.只要物体从婴儿的视野中消失Things don't continue to exist婴儿就会认为物体已经不存在了when I'm not looking at them anymore.他注意到And so he noticed they--儿童会对捉迷藏感到惊奇they're surprised by peek-a-boo.皮亚杰认为And Piaget's claim was one reason他们对捉迷藏感到惊奇的一个原因便是why they're surprised at peek-a-boo你凭空消失了你看着婴儿is you go-- you look at a kid,婴儿会对你笑然后你和他玩捉迷藏the kid's smiling and go,"躲猫猫""Oh, peek-a-boo,"你用双手遮住了你的脸 and you close--and you cover your face婴儿会以为 "他不见了" and the kid says, "He's gone.""躲猫猫" "哈他回来了""Peek-a-boo." "Oh, there he is. ""他又不见了""He's gone."这就是他的观点了And you really--That's the claim.皮亚杰还发现Piaget also discovered稍大的婴儿无法完成that older children fail at a taskA非B错误任务that's known as the A-not-B task.彼得·格雷在他的心理学教科书中And Peter Gray in his psychology textbook refers to it将这一任务称为"变换藏身地"问题as the "changing hiding places" problem,这可能是个更为恰当的名字which is probably a better name for it.这个任务的内容如下And here's the idea.你找到一个九个月大的婴儿You take a nine-month-old在皮亚杰看来and for Piaget九个月大的婴儿才刚刚发展出a nine-month-old is just starting客体以及客体永存性的概念to make sense of objects and their permanence.你将物体放到这里的一个杯子中You take an object and you put it here in a cup 婴儿看不见这个物体where the kid can't see it,但这个物体是在杯子之中的but it's in the cup.如果你是这个婴儿你便会伸手去拿So the kid, if you were the kid, will reach for it.你再做一遍他会伸手去拿You do it again, reach for it.你再做一遍他还是会伸手去拿You do it again, reach for it.这个地点是AThat's point A.然后你把杯子拿到这边Then you take--you move it over here.皮亚杰观察到Piaget observed婴儿仍然会将手伸向此处 kids would still reach for this.好像他们还不够聪明不能明白It's like they're not smart enough to figure out 物体已经不在那里了that it's not there anymore,即使他们看到物体被拿走了even if they see it move.这更证明了他们并不理解客体的概念And this was more evidence that they just don't understand objects,而这种概念需要通过大量的时间学习and that this thing takes a lot of time and learning才能够掌握to develop.下一个阶段是前运算阶段The next stage is the preoperational stage.开始的时候儿童只能通过生理的方式The child starts off grasping the world 通过感知运动的方式only in a physical way,来认识世界in a sensorimotor way,但是当儿童进入了前运算阶段but when he gets to the preoperational period, 他们便逐渐拥有了表征事物the capacity to represent the world,在头脑中构建世界的能力to have the world inside your head, comes into being.但这种能力是有局限的But it's limited表现在以下几个显著方面and it's limited in a couple of striking ways.局限之一儿童是以自我为中心的One way in which it's limited is that children are egocentric.自我中心这个词在如今的日常英语里Now, egocentrism has a meaning in common English是自私的意思which means to be selfish.皮亚杰对该词的定义则更为专业Piaget meant it in a more technical way.他认为这个年龄的儿童完全没有意识到He claimed that children at this age literally can't understand别人眼中的世界that others can see the world可以与自己看到的世界有所不同differently from them.他的证据之一就是三山实验So, one of his demonstrations was the three mountains task.那里有三座不同的假山模型We have three mountains over there.你让孩子在模型的一边You put a child on one side of the mountains要求他把自己看到的三山模型画出来and you ask him to draw it,四五岁的儿童便能够轻易做到and a four- or five-year-old can do it easily, 但是如果你要求儿童画出but then you ask him to draw it从模型另一边看过去的样子as it would appear from the other side儿童就会觉得非常困难and children find this extraordinarily difficult.他们很难从他人的角度出发来认识世界They find it very difficult to grasp the world as another person might see it.皮亚杰在该发展阶段中的另一个重大发现Another significant finding Piaget had about this phase of development就是"守恒"concerns what's called "conservation."守恒是指物体某方面的特征The notion of conservation is that there's ways to transform things不会因为其他方面特征的改变such that some aspects of them change而有所改变but others remain the same.比如说你有一杯水So, for instance, if you take a glass of water将水倒进另一个更浅或者更深的杯子里and you pour it into another glass that's shallow or tall,含水量并未发生任何改变it won't change the amount of water you have.如果你把一卷硬币全部摊开If you take a bunch of pennies and you spread them out, 你不会得到更多的硬币you don't get more pennies.但皮亚杰认为儿童并不知道会这样But kids, according to Piaget,don't know that 这个概念是非常精彩的证据之一and this is one of the real cool demonstrations.如果你身边有四五岁大的孩子Any of you who have access to a four- or five-year-old,兄弟姐妹什么的a sibling or something--一定要先得到同意再去试验Do not take one without permission,如果你身边有四五岁大的孩子but if you have access to a four- or five-year-old你可以自己去试试you can do this yourself.情况大体上会是这样的This is what it looks like.第一段影片没有声音The first one has no sound.第二段影片的最后会有些声音The second one is going to be sound that's going to come on at the end.这里有两排方格But there's two rows of checkers.她问儿童哪一排更多She asks the kid which one has more.儿童说一样多The kid says they're the same.然后她问现在哪一排更多Then she says--Now she asks him which one has more, 这个还是那个这孩子真笨that or that. So that's really stupid.儿童会这样做这是个令人惊奇的发现And it's an amazing finding kids will do that.也是个生动的发现And it's a robust finding.这是另一个例子Here's another example.它们其实是一样的 So, they're the same.这是该阶段的一个重要发现So, it's a cool finding of that stage,表明儿童在考虑和理解世界的方式上suggesting a limitation in how you deal 存在着局限性and make sense of the world.下一阶段具体运算阶段The next phase, concrete operations,七到十二岁儿童可以解决守恒问题from seven to twelve, you can solve the conservation problem,但儿童的抽象推理能力仍然有限but still you're limited to the extent you're capable of abstract reasoning.因此对于无限这个数学概念So the mathematical notions of infinity or或者是像逻辑蕴涵这样的逻辑概念logical notions like logical entailment 超出了该年龄阶段儿童的理解范围are beyond a child of this age.虽然此时的儿童有能力进行一些逻辑思考The child is able to do a lot,但他们的思维在某种程度上but still it's to some extent仍然是局限于具体情境的stuck in the concrete world.最后大约在十二岁的时候And then finally, at around age twelve,儿童的抽象推理和科学推理能力得以完善you could get abstract and scientific reasoning.这就是皮亚杰理论的大体内容And this is the Piagetian theory in very brief form.皮亚杰要比弗洛伊德或是斯金纳成功很多Now, Piaget fared a lot better than did Freud or Skinner原因有以下几点for several reasons.一个原因是这些是关于儿童发展的One reason is these are interesting and falsifiable claims有趣且可证伪的论断about child development.关于不同年龄阶段的儿童So claims that--about the failure of conservation 缺乏守恒概念的论断in children at different ages能够很轻易的得到系统的检验could be easily tested and systematically tested, 事实上有相当多的证据支持这些论断and in fact, there's a lot of support for them.通过将各种观察结果Piaget had a rich theoretical framework,以不同的方式组合在一起pulling together all sorts of observations皮亚杰的理论内容变得十分丰富in different ways,他写了大量的书籍和论文wrote many, many books and articles丰富了他的理论and articulated his theory very richly.我认为最重要的是他令人震惊的发现And most of all, I think, he had some really striking findings.在皮亚杰之前没有人注意到守恒Before Piaget, nobody noticed these conservation findings.在皮亚杰之前Before Piaget,并没有人注意到婴儿在追踪和理解客体上nobody noticed that babies had this problem存在着守恒的问题tracking and understanding objects.然而与此同时At the same time, however,皮亚杰的理论也有其局限之处there are limitations in Piaget's theory.有些局限是理论上的Some of these limitations are theoretical.问题是It's an interesting question他是否真的解释了as to whether he really explains儿童思维是如何从具体向抽象转变的how a child goes from a concrete thinker to an abstract thinker,或是真的解释了or how he goes from not having object permanence儿童的客体永存性概念是如何从无到有的to understanding object permanence.还有些研究方法上的局限There's methodological limitations.皮亚杰非常热衷用问与答的方法进行研究Piaget was really big into question and answer,但这里存在的一个问题便是but one problem with this is儿童并未能完全掌握语言that children aren't very good with language,这可能会导致你低估他们的理解能力and this might lead you to underestimate how much they know.往往儿童越小这个问题就越明显And this is particularly a problem the younger you get.在讨论包括心理学在内的任何科学时Methodology is going to loom heavy研究方法是个重要的方面in the discussion of any science and that includes psychology.研究中90%的内容通常都是在寻找Often 90% of the game is discovering a clever method一种能够检验假说的精巧方法through which to test your hypotheses.我们会谈谈与婴儿有关的研究方法We're going to talk a little bit about that regarding babies.我给大家再举一个不同方面的例子I'll give you another example from a very different domain.很多科学家对研究挠痒痒非常感兴趣There was a set of scientists interested in studying tickling.在什么情况下So, when you tickle somebody,你挠别人痒痒他们会发笑under what circumstances will they laugh?要挠哪里才行你挠自己会感到痒吗Where do you have to tickle them? Can you tickle yourself?需要出其不意吗等等Does it have to be a surprise, and so on?事实证明很难对此进行实验室研究It turns out very difficult to study this in a lab.你又不能靠傻笑来得到你的实验学分You're not going to have your experimental credit.你走进实验室说You come into the lab and say,"我是研究生然后傻笑""Okay. I'm the graduate student. Ha, ha, ha."实际上And in fact,宾夕法尼亚大学的亨利·葛雷曼an example of a methodological attempt was done 曾经进行过研究方法上的尝试by Henry Gleitman at University of Pennsylvania, 他发明了一台挠痒痒的机器who built a tickle machine,这是一个装有两只大手的箱子which was this box双手会不停的去挠痒痒with these two giant hands that went "r-r-r-r."这是一个失败的发明This was a failure因为人们还没靠近挠痒痒的机器because people could not go near the tickle machine就已经被它的模样逗笑了without convulsing in laughter.我们会在讲到关于笑的课程时But we will discuss再来讨论这个关于挠痒痒的科学when we have a lecture on laughter a bit of the tickle sciences.最后是证据上的局限And finally there's factual.婴幼儿究竟知道些什么What do infants and children really know?皮亚杰很可能由于研究方法上的局限It's possible that due to the methodological limitations of Piaget,而系统地低估了婴幼儿的理解能力he systematically underestimated what children and babies know.事实上我要给大家呈现一些证据And in fact, I'll present some evidence这些证据表明事实确实如此suggesting that this is in fact--that this is the case.我要给大家介绍下So, I want to introduce you关于婴儿认知的现代科学发现to the modern science of infant cognition.婴儿认知已经得到了多年的研究Infant cognition has been something studied for a very long time.这些研究都基于某个观点And there was a certain view这是一个在哲学和心理学领域中that has had behind it广泛达成的共识a tremendous philosophical and psychological consensus.这份《洋葱报》的标题总结出了这个共识And it's summarized in this Onion headline here.那就是婴儿是愚笨的And the idea is that babies are stupid,婴儿对世界一无所知that babies really don't know much about the world.《洋葱报》的这个标题很是讽刺Now, the work that this Onion headline issatirizing接下来我要来讲一下最近的研究is the recent studies, which I'm going to talk about,与此标题相反suggested that on the contrary,最新的研究表明babies might be smarter婴儿可能比你想象中更加聪明than you think.要想探究婴儿的智力And to discover the intelligence of babies我们就必须足够聪明we have to ourselves be pretty smart发明出不同的研究技术in developing different techniques.你不能用提问的方式To study what a baby knows,去研究婴儿知道些什么you can't ask your questions.因为婴儿不会说话Babies can't talk.你可以观察婴儿You could look at what it does但婴儿不怎么配合but babies are not very coordinated或者说他们的言语技能并不熟练or skilled所以你必须要用精巧的方法才能做到so you need to use clever methods.一种聪明的方法便是去观察脑电波One clever method is to look at their brain waves.右边的这个孩子在测试时死掉了This child on the right died during testing.是个悲剧被电极的重量给压死了It was a tragic--It was crushed by the weights of the electrodes.他临死还是挺高兴的He's happy though.你可以去研究他们的脑电波You could study their brain waves.吮吸奶嘴是婴儿能够做到的One of the few things babies can do为数不多的事情之一is they could suck on a pacifier.你也许会想And you might think,你能从婴儿的行为中知道些什么呢well, how could you learn anything from that?举例来说Well, for instance,你可以制造一个机器you could build machines每当婴儿吮吸奶嘴that when babies suck on a pacifier他们就会听到音乐或是话语they hear music or they hear language,然后你可通过观察婴儿有多喜欢吮吸奶嘴and then you could look at how much they suck on the pacifier来确定他们喜欢音乐还是话语to determine what they like.但不可否认的是But undeniably我们所拥有的绝大多数关于婴儿的知识we know most of our -- we got most of our knowledge about babies都来自于对婴儿注视次数的研究from studies of their looking times.这是婴儿们能够做到的一件事That's one thing babies can do.他们能够注视某物They can look.这里是一张伊丽莎白·斯皮克的照片And I have up here--This is a picture of Elizabeth Spelke,她是一个发展心理学家who is a developmental psychologist在婴儿注视次数who's developed the most research on looking at babies' lookingtimes及其意义方面研究颇多and what you could learn from them.你可以通过两种方法And I have here two ways从注视这个动作中得出一些结论you could learn from looking.一种方法便是呈现One is preference.比如说假设你没来由的想知道So for instance, suppose you want to know, for whatever reason,婴儿会喜欢狗的模样还是猫的摸样do babies like the looks of dogs or cats?你可以抱来一个婴儿Well, you could put a baby down,在这里呈现一张狗的照片have a picture of a dog here,在这里呈现一张猫的照片a picture of a cat here,然后观察婴儿会看哪一张照片and see which one the baby looks at.你可以从婴儿移动的眼珠中找到答案Babies can move their eyes and that could tell you something.婴儿能区分出漂亮和丑陋的脸庞吗Do babies distinguish pretty faces from ugly faces?在这边放一张漂亮的脸庞Well, put a pretty face here,在这边放一张丑陋的脸庞an ugly face here,观察婴儿是否更喜欢注视漂亮的那个see if the baby prefers to look at the pretty one.你也可以通过习惯化和惊奇来进行探究You could also do habituation and surprise.我在随后提到的各种研究And much of the studies I'm going to talk about here 很多都会涉及到习惯化和惊奇involve habituation and surprise.习惯化是厌倦这个词的一种华丽表达Habituation is a fancy word for boredom.向婴儿反复呈现某物What you do is you show a baby something over and over again.根据行为主义Now, remember from behaviorism婴儿会觉得这东西没什么意思the baby will learn this isn't very interesting.这时你向婴儿呈现某个不同的物体Then you show the baby something different.如果婴儿认为此物与之前出现物体不同If the baby really sees it as different, 婴儿的注视时间会变长the baby will look longer,你可以将注视时间变长and you could use that视为婴儿发现物体间区别的一种标志as a measure of what babies find different.比如假设你想知道For instance, suppose you want to know婴儿是否能够区分绿色和红色if the baby can tell green from red.你可以向婴儿呈现一个绿色色块Well, you could show the baby a green patch, 将这个绿色色块不停的重复呈现a green patch, a green patch, a green patch;婴儿便会感到厌倦the baby'll get bored,然后呈现一个红色色块then a red patch.如果对于婴儿来说两种颜色没有差别If they all look the same to the baby, 他就仍然不予理会the baby will just continue to tune out,但如果他觉得红色与绿色不同but if the red looks different那他就会重新活跃起来the baby will perk up.实际上And this is, in fact,这是一种研究婴儿颜色视觉的方法one way they study color vision in babies.惊奇也与此相关Surprise is related to this.你给婴儿呈现一些本不该出现的事物You could show babies something that shouldn't happen.如果婴儿也觉得该事物出乎意料If babies are like--If babies also think it shouldn't happen,那么他们会注视的更久they might look longer,基本上科学家们and essentially what happens就是通过魔术技巧来进行研究is scientists do magic tricks to explore this very thing.下面给大家介绍一些实例And to start with some real examples,许多的婴儿研究都回到了a lot of this infant research has gone back皮亚杰的客体永存性问题上to the Piagetian question of object permanence, 去探讨 "婴儿是否真的不知道asking, "Is it really true babies don't know 物体即使离开视线也仍然是存在的"that objects remain even when they're out of sight?"斯皮克和巴亚热昂做了一个简单的研究So one very simple study by Spelke and Baillargeon:向婴儿呈现一个木块Have babies shown a block木块中间有一个能够来回移动的木杆with a bar going back and forth就像这个样子like that.这个木杆可以来回移动So the bar just goes back and forth.现在你做了件你自己都未必意识到的Now, there's something you do that's so obvious超级无聊的事情you probably don't even know you're doing it.当你看到这样的演示时When you see a display like that,你已经假定那里有一根木杆what you assume is there's a bar there,也就是说中间的部分and what that means is there's something in the middle 有你之前所未曾见过的物体that you've never seen before.但是But of course,如果你只是个拥有感知的简单生物if you were a simple perceptual creature, 你只会看到在顶端和底端分别有一根木杆you would just see that there'd be a bar on top and a bar on the bottom.你不会觉得中间有什么物体You wouldn't expect anything in the middle因为你并未在中间部分看到些什么because you never saw anything in the middle.接下来你向婴儿呈现这个装置So, what you do then is you show babies this再给他们看B或C选项and then you show them either B or C如果是成人来进行测试肯定会选Band if we do this with adults you expect B, C基本上就是个笑话C is almost a joke.事实上婴儿也有相同的反应方式And, in fact, babies respond the same way.婴儿会期待那是一根完整的木杆Babies expect there to be an entire, complete bar 所以会对断开的木杆感到惊讶and are surprised并且会有更长的注视时间and look longer at the broken bar.还有些其他的研究Other studies, some of them--这是勒奈·巴亚热昂所进行的另一项研究Well, here's another study by ReneBaillargeon通过不同的方式去观察同一个物体looking at the same thing in a different way.将一个木块放在平台上You show the baby, say a six-month-old,然后让一个六个月大的婴儿来观看a stage with a block on it.然后升起屏板遮住木块Then a screen rises and obscures the block.这时如果婴儿会期待木块留在原处Now, if the babies expect the block to still be there,那么他们会认为木块能阻止屏板上升they should think the block should stop the screen.另一方面On the other hand,如果看不见就觉得不存在if out of sight out of mind,那么婴儿会期待屏板继续移动they should expect the screen to keep going.所以你可以设计几个演示 So, what you do is you set up a couple of displays, 一个是木块被挡住了one where the block is stopped,另一个是用活门把木块挪开the other one where you take this away with a trap door 使得屏板继续上升and it keeps going.正如你所看到的And, as you see,当这种情况发生时婴儿会发出尖叫the baby screams when this happens.这实际上是假的That doesn't really happen,但他们的注视时间的确更长了but they do look longer.最后举一个关于客体永存性研究的例子One final example of an object permanence study.这个研究的一些部分是在耶鲁的Some of this work's been done凯伦·韦恩实验室进行的at Yale in Karen Wynn's lab,他们在那里观察婴儿对加减法的理解where they look at babies' understanding of addition and subtraction.大部分实验启用了实物And a lot of it is done with real objects,但也有些动画视频but there's also animated versions这就是个动画的例子so here is an animated example.婴儿感到很惊奇Babies are surprised.它们认为2-1=1They expect 2 - 1 = 1所以当2-1=2或3或0and when 2 - 1 = 2 or 3 or 0,他们注视时间更长表明了惊奇they look longer, indicating surprise.即便六个月大的婴儿And even six-month-olds are sensitive对算术的基础知识已经相当敏感to these rudimentary facts of arithmetic,向我们展示了婴儿所具有的数学知识telling us something about their mathematical knowledge,但也同时告诉了我们but also telling us something about婴儿在看不到物体时that they expect things to remain仍然会认为物体依然存在when they're out of sight.这个研究表明Now, this research suggests婴儿从出生that infants' understanding of the physical world就对物质世界有所理解is there from the very start,但同时这种理解并不完善but at the same time not entirely.。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论5婴儿是如何思考的：思维的
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论5婴儿是如何思考的：思维的本课通过皮亚杰的理论，来讲讲认知发展。
皮亚杰认为：儿童是主动思考者，他们试图去理解世界。
他把儿童称为小科学家。
他研究的初衷并不是出于对儿童的兴趣，而是出于他对认识产生的一般规律的兴趣。
皮亚杰主张发生认识论，即认识的起源。
但是由于他深信个体儿童的发展能够表现出认识发展的一般规律，所以他才选择去研究个体儿童的发展。
"胚胎重演律" 这个短语的意思是：个体的发展，模拟或重演了种族的发展。
现在看来，这个观点完全错误。
他常说："只要能够理解儿童如何发展，就能够理解认识发展的一般规律"。
皮亚杰认为儿童能够形成关于世界的一系列看法、图示、或者说小型理论。
而这一过程可以通过两种机制实现-----同化和顺应。
同化是指反应范围的扩大。
例如一个习惯吸吮乳房的婴儿，可能会去吸吮奶瓶或是拨浪鼓。
这就是在改变反应范围了。
顺应是改变你的行为方式。
例如婴儿会因为吸吮物体的不同，而改变他的嘴型。
我刚才是从生理的角度来谈论这些过程的，从心理上来讲，你拥有一种看待世界的方式你将新信息纳入已有的认知结构中，便是同化。
你改变已有的认知结构，以适应新的环境和信息，便是顺应。
皮亚杰认为这两种学习机制，帮助儿童跨越各个阶段。
他要求儿童解决问题，并询问他们一些问题，用这种研究方法，他发现儿童在不同的年龄拥有不同的行为方式，他根据这一发现提出了阶段理论。
第一个阶段是感知运动阶段（感知运动期）。
在此阶段儿童只是个纯粹的自然生物。
儿童对于外部世界并没有什么真正的认识，他们对于过去、未来、稳定和差别没有任何的概念。
儿童只是触摸和观看，但还不能进行逻辑推理。
在这一阶段，儿童逐渐发展起客体永存性的概念。
客体永存性是指知道某人或某物虽然现在看不见但仍然是存在的。
成年人是拥有客体永存性概念的。
皮亚杰认为，婴儿并没有这一概念。
皮亚杰发现在六个月之前，你将婴儿喜欢的物体比如说拨浪鼓藏起来，隐藏在某物的后面，就像这东西消失了一样。
耶鲁大学心理学导论（第四课）
耶鲁大学心理学导论（第四课）心理学导论第四课我想在这节课的开始先回头讲讲弗洛依德I actually want to begin by going back to Freud解决一下上节课遗留的几个问题and hitting a couple of loose ends.我周三上课的时候跳过了部分内容There was a point in my lecture on Wednesday where I skipped over some parts.我当时说"没时间讲了" 就跳过没讲I said, "We don't have time for this" and I just whipped past it.可整个周末我都因此而寝食难安And I couldn't sleep over the weekend. I've been tormented.我不该跳过它们所以现在我要讲一下I shouldn't have skipped that and I want to hit--先告诉大家我当时为什么跳过没讲Let me tell you why I skipped it.我所跳过的是关于The discussion I skipped was the discussion of"我们为何会有无意识" 的讨论why we would have an unconscious at all.我当时正在讲So, I was talking about在科学上颇有名望的弗洛依德理论the scientifically respectable ideas of Freud 我想给大家讲一些新的and I want to talk about some new ideas关于"无意识为何会存在"的理论about why there could be an unconscious.我之所以没讲是因为Now, the reason why I skipped it is我不能肯定这是考虑这个问题的最佳方式I'm not sure this is the best way to look at the question.正如我们将会在这门课中了解到的As we will learn throughout the course,尤其是绝大多数的大脑活动by far the vast majority of what our brains do, 绝大多数的心理活动the vast majority of what our minds do,其实都是无意识的是无法察觉到的is unconscious and we're unaware of it.因此问题或许不该是So the right question to ask may not be, "为什么有些心理活动是无意识的""Why are some things unconscious?"而应该是"为什么心理活动的一小部分but rather, why is this tiny subset of mental life--为什么这一小部分是有意识的"why is this conscious?另一方面On the other hand,这些关于无意识功能的主张these claims about the utility of unconsciousness, 是很具有煽动性很有趣的I think, are provocative and interesting.所以我想很快地来给你们大家讲一下So I just wanted to quickly share them with you.那么从进化的观点来看So, the question is, from an evolutionary standpoint,要问的问题便是"无意识为何得以进化""Why would an unconscious evolve?"一些心理学家与生物学家们所给出的答案And an answer that some psychologists and biologists have given是欺骗is deception.大多数动物都会有一些欺骗行为So, most animals do some deception.而广义上的欺骗是以愚弄的方式And deception defined broadly is simply使他人相信虚假之事to act or be in some way认为虚假之事是真实的that fools others into believing or thinking或是使他人对虚假之事做出反应or responding to something that's false.举一个欺骗的实例There's physical examples of deception.当黑猩猩受到威胁When threatened, chimpanzees--它们的毛发会竖起来their hair stands up on end使得他们看上去更加强壮and that makes them look bigger从而使其他黑猩猩误以为它们to fool others to thinking they're more dangerous 比原先想象中更加危险than they are.在深海中生活着琵琶鱼There's an angler fish at the bottom of the ocean这种鱼的头顶会长出鱼竿状的长刺that has a rod sticking up from the top of its head用于引诱和捕获其他鱼类with a lure to capture other fish让它们误认为那是食物to fool them in thinking that this is something edible 然后它们自己就被吃掉了and then to themselves be devoured.总的来说灵长类动物特别是人类But humans, primates in general but particularly humans,都是欺骗大师are masters of deception.我们不断地利用我们的心理We use our minds行为和动作and our behaviors and our actions去哄骗他人相信那些虚假的事情continually to try to trick people into believing what's not true.比如我们总是试着去欺骗他人We try to trick people, for instance,使他人相信我们比实际更加into believing that we're强壮聪明性感tougher, smarter, sexier,更加可靠或是更加值得信赖等等more reliable, more trustworthy and so on, than we really are.社会心理学中也有很大一部分内容And a large part of social psychology在关注我们向他人展现自己的方式concerns the way in which we present ourselves 人们会尽力使积极印象最大化to other people so as to make the maximally positive impression即使留下的印象是虚假的even when that impression isn't true.但同时At the same time,though,我们也进化出了很好的欺骗检测机制we've also evolved very good lie detection mechanisms.因此不仅存在着要求我对你说谎So not only is there evolutionary pressure for me的进化压力to lie to you,比如如果我们之间存有冲突for me to persuade you for instance, that if we're going to have a conflict-当你威胁我时if you are threatening me我会说"别吓唬我我可不是吃素""Don't threaten me, I am not the sort of man you could screw around with"而且还存在着要求你辨别谎言的进化压力But there's evolutionary pressure for you to look你会说 "不你肯定不行and say, "No. You are the sort of man you could screw around with.我看得出来的"I can tell."那么怎样才能成为一个好骗子呢So how do you become a good liar?无意识在这里扮演了重要的角色And here's where the unconscious comes in.我们假定The hypothesis is:最好的谎言是能够骗到我们自己的谎言the best lies are lies wetell ourselves.一个行骗高手在通常情况下You're a better liar, more generally, 会对自己所说的谎言深信不疑if you believe the lie that you're telling.阿尔弗雷德·希区柯克的一个故事 This could be illustrated很好地阐释了这个道理with a story about Alfred Hitchcock.故事是这样的The story goes--他痛恨与童星共事但又时常被迫合作He hated working with child actors but he often had to.有一次And the story goes--和他合作的一个小演员竟哭不出来He was dealing with a child actor who simply could not cry.最后他沮丧极了走到那个小演员身边And, finally frustrated, Hitchcock went to the actor,俯下身子凑到他耳边说leaned over, whispered in his ear,"你爸妈刚把你丢在这了"Your parents have left you他们再也不回来了"and they're never coming back."那孩子立刻泣不成声The kid burst into tears.希区柯克说"开拍" 录制顺利进行Hitchcock said, "Roll'em" and filmed the kid.如果你能看到那个孩子你一定会说And the kid, if you were to see him, you'd say, "天呐这孩子看起来真伤心啊""That's--Boy, he's--he really looks as if he's sad"因为他本来就伤心because he was.如果我在这里举行一个竞赛If I had a competition谁最能将痛苦表演的和真的一样where I'd give $100,000 to the person谁就能拿到10万美元who looks the most as if they are in pain, 那么最好用的一招莫过于拿根笔it is a very good tactic to take a pen狠狠地戳进你的腹股沟and jam it into your groin因为此时的你看上去真的because you will look extremely persuasively足以使他人相信你非常痛苦as if you are in pain.如果我想让你相信我爱你If I want to persuade you that I love you,永远都不离开你你什么都可以信任我would never leave you, you can trust me witheverything,或许最好的策略便是我自己对此深信不疑it may be a superb tactic for me to believe it.所有对于无意识进化的解释And so, this account of the evolution of the unconscious便是某些动机和目标is that certain motivations and goals,尤其是那些邪恶的动机和目标particularly sinister ones,最好是无意识的are better made to be unconscious因为如果个体察觉不到because if a person doesn't know他们所拥有的动机和目标的话they have them这些动机和目标也就不会被他人识破they will not give them away.这个我们先放在这里等到我们探讨And this is something I think we should return to later on社会交往与社会关系的时候再回头来看when we talk about social interaction and social relationships.弗洛依德的另一个故事--One other thing on Freud--其实是个恶搞他的故事just a story of the falsification of Freud.周日我带我的小儿子去玩回家的路上I was taking my younger child home from a play date on Sunday他突然问我and he asked me out of the blue,"你为什么不能和你的父母结婚?""Why can't you marry yourmother or your father?"向一个孩子解释这个问题其实挺困难的Now, that's actually a difficult question to ask-- to answer for a child,但我还是尽力给了他一个答案but I tried my best to give him an answer.之后我又想到弗洛依德的理论And then I said--then I thought back on the Freud lecture然后我就问他and so I asked him,"如果你谁都能娶你会选择娶谁?""If you could marry anybody you want, who would it be?"我想根据俄狄浦斯情结imagining he'd make explicit the Oedipal complex他会毫不犹豫地选择他的妈妈and name his mother.不过出乎意料的是他想了一会说Instead, he paused for a moment and said, "我想娶一只驴子"I would marry a donkey 和一大包花生"and a big bag of peanuts."他的父母都是心理学家Both his parents are psychologists他恨透了这些问题and he hates these questions所以他会时不时的忽悠我们一下and at times he just screws around with us.好了Okay.上一堂课我们从弗洛依德讲起Last class I started with Freud现在我要开始讲斯金纳了and now I want to turn to Skinner.斯金纳的理论And the story of Skinner and science与弗洛依德的理论有些不同is somewhat different from the story of Freud.弗洛依德是精神分析的Freud developed and championed提出者与拥护者the theory of psychoanalysis by himself.就像是一个科学发明的专利享有者It is as close as you could find in science to a solitary invention.显然他利用了各种资源Obviously, he drew upon all sorts of sources还总结了前人的成果and predecessors但精神分析依然被认为but psychoanalysis is identified是由弗洛伊德提出的as Freud's creation.行为主义则不同Behaviorism is different.行为主义学派Behaviorism is a school of thought远在斯金纳提出他的理论之前就已经存在that was there long before Skinner,受到了众多心理学家的拥护championed by psychologists比如约翰·华生like John Watson, for instance.斯金纳算是这一学派中的晚辈了Skinner came a bit late into this但是何斯金纳能够被我们所熟知but the reason why we've heard of Skinner能够声名远播的原因就在于and why Skinner is so well known 他将这些观点进行了一番整理is he packaged these notions.他扩展了先前的观点He expanded upon them;并将它们出版发行he publicized them;他科学地发展了这些观点he developed them scientifically并同时将这些观点呈现给了and presented them both to the scientific community 学术界和社会大众and to the popular community.在上世纪60到70年代之间的美国社会And sociologically in the 1960s and 1970s, in the United States,行为主义极为盛行behaviorism was incredibly well known斯金纳也得以名声大噪and so was Skinner.他就像现在上脱口秀的明星一样有名He was the sort of person you would see on talk shows.他的书登上了畅销榜首His books were bestsellers.言归正传行为主义的核心Now, at the core of behaviorism由三个非常极端又很有趣的观点组成are three extremely radical and interesting views.第一个观点是它非常强调学习的作用The first is a strong emphasis on learning.行为主义的观点认为The strong view of behaviorism你的知识你的一切is everything you know, everything you are, 都是经验的产物is the result of experience.人性是根本不存在的There's no real human nature.相反人类是具有无限可塑性的Rather, people are infinitely malleable.约翰·华生有一段非常有名的话There's a wonderful quote from John Watson这段话是约翰·华生根据and in this quote john Watson is paraphrasing耶稣会所宣扬的一段著名鼓吹改写而来a famous boast by the Jesuits.耶稣会曾宣称The Jesuits used to claim,"给我一个孩子待他7岁之时"Give me a child until the age of seven我会将他锻造成一个男人"and I'll show you the man,"也就是说他们能够把一个孩子that they would take a child培养成他们想要的任何样子and turn him into anything they wanted.华生将此鼓吹加以扩展他说到And Watson expanded on this boast,给我一打健全的婴儿Give me a dozen healthy infants,只要给予合适的条件well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up 我就可以and I'll guarantee to take any one at random把他们变成and train them to become any type of specialist I might select 医生律师艺术家企业家—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant,乃至乞丐和小偷chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief,而不用去考虑他的天赋倾向regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, 能力祖先的职业与种族abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.你们可以从中看出Now, you could imagine— you could see in this这是一个极具感染力的观点a tremendous appeal to this view 因为在某种意义上because Watson has华生是一个极端的平等主义者an extremely egalitarian view in a sense.如果不存在人性If there's no human nature,那么一群人因种族或性别then there's no sense in which one group of humans 优于另一群的人的说法by dint of their race or their sex便纯属无稽之谈could be better than another group.华生明确地指出了这一点And Watson was explicit.人类的自然属性并不存在任何差异None of those facts about people will ever make any difference.个体差异源于他所受到的不同教育与待遇What matters to what you are is what you learn and how you're treated.因此华生断言And so, Watson claimed他只需通过一定的方式he could create anybody in any way simply便能将婴儿培养成各种类型的人by treating them in a certain fashion.行为主义的第二个观点A second aspect of behaviorism是反心理主义was anti-mentalism.我的意思是And what I mean by this is行为主义者沉迷于"科学"的理念之中the behaviorists were obsessed with难以自拔the idea of doing science他们主要针对的是弗洛依德and they felt, largely in reaction to Freud,他们认为那些所谓的内在心理状态that claims about internal mental states如欲望意愿目标情感等等like desires, wishes, goals, emotions and so on, 都是不科学的are unscientific.这些不可见定义模糊的东西These invisible, vague things不能被划入严谨的科学范畴里can never form the basis of a serious science.因此行为主义者的目标And so, the behaviorist manifesto是建立一门科学would then be to develop a science将一切不可观测的事情都排除在外without anything that's unobservable取而代之的是应用and instead use notions诸如刺激反应强化惩罚like stimulus and response and reinforcement and punishment以及表示现实世界和客观事件的环境and environment that refer to real world 之类的概念来进行研究and tangible events.最后行为主义者认为Finally, behaviorists believed生物种群之间并不存在太大的差别there were no interesting differences across species.行为主义者可能会承认人类能够做到A behaviorist might admit that a human can do things一些老鼠或鸽子无法做到的事情that a rat or pigeon couldn't 但他们或许只会说but a behaviorist might just say,"它们只不过是在一般性联想学习能力上"Look. Those are justgeneral associative powers有所差异而已"that differ"甚至他们干脆否认Or they may even deny it.他们会说 "人和老鼠根本没有区别They might say, "Humans and rats aren't different at all.只不过相较于老鼠It's just humans tend to live人类生活在刺激更加丰富的环境中罢了"in a richer environment than rats."从这个理论观点中From that standpoint, from that theoretical standpoint, 可以得出一种研究方法comes a methodological approach即如果人类与动物并无差别which is, if they're all the same那你就能通过研究非人类动物的学习过程then you could study human learning 来研究人类的学习过程by studying nonhuman animals.这也是行为主义者的常用研究方法And that's a lot of what they did.好了下面我们来讲讲Okay. I'm going to frame my introduction—my discussion 行为的三个主要的学习原则of behaviors in terms of the three main learning principles 这三个学习原则被认为能够解释that they argue can explain所有的人类心理活动all of human mental life,所有的人类行为all of human behavior.之后我还想讲讲对行为主义的反对And then, I want to turn to objections to behaviorism但这三个原则是非常重要的but these three principles are powerful也是很有意思的and very interesting.第一个原则是习惯化The first is habituation.这是最简单的学习形式This is the very simplest form oflearning.它在学术上被描述为And what this is is technically described as由于重复暴露在刺激环境中a decline in the tendency to respond to stimuli 而造成对该刺激反应倾向的降低that are familiar due to repeated exposure."喂""Hey!""喂""Hey!"突如其来的噪音吓了大家一跳The sudden noise startles but as it—但听到第二声的时候就没那么吃惊了as you hear it a second time it startles less.第三遍时就变成我自己在这犯傻了The third time is just me being goofy.这是因为你对这些事情已经习惯了It's just--It's--You get used to things.习惯化在我们的日常生活中随处可见And this, of course, is common enough ineveryday life.我们习惯了钟的滴答声和车来人往的噪音We get used to the ticking of a clock or to noise of traffic但这却是一种非常重要的学习形式but it's actually a very important form of learning我们不妨试想一下无法进行习惯化的情形because imagine life without it.试想你在生活中无法习惯任何事情Imagine life where you never got used to anything,要有人突然跳出来向你挥手where suddenly somebody steps forward and waves their hand你肯定吓得惊叫 "哇"and you'd go, "Woah,"然后他们再跟你挥手你又惊叫"哇"and then they wave their hand again and you'd go, "Whoah,"然后你就不停地--and you keep--或是在你听到响亮的钟摆声后很惊奇地说And there's the loud ticking of a clock and you say,"嗯""Hmmm."但实际上人类和动物都不会这个样子And that's not the way animals or humans work.你会习惯于很多事情You get used to things.而习惯化实际上也是至关重要的And it's actually critically important to get used to things因为这是一种非常有用的适应机制because it's a useful adaptive mechanism可以让你注意到新鲜事物to keep track on new events and objects.能够注意到新鲜事物的出现是非常重要的It's important to notice something when it's new因为你需要确定它是否会对你造成伤害because then you have to decide whether it's going to harm you,需要确定如何去处理这个新鲜刺激how to deal with it, to attend to it,但你不能一直去注意它but you can't keep on noticing it.事实上And, in fact,如果它在环境中出现的时间足够长久的话you should stop noticing it你就不该再去一直注意它了after it's been in the environment for long enough.所以习惯化算是一种学习So, this counts as learning是因为这种学习是基于经验而发生的because it happens through experience.习惯化是通过经验而进行学习的一种方式It's a way to learn through experience, 是通过经验改变你思维方式的一种方法to change your way of thinking through experience.而且它还是非常有用的And also, it's useful因为危险刺激会吸引到你的注意because harmful stimuli are noticed但当某物被视为环境的一部分时but when something has shown itself to be part of the environment你便不会再去注意到该物体you don't notice it anymore.习惯化的存在非常重要原因有很多The existence of habituation is important for many reasons.原因之一就是One thing it's important for is聪明的发展心理学家们将习惯化clever developmental psychologists have used habituation作为研究人类as a way to study people,研究诸如非人类动物或是婴儿这样creatures who can't talk无法进行言语表达的生物like nonhuman animals,的一种方式and young babies.等我们在周三探讨发展心理学时And when I talk on Wednesday about developmental psychology我会向大家讲述心理学家们I'll show different ways应用习惯化in which psychologists have used habituation来研究婴儿心理的不同的方法to study the minds of young babies.学习的第二种形式The second sort of learning被称为经典条件作用is known as classical conditioning.一般来说And what this is in a very general sense经典条件作用是指在一个刺激is the learning of an association 和另一个刺激之间形成联结between one stimulus and another stimulus,这里的刺激是一个专业术语where stimulus is a technical term 意思是环境中出现的事件meaning events in the environment 比如某种味道声音或景观like a certain smell or sound or sight.经典条件作用是巴甫洛夫提出的It was thought up by Pavlov.这便是巴甫洛夫的那条著名的狗This is Pavlov's famous dog这是一个科学研究中的意外and it's an example of scientific serendipity.在研究的最初巴甫洛夫Pavlov, when he started this research, 对学习行为毫无兴趣had no interest at all in learning.他研究的是唾液的分泌He was interested in saliva.为了弄到唾液他找来了几条狗And to get saliva he had to have dogs.他给狗套上了一些装置And he had to attach something to dogs来收集狗的唾液用以研究so that their saliva would pour out so he could study saliva.他研究唾液分泌的初衷我们不得而知No idea why he wanted to study saliva,但他却因为这个研究而有所发现but he then discovered something.他的做法是What he would do is给狗喂食让狗分泌唾液he'd put food powder in the dog's mouth to generate saliva.他注意到But Pavlov observed that当给它喂食的人when somebody entered the room进屋时who typically gave him the food powder,狗便开始分泌唾液the dog--the food powder saliva would start to come out.稍后And later on if you—在喂食前或者喂食过程中right before or right during you givethe dog some food 你摇铃you--you ping a bell铃声就会加速唾液的分泌the bell will cause the saliva to come forth.这是他在研究时所使用的仪器And, in fact, this is the apparatus that he used forhis research.他通过区分两种条件作用He developed the theory of classical conditioning两种刺激反应关系by making a distinction between two sorts of conditioning, 提出了经典条件作用理论two sorts of stimulus response relationships.一个是无条件作用One is unconditioned.无条件作用是指An unconditioned is when an unconditioned stimulus无条件刺激会引起无条件反应gives rise to an unconditioned response.这是我们的本能And this is what you start off with.如果有人用棍子戳你So, if somebody pokes you with a stick and you say,你会因为疼而叫出来"Ouch," because it hurts,戳的动作和你的喊叫the poking and the "Ouch"这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反射is an unconditioned stimulus causing an unconditioned response.这些行为无需学习You didn't have to learn that.巴甫洛夫给狗喂食When Pavlov put food powder in the dog's mouth狗会分泌唾液and saliva was generated,这就是无条件刺激引起了无条件反应that's an unconditioned stimulus giving rise to an unconditioned response.但学习会在条件刺激与条件反应之间But what happens throughlearning is that another association develops建立起另一种联结that between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.比如So when Pavlov, for instance--比如在条件作用形成之前Well, when Pavlov, for instance, started before conditioning只是简单的存在着无条件刺激即食物there was simply an unconditioned stimulus, the food in the mouth,以及无条件反应即唾液and an unconditioned response, saliva.此时的铃声什么都不是The bell was nothing.只是一个中性刺激The bell was a neutral stimulus.但是如果铃声和食物多次同时出现But over and over again, if you put the bell and the food together,很快铃声便也能促使狗分泌出唾液pretty soon the bell will generate saliva.开始时呈现无条件刺激And now the bell--When--You start off with the unconditioned stimulus,会出现无条件反应unconditioned response.当条件刺激与非条件刺激When the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus同时且多次反复出现are brought together over and over and over again,条件刺激很快也能引起条件反应pretty soon the conditioned stimulus gives rise to the response.这就是所谓的And now it's known as the conditioned stimulus 条件刺激引起了条件反应giving rise to the conditioned response.这在教材中已有详细的叙述This is discussed in detail in the textbook但我还是想给你们but I also--I'm going to give you—如果一下子理解不了也不用担心Don't panic if you don't get it quite now.我会再多给你们举些例子I'm going to give you further and further examples.这里的意思是说So, the idea here is,无条件刺激与条件刺激的反复匹配repeated pairings of the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus 会引起条件反应will give rise to the response.但强化尝试和非强化尝试是不一样的And there's a difference between reinforced trials and unreinforced trials.强化尝试是指条件刺激 A reinforced trial is when the conditioned stimulus 与无条件刺激同时出现的时候and the unconditioned stimulus go together.简单地说You're--and to put it in a crude way,你在让狗知道you're teaching the dog铃声和食物是一起出现的that the bell goes with the food.非强化尝试是只有食物而没有铃声的时候An unreinforced trial is when you get the food without the bell.这就不需要你去教了You're not teaching the dog this.事实上条件反射形成以后And, in fact, once you teach an animal something, 如果得不到强化if you stop doing the teaching 条件反应就会逐渐消失the response goes away这就是消退and this is known as extinction.这里有张图标But here's a graph.图标记录了分泌出的唾液量If you get--They really count the number of cubic centimeters of saliva.经过训练当狗听到铃声The dog is trained so that when the bell comes on—我讲错了Actually, I misframed it.重讲一遍I'll try again.当铃声和食物形成了联系When the bell comes connected withfood,狗会因为铃声的出现而分泌大量唾液there's a lot of saliva.非强化反应是有铃声但却没食物的时候An unreinforced response is when the bell goes on but there's no food.想想你就是那条狗So, it's like--Imagine you're the dog.有人喂你食物So, you get food in your mouth,"铃声食物"Bell, food,铃声食物"bell, food,"而现在只有"铃声"and now "Bell."但等到下次你再听到"铃声"的时候But next you get "Bell, bell, bell."你就不会再去等待食物You give it up.不再分泌唾液You stop.不再对铃声进行反应You stop responding to the bell.教材中讨论了一件奇怪的事情A weird thing which is discussed in the textbook is 如果你稍等一会if you wait a while在几个小时之后用铃声重新去尝试and then you try it again with the bell after a couple of hours,狗会重新开始分泌唾液the saliva comes back.这种现象叫做自发恢复This is known as spontaneous recovery.经典条件作用似乎是关于动物的So, this all seems a very technical phenomena 科学现象related to animals and the like 但其实典条件作用发生but it's easy to see how it generalizes 及其相关概念都简单易懂and how it extends.刺激泛化是个很有意思的概念One interesting notion is that of stimulus generalization.刺激泛化是And stimulus generalization is the topic《诺顿读本》中一篇文章的主题of one of your articles in The Norton Reader, 作者为约翰·华生著名的行为主义者the one by Watson, John Watson, the famous behaviorist,他记述了一项奇怪的实验who reported a bizarre experiment 对象则是一名叫做小阿尔伯特的婴儿with a baby known as Little Albert.实验是这样的And here's the idea.小阿尔伯特原本喜欢老鼠Little Albert originally liked rats.实际上我要给你们看一段In fact, I'm going to show you a movie小阿尔伯特原先喜欢老鼠时的录像of Little Albert originally liking rats.看到吧他很好没问题See. He's okay. No problem.现在华生做了件有意思的事情Now, Watson did something interesting.小阿尔伯特正在和老鼠玩耍As Little Albert was playing with the rat,"噢我喜欢老鼠""Oh, I like rats, oh,"华生走到婴儿身后Watson went behind the baby—教材中是这么说的this is the--it's in the chapter—重击那里的金属棒and banged the metal bar right here .婴儿"啊"了一声开始大哭The baby, "Aah," screamed, started to sob.好了Okay.这里的无条件刺激是什么What's the unconditioned stimulus?有人知道吗Somebody.那个响声重击金属棒发出的声音The loud noise, the bar, the bang.无条件反应是什么What's the unconditioned response?哭泣悲伤以及痛苦Crying, sadness, misery.这样做导致的结果就是And as a result of this,小阿尔伯特开始惧怕老鼠Little Albert grew afraid of the rat.那么条件刺激又是什么老鼠So there--what would be the。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论笔记
1.Introduction2.Foundations:This is Your Brain3.Foundations:Freud4.Foundations:Skinner5.What Is It Like to Be a Baby:The Development of Thought6.How Do We Communicate?:Language in the Brain, Mouth and the Hands7.Conscious of the Present;Conscious of the Past: Language(cont.);Vision and Memory8.Conscious of the Present;Conscious of the Past: Vision and Memory(cont.)9.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Love(Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey)10.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Evolution and Rationality11.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Emotions,Part I12.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Emotions,Part II13.Why Are People Different?:Differences14.What Motivates Us:Sex15.A Person in the World of People:Morality16.A Person in the World of People:Self and Other, Part I17.A Person in the World of People:Self and Other, Part II18.What Happens When Things Go Wrong:Mental Illness,Part I19.What Happens When Things Go Wrong:Mental Illness,Part II20.The Good Life:Happiness第一节课Introduction教材：彼得•格雷的《心理学》第五版阅读书目：格雷•马库斯《诺顿读本》心理学研究领域：1、神经科学2、发展心理学（研究人类如何成长、发育以及学习）3、认知心理学（用计算机方法研究心理学）4、社会心理学（研究人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流）5、临床心理学（心理健康、心理疾病）如今，经济学和博弈论已经成为理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法。
耶鲁大学心理学导论(第1-9课)
心理学导论第一课我所要做的就是向大家介绍在人文领域里对最重要主题，也就是对我们人类的研究现状，人类大脑如何运作，我们如何思考，又是什么让我们变成了现在的样子？我们将从多个方面来理解这些问题，所以传统上，心理学通常被分为以下五个子领域：神经科学，通过观察大脑反应来研究心理发展心理学，研究人类是如何成长、发育以及学习的认知心理学，也许是五个子领域里，对你们有些人来说最不熟悉的一个领域，它用计算机方法来研究心理，通常将心理比作计算机，并探究人类如何行动，如言语理解、物体辨认、游戏等等还有社会心理学，主要研究人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流；最后就是临床心理学，这也许是当人们提到心理学时，最先想到的方面，它主要研究心理健康和心理疾病。
我们会涉及以上所有的领域，我们还会涉及一些相关的领域。
我坚信，仅仅局限于心理学学科的学习，是不可能让你有能力去研究人类心理的，心理学学科充满了心理如何发展的问题。
经济学和游戏理论如今已经成为了理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法。
这些问题涉及哲学、计算机科学、人类学、文学、神学，以及许多其他的科学领域，因此这门课程涉及到的方面将相当的广泛。
到现在为止，我一直都在进行一些概述。
我想通过给出五个，我们将会涉及到的一些主题的例子，来结束这节导论课。
我以我们下周一要讨论的主题作为开始，这是个特殊人物的大脑，有意思的是大脑上有个白色的小标记。
这是个女人的大脑，是特丽·夏沃的大脑，你们能更好地从她的照片上认出她。
想象一下这样的情况，某人正陷于昏迷之中，由于脑部损伤而失去了意识，这是心理活动的生理属性毫无修饰的图解，我们所拥有的一切的生理基础，如自由意志、意识、道德和情绪。
我们的课程将会以此作为开始，讨论生理的东西如何能产生心理活动。
我们会讨论很多与孩子有关的问题，这实际上是个特殊的小孩，是我儿子扎卡里，我的小儿子扮成蜘蛛侠的样子，这个还是有故事可说的。
我主要研究儿童的发展，我对很多问题都感兴趣，其中一个便是发展的问题。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论_第3课_中文课件资料
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论第3课中文课件上堂课我们探讨了大脑及其功能,接下来我们将进一步学习一些基础理论,所以在今天和星期一,我们将学习两大心理理论,其代表人物分别是,西格蒙特•弗洛伊德和,伯尔赫斯•弗雷德里克•斯金纳,这两个理论便是精神分析理论,和行为主义理论,今天我们先来讲讲精神分析理论,下周再谈行为主义理论,这些理论广阔的适用范围,则是它们能够吸引大家关注的原因之一.本课程中所学习的大部分理论,大部分学术观点,它们的应用范围都是狭隘的.我们会谈到某人所提出的,关于种族偏见的理论,但它却并不是语言获得的理论,我们会讲到关于精神分裂症的理论,但它们却并不能用来解释性吸引,大多数理论的适用范围都是有所限定的,但这两个理论则是大理论,它们试图对世间的一切做出解释,包括了日常生活,儿童发展心理疾病,宗教战争及爱情,弗洛伊德和斯金纳的理论解释了上述一切.当然这里并不是历史课堂,给你们介绍这两位心理学泰斗,并不只是想让大家了解心理学史,我想要向你们讲述的是他们的理论,因为它们是众多理论的基石,更重要的是,其中的很多观点对于我们如何理解当下,具有决定性的影响.就是这张,无论如何,弗洛伊德都深深的影响着我们的生活,如果我让大家选出一位,不是说出一位著名心理学家的名字,你们大家多数人会回答.弗洛伊德.他是史上最著名的心理学家,对20世纪与21世纪,的心理学界都有着深远的影响.据其传记记载,他生于19世纪50年代,他的大半生都是居住在奥地利的维也纳,却在伦敦去世,二战伊始随着纳粹侵占其家乡,他被迫背井离乡,后来逃到伦敦在那里终其余生,他也是史上最著名的学者之一,但他不是因为某一项发现而名扬四海,相反他却因为提出了极具包容性的,心理理论而闻名天下,这个理论是他通过数十年的研究才提出的,弗洛伊德在世时远近闻名,是个家喻户晓的名人纵观他的一生,他还是一个精力充沛的高产学者,部分原因是他是个十足的瘾君子,但总体而言,他是一个精力旺盛的人,他曾获得过诺贝尔医学奖和文学奖的提名,但却都未能最终获奖,没能获得诺贝尔医学奖则是因为爱因斯坦,大家都喜欢爱因斯坦,当时爱因斯坦确实写过一封信,因为大会曾征求其他获奖者的意见,爱因斯坦在信中写到,"请别把奖项颁发给弗洛伊德,他不配获得诺贝尔奖,他不过是个心理学家",事情就是这个样子,好了,他被公认为,极为重要的知识分子,但同时他也成为了别人唾弃的对象,这在一定程度上是由他的性格造成的,他的许多做法都有失妥当,他雄心勃勃,想要壮大精神分析,想要向世人展示他的观点,想要为其观点进行辩护,他还经常说谎,对朋友蛮不讲理,对竞争对手也毫不留情,他这人很有意思,我最喜欢的关于弗洛伊德的故事是这样的,他在纳粹兴起之际逃离欧洲,他正准备逃到英格兰去,我想应该是从德国或者是奥地利出发,盖世太保逼迫他签署了一份文件,盖世太保们拦住了他,要求他签署一份文件上面写着,他绝没有受到盖世太保的威胁或骚扰,他签署了文件并在下面写到,"盖世太保从不曾伤害我,实际上我要向大家强烈推荐他们",这里他表现出了一定的攻击性他还因其观点而遭到唾弃受到憎恨,他被认为是支持性本能论的,其观点试图毁掉,人是善良理性而又纯粹的这一概念,上世纪30年代纳粹势力崛起时,他被认为是一个,致力于摧毁基督教之中,最神圣的观念的犹太人,在某种程度上这是很多人对他的看法,而这一指责在某程度上,也的确是有几分道理的,弗洛伊德发表了许多关于人性的言论,很多人都并不愿相信他的这些言论,那他究竟说了些什么呢?,如果你去询问某个厌恶弗洛伊德言论的人,他们定会告诉你一些弗洛伊德说过的蠢话,而事实上弗洛伊德发表过很多言论,只是其中的部分言论不太合理而已,比如,他因对性器表征的解释而为人熟知,他认为某些建筑纪念碑,是潜意识中阴茎表征的展现,与此有关的是他提出了,臭名昭著的阴茎嫉妒论,根据弗洛伊德的理论,阴茎嫉妒是对女性所经历的,某一发展状态的解释,这个观点认为,女性会在发育的某个时期,发现自身缺少阴茎,这无疑是一场灾难,因此这个时候,女性便猜测自己是被阉割了,她们本来是拥有阴茎的,但却被某人夺去了,随后她们开始关注父亲,并爱上自己的父亲,因为父亲拥有阴茎,从此他成为了阴茎的替代品,同时女性会排斥母亲,原因是母亲没有阴茎所以也是卑贱的,女性的性心理发展随之成形.如果大家对于弗洛伊德的了解仅限于此,一定不会对他及其学说给予太高的评价,不过弗洛伊德理论的核心,也是更有价值的观点,是一系列关于人类理性的主张.其中的两个主要观点如图所示,这两个观点涉及了无意识动机的存在,以及导致心理疾病梦境,口误等心理过程的,无意识动力或无意识冲突的概念.第一个观点即关于无意识动机的观点The first idea – the idea of unconscious motivation –,拒绝承认人类行为受到意识的支配,假设你爱上了某人,想要与对方一同步入婚姻的殿堂,要是有人问你为什么想要与对方共度余生,你大概会说,"现在我已准备好要开始婚姻生活了",或"我真心的爱着他",或"他聪明有魅力","我想要小孩了" 等等,或许这是你的心里话,但精神分析的支持者会说,即使你是如实作答,并未向他人撒谎,但却依然存在着支配你行为的欲望和动机–still, there are desires and motivations that govern your behavior,只是你没有意识到罢了,所以事实上你想与约翰结婚,可能是因为他让你想起了你的父亲,或是因为你想要报复曾经背叛了你的人,如果有人这样对你说,你定会说"一派胡言",但精神分析的支持者并不会就此打住,他会说这些心理过程都是无意识的,所以你当然意识不到,由此引出的一个偏激的观点,你根本不知道自己为何要这么去做,这有点像我们获得视觉感知的过程,当我们环顾四周便会产生感知觉,明白这是一辆车,那是一棵树那边有一个人,你根本没有意识到知觉过程是如何发生的,但当你将无意识概念应用到很多事情中时,你便会感到不悦和恐惧,比如你为什么会来耶鲁求学,你为什么会觉得应当这样,去对待你的朋友和家人婚姻是一个极端的例子,但弗洛伊德还举了很多简单点的例子,来阐释无意识动机是如何发挥作用的,例如你是否曾经毫无理由地,喜欢或厌恶过某个人,你是否曾发现自己,在没有充分的理由的情况下做出某事,为某事争论或是做出了某个决定,你是否曾在最不应该的时候,忘掉了某人的姓名,你是否曾在与爱人激情时喊错了名字,这全都属于精神分析中的无意识范畴,所以这些事情可以通过,我们无法觉察到的认知系统,予以解释,如果无意识是台理智的计算机,它非常聪明,总在为你寻求最佳利益,那其实也倒没什么,但弗洛伊德告诉我们事实并非如此根据弗洛伊德的理论,在你的头脑中存在着,三种截然不同的人格结构,它们之间存在着强烈的内部冲突,你的行为模式与你的思维方式,并不是单一理性存在的产物,而是一系列冲突事件的产物,这三种结构分别是本我自我,和超我,它们随着个体的发展而逐渐出现弗洛伊德认为本我是与生俱来的,是自性中生物性的一面,本我追求吃喝拉撒保暖,和性欲的满足,它是盲目的,遵循弗洛伊德所说的"快乐原则" It works on what Freud called, "The Pleasure Principle.”,本我追求快乐的即时满足,根据弗洛伊德的理论,刚出生的婴儿就是这个样子,也就是说婴儿只有本我,弗洛伊德美其名曰"多形性反常",即追求纯粹的快乐,但不幸的是现实是残酷的,世事总难以尽如人意,快乐并不总是在你想要的时候得到满足,你只能通过设法满足欲望,或设法抑制欲望,来应对这样的事实,这个结构被称为自我或是自性,它所遵循的是"现实原则",它试图在现实中找到,满足本我要求的方法,找到追求快乐的方法,有时是去找寻放弃的方法,因而在弗洛伊德的理论中,自我的出现象征着意识的起源,最后如果只存在自我和本我,那么事情会简单得多,但弗洛伊德又提出了第三种结构超我,超我是社会家庭规范的内化,因此在成长过程中,你试图在现实中满足本我的要求,满足自己的欲望,但有时也会因此而受到惩罚,有些欲望是不适当的,有些行为是错的你会因此而受到惩罚,因为在你的脑海里会闪现出超我,一种道德良知,就像是电影里那些盘旋在头上的小天使,告诉你什么是不应该做的,而基本上自性或者说自我,是介于本我与超我之间的,需要注意的是,我之前说过本我是盲目的,它只知道"饿要吃饭性欲要满足,冷了要穿衣服" oh, let’s get warm, oh.”,但其实超我也是盲目的,超我并不是一位能够教你明辨是非的,伟大的道德哲学家,它只懂得说"你该为自己感到羞耻","你真恶心","别再那样做了","天啊" Oh.”,在这两个争执的声音之间的结构,一种声音要你去满足欲望,另一种声音却说"你应该感到羞耻",就是你就是自我,根据弗洛伊德的理论,人格结构的大部分是无意识的,我们可以看到,上面的部分是我们的感受,我们的经历,本我的驱力,本我和超我的力量,都存在于我们无法觉察的无意识之中,这就像是我们无法察觉,肾和胃的活动一样,你无法通过自省而感受到它们的存在,相反它们的活动都是无意识的,这就是弗洛伊德提出的理论,这就是弗洛伊德理论的大体框架,他在此基础上扩展并提出了,性心理发展理论,所以正如之前所说,弗洛伊德的理论不仅解释了日常生活,决策失误以及恋爱等现象,还解释了儿童的发展弗洛伊德认为人格发展,分为五个阶段,且每个阶段都与特定的动欲区有关,弗洛伊德还认为,如果你在某一阶段遇到了阻碍,没能得到满足你就会停留在这个阶段,所以根据弗洛伊德的理论,在座各位之所以展示出不同的人格,是因为你们停留在了口腔期或肛门期,这可不是什么好事第一阶段是口腔期,快乐来源于口腔的动作,包括吮吸咀嚼等活动,在弗洛伊德看来,问题就出在孩子过早断奶上面,过早断奶,会对他的人格发展造成严重影响,会使孩子形成所谓的口腔期人格,口唇期人格有一些具体的表现,弗洛伊德用口腔期人格,来解释为什么会有人暴饮暴食,嚼口香糖或是抽烟,他们想通过这种口腔运动,来获得本该在口腔期获得的满足感,口腔期人格也有一些抽象的表现,如果你的室友很依赖他人很粘人,你可以去告诉他,"你具有口腔期人格,你在出生的第一年里过的并不好"更为人所熟知的一个阶段则是肛门期,它出现在口腔期之后,如果没能正确掌握如厕训练,那么问题便出现了,据弗洛伊德的理论,如果你在那几年里你出了问题,那么你就会形成肛门期人格,你的室友会说"你就是肛门期人格" and your roommate could say, "Your problem is you’re too anal.”,根据弗洛伊德的理论,这就表示,你不愿意排泄粪便,书上就是这么写的,也确实就是这样的,这种人格表现为,强迫有洁癖和吝啬,这些都可从人们谈话方式看出,这就是肛门期人格接下来的阶段就稍微复杂点了,下一个阶段是性器官期,实际上这个阶段也并不是非常复杂,性器官成为了快乐的主要来源,固着在此阶段会导致女性或男性,过分男性化,或是导致女性产生对于关注或控制的欲求,这个时期会出现一个有趣的现象,叫做"俄狄浦斯情结" [恋母情结],名字来自于一个故事,一则国王弑父娶母的希腊神话,据弗洛伊德的理论,我们所有人都会产生这个情结,所有人,不过弗洛伊德指的是所有的男人,俄狄浦斯情结是这样的,你到了三四岁的年龄,处于性器官期,你会对什么感兴趣呢,你会对自己的性器官产生兴趣,之后你会去寻求外部客体,弗洛伊德对此描述的有些模糊,但其实你是在寻求某种满足,但全世界又有谁,是温柔体贴而又慈爱美丽的呢,妈妈,所以小男孩会推断,"妈妈很好我爱妈妈",到目前为止一切尚算正常,小男孩爱上了他的母亲,问题是父亲妨碍了他,现在事情变得越来越诡异,但我要说,我是两个儿子的父亲,我的两个儿子在性器官期时,都曾明确地说过要娶他们的妈妈,对我来说如果真有什么不幸And me – if something bad happened to me,也没有比儿子们弑父娶母更糟糕的事情了,就是这样,但这时会出现一些攻击性,男孩决心要去杀掉父亲,每个三四岁大的男孩都这么想过,但是据弗洛伊德的理论,由于儿童无法很好地,在心理和现实之间划清界限,这就是个问题which is a problem –the problem is they don’t –,即他们认为自己的父亲,能够看出他们在密谋弑父,而且他们还认为父亲非常生他们的气,之后他们会问自己,"爸爸对我施加的最坏的惩罚会是什么",答案就是阉割,所以他们最终总结出,父亲会因为他们对母亲,抱有非分之想而阉割他们,然后他们向父亲投降"爸爸赢了",随后几年他们不再对性感兴趣,也就是来到了潜伏期在潜伏期阶段,儿童不再纠缠于恋父或恋母情结,从"爱上母亲想要弑父,父亲要阉割我" 过渡到,"不再恋母不再对性感兴趣",在进入性器期之前,性欲一直是被压抑着的,性征期是我们大家都会经历的阶段And the genital stage is the stage we are all in –,它延续至成年,现在你成年了,经历了所有的发展阶段,那你现在又是处于什么阶段呢,你并没有脱离险境,因为无意识机制依然存在,即使你并没在任何阶段里发生固着,你的行为仍然会一直受到本我,自我和超我的驱使,大家记住你的超我是盲目的,超我不仅要求你别干坏事,还要求你不要有做坏事的想法,而你的本我则由赤裸裸的原始欲望构成,包括了疯狂的性欲和攻击欲,如"我要杀了他","我要那样做爱",或"我要再吃一份餐后甜点",超我则在打压这些欲望"不行",所以欲望受到了抑制,这个过程并不会出现在意识层面之中,问题在于,弗洛伊德用所谓的液压理论,解释了发生的事情,有些受到压抑的欲望,会通过梦境和口误而表现出来,在某些特殊情况下,受压抑的欲望,会通过特定的临床症状而表现出来弗洛伊德描述了,很多我们会在日常生活中使用的方法,我们用这些方法,来阻止来自本我的原始欲望,进入到意识之中,他把这些方法称为"防御机制",你通过抵制不适当的原始欲望来保护自己,其中有些防御机制是很有意义的,用并不专业的非精神分析的话语来表述,就是我们并不想知道某些事情的存在,有些欲望我们并不想承认,我们会设法将这些欲望隐藏起来,例如有一种叫做升华的防御机制,升华是你有很多的能量,可能是性能量也可能是攻击能量,但你并未将它们指向性目标或攻击目标,而是将这些能量以其他方式进行了释放,你可以想象像毕加索这样的艺术大师,通过绘画来释放他的性能量,还有移置,移置是你将自己某些不道德的想法或欲望,以安全的方式释放出去,屈于父亲权威下的男孩,可能会憎恨他的父亲想要伤害父亲,但这个想法是可耻的也是难以实现的,孩子可能会去踢狗觉得狗很可恨,因为狗是可以接受的替代性目标,还有投射机制,投射是指人们将自己不想拥有的,某种令自己不能容忍的冲动,投射到别人的身上,弗洛伊德举出的一个典型例子,就是同性恋的欲望,我对你产生了强烈的性欲,比如你们所有人你们三个,我为这种性欲感到羞耻,所以我会说,"你们干嘛色眯眯地看着我,你在对我暗送秋波吗太恶心了",因为我这样说不仅满足了自我欲求,还把想法投射到别人身上,弗洛伊德认为这或许不难理解,迷恋,迷恋其他男人性征的男人们,把他们自己的性欲投射到了别人的身上,还有合理化,是指当你做坏事或有不良想法时,你会将行为合理化,为行为寻找一个更为社会接受的解释,比如喜欢打孩子的父母,一般不会说"我就是喜欢打孩子",而是说"这都是为了孩子好,我只是想做一位好家长而已",最后来说说退行,意思是回归到发展的某个早期阶段,孩子们经常使用这种防御机制,在他们感到压力和受伤的时候,他们回到更加年幼的阶段,表现出年幼时的行为,他们可能会哭,吮大拇指或是去寻找毯子之类的弗洛伊德认为所有的机制,都绝非病态的表现,它们是日常生活的组成部分,一般来说我们会运用这些机制,去维持无意识系统的平衡,但有时防御机制也会不起作用,当防卫机制不起作用时,就会造成一种病症,其名称在如今的心理学领域已经不常用到,但在弗洛伊德的时代,这是个非常流行的名称,这就是癔症[歇斯底里症],癔症的临床表现包括,癔症性失明和癔症性失聪,它们是指你在并无器质性损伤的情况下,目不能视耳不能闻even though there’s nothing physiologically wrong with you –,此外还有瘫痪震颤恐慌症,健忘症之类的记忆缺失等等,上述这些都是实实在在的症状,这些就是试图将欲望抑制在无意识之中的,防御机制所产生的症状,电影中有很多这样的例子,电影中常见的情节是,有人会求助于精神分析师,他们都有一些严重的问题,比如失忆了或是意识丧失什么的,精神分析师会向他们进行解释,最后他们会理解这样的想法,明白自己为何会失明或失忆,对弗洛伊德来说事情就是这个样子弗洛伊德起初试图通过催眠,来唤起这些遗忘的记忆,但随后改用了自由联想机制,弗洛伊德认为,病人会抗拒自由联想,而精神分析学家的作用,则是克服病人的抗拒,帮助病人理解他们的内在想法,精神分析的关键假设在于,你所遇到的问题,实际上反映出了更深层次的冲突,这些冲突被你压抑起来,一旦你理解了更深层次的冲突究竟是什么,你的问题便会得到解决,现在我举一个心理辅导的例子,这并不是精神分析取向的心理治疗,稍后的课程我们会详细讨论,什么才是精神分析取向的心理治疗,该例子不是纯粹的精神分析取向心理治疗,在精神分析取向的心理治疗中,来访者躺在沙发上,看不到他们的心理治疗师,而心理治疗师也不会有任何暗示性的话语,但我之所以要举出这个例子,是因为它展示了大量精神分析理论的主题,特别是关于梦境梦的重要性,梦的压抑及其隐含意义这样的主题,例子摘自一段电视剧,在座可能已经有人看过,很多人可能还没看过,片中人物饱受恐慌症折磨,保罗•布罗姆教授曾在《黑道家族》中客串演出,尤其是在恐慌症发作的时候,他的首次恐慌症来自于这样一件事,他来到泳池边,看到鸭群飞离游泳池,他就这样患上了恐慌症,心脏剧烈跳动出汗,脸红几乎晕厥过去,恐慌症造成的压力越来越大,直到他去见了心理医生,进行了药物治疗恐慌症才得以治愈,这是他和心理医生的,一次会面弗洛伊德的贡献并不只是局限于,个体心理学和个体病理学的研究方面,正如幻灯片所示,弗洛伊德对梦境做了大量阐释,他认为梦是具有显性梦境的,"显性"是指醒后所能记忆的梦境,但梦还具有潜性梦境,潜性梦境是指梦所隐藏的含义,他认为所有的梦境都是愿望的满足,你做的每一个梦都是你所抱有愿望的展现,即使这是个你并不想拥有的,被禁止的愿望,在弗洛伊德之前就有观点指出,梦具有象征意义,梦境中的事物往往并不像,它们看上去那样的简单,它们通常是其他事物的象征,弗洛伊德认为文学作品童话故事,儿童读物之类的东西,都含有某个一般性的主题,某些方面的无意识冲突,以及某种无意识偏见,弗洛伊德还为宗教给出了大量解释,例如,他认为大部分人,想要寻求一位全知全能的神,其实质是在寻找在发展阶段,所缺失的父亲形象的替代品下面的课我想着重谈谈,对弗洛伊德的科学评价,前面我对弗洛伊德的理论进行了概述,接下来的时间我想来和大家讨论一下,弗洛伊德的理论是否可信,以及弗洛伊德的理论,在多大程度上是符合现代科学的,但在开始之前,先给大家几分钟的提问时间,你们对弗洛伊德,或是他的理论有什么问题吗你来,这问题不错,他提的问题是,弗洛伊德在描述性心理发展过程中,存在的冲突时,总是假设孩子是拥有父母的,是处于特定的家庭结构之中的,问题是,"要是孩子成长于单亲家庭会怎样",如果孩子从未接受过母乳喂养,而是从小就用奶瓶喂养那又会怎样,即便弗洛伊德的支持者们也对此存有疑问,弗洛伊德非常关注,与他接触之人的家庭生活,也就是一些欧洲的贵族们,对于这类问题,相信弗洛伊德本人也很难作答,我猜精神分析的支持者会说,你会看到系统的差异,你会看到由单身母亲抚养长大的孩子,或由单身父亲抚养长大的孩子,在某种意义上,会因此而形成心理创伤,从而无法正常地经历所有的性心理阶段下一个问题,这个问题是,"现代精神分析学家们仍然会认为,女性没有超我吗",正如你刚才指出的,弗洛伊德因一个观点的提出而臭名远扬,他认为与男性相比,女性在道德上是不成熟的,我想弗洛伊德会说女性也是有超我的,但她们的超我并没有男性的超我强大,我认为当今的精神分析学家们,和精神分析的学者们,对此的看法更为多元,有些人会坚持性别差异是根深蒂固的,其他人则想要抛弃精神分析理论,在这个方面的内容下一个问题,升华和移置相同吗,升华是否属于移置的一种形式,升华是指,这是一个好问题,这个问题其实在问什么是升华,它和其它防御机制有什么关系,很多的防御机制都涉及欲望和欲望的转换,移置是指将自己的欲望投放到他人身上,比如我在生你的气,但是可能由于某种原因我无法向你发脾气,所以我就迁怒到她身上,投射是指个体否认自己的欲望,并认为他人拥有此欲望,升华是指你放弃了具体对象,保存了能量,比如说你的室友通宵复习,你会对他说,"你是因为太久没做爱,却又很想做爱,所以你才会将全部的精力,都投入到数学考试之中",然后你总结一句"这叫升华,我在心理学导论课上学到的" I learned that in Intro Psych.”,想。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论英文字幕 transcript03
Introduction to Psychology: Lecture 3 Transcript January 24, 2007 << backProfessor Paul Bloom: Okay. The last class we talked about the brain. Now we're going to talk a little bit about some foundations. So today and Monday we're going to talk about two very big ideas and these ideas are associated with Sigmund Freud and B. F. Skinner and are psychoanalysis and behaviorism. And I want to talk about psychoanalysis today and behaviorism next week.Now, one of these things--One of the things that makes these theories so interesting is their scope. Most of the work we're going to talk about in this class--Most of the ideas are narrow. So, we're going to talk about somebody's idea about racial prejudice but that's not a theory of language acquisition. We'll talk about theories of schizophrenia but they're not explanations of sexual attractiveness. Most theories are specialized theories but these two views are grand theories. They're theories of everything, encompassing just about everything that matters, day-to-day life, child development, mental illness, religion, war, love. Freud and Skinner had explanations of all of these.Now, this is not a history course. I have zero interest in describing historical figures in psychology just for the sake of telling you about the history of the field. What I want to tell you about though is--I want to talk about these ideas because so much rests on them and, even more importantly, a lot of these ideas have critical influence on how we think about the present. And that's there. [pointing at the slide]Now, for better or worse, we live in a world profoundly affected by Sigmund Freud. If I had to ask you to choose a--no, name a famous psychologist, the answer of most of you would be Freud. He's the most famous psychologist ever and he's had a profound influence on the twentieth and twenty-first century. Some biographical information: He was born in the 1850s. He spent most of his life in Vienna, Austria, but he died in London and he escaped to London soon after retreating there at the beginning of World War II as the Nazis began to occupy where he lived.He's one of the most famous scholars ever but he's not known for any single discovery. Instead, he's known for the development of an encompassing theory of mind, one that he developed over the span of many decades. He was in his time extremely well known, a celebrity recognized on the street, and throughout his life. He was a man of extraordinary energy and productivity, in part because he was a very serious cocaine addict, butalso just in general. He was just a high-energy sort of person. He was up for the Nobel Prize in medicine and in literature; didn't get either one of them; didn't get the prize in medicine because AlbertEinstein--Everybody loves Albert Einstein. Well, Albert Einstein really wrote a letter because they asked for opinions of other Nobel Prizes. He wrote a letter saying, "Don't give the prize to Freud. He doesn't deserve a Nobel Prize. He's just a psychologist." Well, yeah. Okay.While he's almost universally acclaimed as a profoundly important intellectual figure, he's also the object of considerable dislike. This is in part because of his character. He was not a very nice man in many ways. He was deeply ambitious to the cause of promoting psychoanalysis, to the cause of presenting his view and defending it, and he was often dishonest, extremely brutal to his friends, and terrible to his enemies. He was an interesting character.My favorite Freud story was as he was leaving Europe during the rise of the Nazis, as he was ready to go to England from, I think, either Germany or Austria, he had to sign a letter from the Gestapo. Gestapo agents intercepted him and demanded he sign a letter saying that at no point had he been threatened or harassed by the Gestapo. So he signs the letter and then he writes underneath it, "The Gestapo has not harmed me in any way. In fact, I highly recommend the Gestapo to everybody." It's--He had a certain aggression to him. He was also--He's also disliked, often hated, because of his views. He was seen as a sexual renegade out to destroy the conception of people as good and rational and pure beings. And when the Nazis rose to power in the 1930s he was identified as a Jew who was devoted to destroying the most sacred notions of Christianity and to many, to some extent, many people see him this way. And to some extent, this accusation has some truth to it.Freud made claims about people that many of us, maybe most of us, would rather not know. Well, okay. What did he say? Well, if you ask somebody who doesn't like Freud what he said, they'll describe some of the stupider things he said and, in fact, Freud said a lot of things, some of which were not very rational. For instance, he's well known for his account of phallic symbols, arguing certain architectural monuments are subconsciously developed as penile representations. And related to this, he developed the notorious theory of penis envy. And penis envy is an account of a developmental state that every one of you who is female has gone through, according to Freud. And the idea is that you discovered at some point in your development that you lacked a penis. This is not--This is a catastrophe. And so, each of you inferred at that point that you had been castrated. You had once had a penis but somebody had taken it from you. You then turn to your father and love your father because your fatherhas a penis, so he's a sort of penis substitute. You reject your mother, who's equally unworthy due to her penis lack, and that shapes your psychosexual development.Now, if that's the sort of thing you know about Freud, you are not going to have a very high opinion of him or of his work, but at the core of Freud's declamation, the more interesting ideas, is a set of claims of a man's intellectual importance. And the two main ones are this. The two main ones involve the existence of an unconscious, unconscious motivation, and the notion of unconscious dynamics or unconscious conflict which lead to mental illnesses, dreams, slips of the tongue and so on.The first idea 鈥� the idea of unconscious motivation 鈥� involvesrejecting the claim that you know what you're doing. So, suppose you fall in love with somebody and you decide you want to marry them and then somebody was asked to ask you why and you'd say something like, "Well, I'm ready to get married this stage of my life; I really love the person; the person is smart and attractive; I want to have kids" whatever. And maybe this is true. But a Freudian might say that even if this is yourhonest answer 鈥�you're not lying to anybody else 鈥搒till, there aredesires and motivations that govern your behavior that you may not be aware of. So, in fact, you might want to marry John because he reminds you of your father or because you want to get back at somebody for betraying you.If somebody was to tell you this, you'd say, "That's total nonsense," but that wouldn't deter a Freudian. The Freudian would say that these processes are unconscious so of course you just don't know what's happening. So, the radical idea here is you might not know what--why you do what you do and this is something we accept for things like visual perception. We accept that you look around the world and you get sensations and you figure out there is a car, there is a tree, there is a person. And you're just unconscious of how this happens but it's unpleasant and kind of frightening that this could happen, that this could apply to things like why you're now studying at Yale, why you feel the way you do towards your friends, towards your family.Now, the marriage case is extreme but Freud gives a lot of simpler examples where this sort of unconscious motivation might play a role. So, have you ever liked somebody or disliked them and not known why? Have you ever found yourself in a situation where you're doing something or you're arguing for something or making a decision for reasons that you can't fully articulate? Have you ever forgotten somebody's name at exactly the wrong time? Have you ever called out the wrong name in the throes of passion?This is all the Freudian unconscious. The idea is that we do these things--these things are explained in terms of cognitive systems that we're not aware of.Now, all of this would be fine if your unconscious was a reasonable, rational computer, if your unconscious was really smart and looking out for your best interest. But, according to Freud, that's not the way it works. According to Freud, there are three distinct processes going on in your head and these are in violent internal conflict. And the way you act and the way you think are products, not of a singular rational being, but of a set of conflicting creatures. And these three parts are the id, the ego, and the superego and they emerge developmentally.The id, according to Freud, is present at birth. It's the animal part of the self. It wants to eat, drink, pee, poop, get warm, and have sexual satisfaction. It is outrageously stupid. It works on what Freud called, "The Pleasure Principle." It wants pleasure and it wants it now. And that's,according to Freud, how a human begins 鈥� pure id. Freud had thiswonderful phrase, "polymorphous perversity," this pure desire for pleasure.Now, unfortunately, life doesn't work like that. What you want isn't always what you get and this leads to a set of reactions to cope with the fact that pleasure isn't always there when you want it either by planning how to satisfy your desires or planning how to suppress them. And this system is known as the ego, or the self. And it works on the "Reality Principle." And it works on the principle of trying to figure out how to make your way through the world, how to satisfy your pleasures or, in somecases, how to give up on them. And the ego 鈥� the emergence of the ego for Freud--symbolizes the origin of consciousness.Finally, if this was all there it might be a simpler world, but Freud had a third component, that of the superego. And the superego is the internalized rules of parents in society. So, what happens in the course of development is, you're just trying to make your way through the world and satisfy your desires, but sometimes you're punished for them. Some desires are inappropriate, some actions are wrong, and you're punished for it. The idea is that you come out; you get in your head a superego, a conscience. In these movies, there'd be a little angel above your head that tells you when things are wrong. And basically your self, the ego, is in between the id and the superego.One thing to realize, I told you the id is outrageously stupid. It just says, "Oh, hungry, food, sex, oh, let's get warm, oh." The superego is also stupid. The superego, point to point, is not some brilliant moral philosopher telling you about right and wrong. The superego would say, "You should be ashamed of yourself. That's disgusting. Stop doing that. Oh." And in between these two screaming creatures, one of you; one of them telling you to seek out your desires, the other one telling you, "you should be ashamed of yourself," is you, is the ego.Now, according to Freud, most of this is unconscious. So, we see bubbling up to the top, we feel, we experience ourselves. And the driving of the id, the forces of the id and the forces of the superego, are unconscious in that we cannot access them. We don't know what--It's like the workings of our kidneys or our stomachs. You can't introspect and find them. Rather, they do their work without conscious knowledge.Now, Freud developed this. This is the Freudian theory in broad outline. He extended it and developed it into a theory of psychosexual development. And so, Freud's theory is, as I said before, a theory of everyday life, of decisions, of errors, of falling in love, but it's also a theory of child development. So, Freud believed there were five stages of personality development, and each is associated with a particular erogenous zone. And Freud believed, as well, that if you have a problem at a certain stage, if something goes wrong, you'll be stuck there. So, according to Freud, there are people in this room who are what they are because they got stuck in the oral stage or the anal stage. And that's not good.So, the oral stage is when you start off. The mouth is associated with pleasure. Everything is sucking and chewing and so on. And the problem for Freud is premature weaning of a child. Depriving him of the breast, could lead to serious problems in his personality development. It could make him, as the phrase goes, into an oral person. And his orality could be described literally. Freud uses it as an explanation for why somebody might eat too much or chew gum or smoke. They're trying to achieve satisfaction through their mouth of a sort they didn't get in this very early stage of development. But it can also be more abstract. If your roommate is dependent and needy, you could then go to your roommate and say, "You are an oral person. The first year of your life did not go well."A phrase even more popular is the anal stage and that happens after the oral stage. And problems can emerge if toilet training is not handled correctly. If you have problems during those years of life, you could become an anal personality, according to Freud, and your roommate could say, "Your problem is you're too anal." And, according to Freud, literally,it meant you are unwilling to part with your own feces. It's written down here. I know it's true. And the way it manifests itself, as you know from just how people talk, is you're compulsive, you're clean, you're stingy. This is the anal personality.Then it gets a little bit more complicated. The next stage is the phallic stage. Actually, this is not much more complicated. The focus of pleasure shifts to the genitals and fixation can lead to excessive masculinity in females or in males or if you're female a need for attention or domination. Now, at this point something really interesting happens called the "Oedipus Complex." And this is based on the story, the mythical story of a king who killed his father and married his mother. And, according to Freud, this happens to all of us in this way. Well, all of us. By "all of us," Freud meant "men."So, here's the idea. You're three or four years old. You're in the phallic stage. So, what are you interested in? Well, you're interested in your penis and then you seek an external object. Freud's sort of vague about this, but you seek some sort of satisfaction. But who is out there who'd be sweet and kind and loving and wonderful? Well, Mom. So the child infers, "Mom is nice, I love Mom." So far so--And so this is not crazy; a little boy falling in love with his mother. Problem: Dad's in the way.Now, this is going to get progressively weirder but I will have to say, as the father of two sons, both sons went through a phase where theyexplicitly said they wanted to marry Mommy. And me 鈥�if something badhappened to me that wouldn't be the worst thing in the world. So, there's this. But now it gets a little bit aggressive. So, the idea is the child determines that he's going to kill his father. Every three- andfour-year-old boy thinks this. But then because children, according to Freud, don't have a good sense of the boundary between their mind and theworld, which is a problem 鈥�the problem is they don't 鈥�they thinktheir father can tell that they're plotting to kill him and they figure their father is now angry at them. And then they ask themselves, "What's the worst thing Dad could do to me?" And the answer is castration. So, they come to the conclusion that their father is going to castrate them because of their illicit love for their Mom. And then they say, "Dad wins" and then they don't think about sex for several years and that's the latency stage.The latency stage is they've gone through this huge thing with Mom and Dad, "fell in love with Mom, wanted to kill my father, Dad was going to castrate me, fell out of love with Mom, out of the sex business." And then,sex is repressed until you get to the genital stage. And the genital stageis the stage we are all in 鈥� the healthy adult stage. Now that you'readults and you've gone through all the developmental stages, where do you stand? You're not out of the woods yet because unconscious mechanisms are still--Even if you haven't got fixated on anything, there's still this dynamic going on all the time with your id, your ego and your superego. And the idea is your superego--Remember, your superego is stupid. So, your superego isn't only telling you not to do bad things, it's telling you not to think bad things. So, what's happening is your id is sending up all of this weird, sick stuff, all of these crazy sexual and violent desires, "Oh, I'll kill him. I'll have sex with that. I'll have extra helpings on my dessert." And your superego is saying, "No, no, no." And this stuff is repressed. It doesn't even make it to consciousness.The problem is Freud had a very sort of hydraulic theory of what goes on and some of this stuff slips out and it shows up in dreams and it shows up in slips of the tongue. And in exceptional cases, it shows up in certain clinical symptoms. So what happens is, Freud described a lot of normal life in terms of different ways we use to keep that horrible stuff from the id making its way to consciousness. And he called these "defense mechanisms." You're defending yourself against the horrible parts of yourself and some of these make a little bit of sense.One way to describe this in a non-technical, non-Freudian way is, there are certain things about ourselves we'd rather not know. There are certain desires we'd rather not know and we have ways to hide them. So, for instance, there's sublimation. Sublimation is you might have a lot of energy, maybe sexual energy or aggressive energy, but instead of turning it to a sexual or aggressive target what you do is you focus it in some other way. So, you can imagine a great artist like Picasso turning the sexual energy into his artwork.There is displacement. Displacement is you have certain shameful thoughts or desires and you refocus them more appropriately. A boy who's bullied by his father may hate his father and want to hurt him but since this would--this is very shameful and difficult. The boy might instead kick the dog and think he hates the dog because that's a more acceptable target.There is projection. Projection is, I have certain impulses I am uncomfortable with, so rather than own them myself, I project them to somebody else. A classic example for Freud is homosexual desires. The idea is that I feel this tremendous lust towards you, for instance, and--any of you, all of you, you three, and I'm ashamed of this lust so what I say is, "Hey. Are you guys looking at me in a sexual manner? Are you lustingafter me? How disgusting," because what I do is I take my own desires and I project it to others. And Freud suggested, perhaps not implausibly, that men who believe other men--who are obsessed with the sexuality of other men, are themselves projecting away their own sexual desires.There is rationalization, which is that when you do something or think something bad you rationalize it and you give it a more socially acceptable explanation. A parent who enjoys smacking his child will typically not say, "I enjoy smacking my child." Rather he'll say, "It's for the child's own good. I'm being a good parent by doing this."And finally, there is regression, which is returning to an earlier stage of development. And you actually see this in children. In times of stress and trauma, they'll become younger, they will act younger. They might cry. They might suck their thumb, seek out a blanket or so on. Now, these are all mechanisms that for Freud are not the slightest bit pathological. They are part of normal life. Normally, we do these things to keep an equilibrium among the different systems of the unconscious, but sometimes it doesn't work. Sometimes things go awry and what happens is a phrase that's not currently used in psychology but was popular during Freud's time: hysteria.Hysteria includes phenomena like hysterical blindness and hysterical deafness, which is when you cannot see and cannot hear even though there'snothing physiologically wrong with you 鈥�paralysis, trembling, panicattacks, gaps of memory including amnesia and so on. And the idea is that these are actually symptoms. These are symptoms of mechanisms going on to keep things unconscious. It's a common enough idea in movies. Often in movies what happens is that somebody goes to an analyst. They have some horrible problem. They can't remember something or they have some sort of blackouts and so on. And the analyst tells them something and at one point they get this insight and they realize what--why they've blinded themselves, why they can't remember, and for Freud this is what happens. Freud originally attempted to get these memories out through hypnosis but then moved to the mechanism of free association and, according to Freud, the idea is patients offer resistance to this and then the idea of a psychoanalyst is to get over the resistance and help patients get insight.The key notion of psychoanalysis is your problems are--actually reflect deeper phenomena. You're hiding something from yourself, and once you know what's going on to deeper phenomena your problems will go away. I'm going to give you an example of a therapy session. Now, this is not a Freudian analysis. We'll discuss later on in the course what a Freudian analysis is, but this is not a pure Freudian analysis. A Freudian analysis, ofcourse, is lying on a couch; does not see their therapist; their therapist is very nondirective. But I'm going to present this as an example here because it illustrates so many of the Freudian themes, particularly themes about dreams, the importance of dreams, about repression and about hidden meaning.So, this is from a television episode and the character's--Many--Some of you may have seen this. Many of you will not have. The character is suffering from panic attacks. [Professor Paul Bloom plays a short episode from the Sopranos]Freud's contributions extend beyond the study of individual psychology and individual pathology. Freud had a lot to say about dreams as you could see in this illustration. He believed that dreams had a manifest content, meaning; "manifest" meaning what you experience in your dream. But dreams always had a latent content as well, meaning the hidden implication of the dream. He viewed all dreams as wish fulfillment. Every dream you have is a certain wish you have even though it might be a forbidden wish that you wouldn't wish to have, you wouldn't want to have. And dreams had--and this is an idea that long predated Freud. Dreams had symbolism. Things in dreams were often not what they seemed to be but rather symbols for other things. Freud believed that literature and fairy tales and stories to children and the like carried certain universal themes, certain aspects of unconscious struggles, and certain preoccupations of our unconscious mind. And Freud had a lot to say about religion. For instance, he viewed a large part of our--of the idea of finding a singular, all-powerful god as seeking out a father figure that some of us never had during development.What I want to spend the rest of the class on is the scientific assessment of Freud. So, what I did so far is I've told you what Freud had to say in broad outline. I then want to take the time to consider whether or not we should believe this and how well it fits with our modern science. But before doing so, I'll take questions for a few minutes. Do people have any questions about Freud or Freud's theories? Yes.Student: [inaudible]Professor Paul Bloom: So, that's some question. The question is: The conflicts in psychosexual development that Freud describes is--always assumes that a child has a mother and a father, one of each, in a certain sort of familial structure. And the question then is, "What if a child was raised by a single parent, for example?" What if a child was never breast fed, but fed from the bottle from the start? And Freudians have had problems with this. Freud's--Freud was very focused on the family lifeof the people he interacted with, which is rather upper class Europeans, and these sort of questions would have been difficult for Freud to answer.I imagine that what a Freudian would have to say is, you would expect systematic differences. So, you would expect a child who just grew up with a mother or just grew up to be a father--with a father to be in some sense psychologically damaged by that, failing to go through the normal psychosexual stages. Yes.Student: [inaudible]Professor Paul Bloom: The issue--The question is, "Do modern psychoanalysts still believe that women do not have superegos?" Freud was--As you're pointing out, Freud was notorious for pointing, for suggesting that women were morally immature relative to men. I think Freud would say that women have superegos, they're just not the sort of sturdy ones that men have. I think psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic scholars right now would be mixed. Some would maintain that there really are deep sex differences. Others would want to jettison that aspect of Freudian theory. Yes.Student: Do you define sublimation as being displacement? Does that make it sort of a subgroup of displacement?Professor Paul Bloom: Well, what sublimation is--A lot of these--It's a good question. The question is sort of, what is sublimation? How does it relate to the other defense mechanisms? A lot of defense mechanisms involve taking a desire and turning it. Now, what displacement does is it takes it from you to her. I'm angry at you but maybe that's forbidden for some reason, so I'll be angry at her. What projection does is takes a desire from me and then puts it on somebody else heading outwards. And what sublimation does is it just gives up the details and keeps the energy. So, you stay up--Your roommate stays up all night working and you say to your roommate, for instance, "That's just because you haven't had sex in a long time and you want to have sex so you devote all your energy to your math exam." And then you say, "That's sublimation. I learned that in Intro Psych." And your roommate would be very pleased. One more question. Yes.Student: What kind of evidence is there for cross-cultural variation?Professor Paul Bloom: The question is, which is related to theissue--extending the issue of the two-parent versus one-parent family is, "To what extent are these notions validated cross-culturally?" And that's such a good question I'm going to defer it. I'm going to talk about it in a few minutes because that's actually--That speaks to the issue of the。
耶鲁大学-心理学导论class06
What do all languages share?
• Creative: We can create and understand sentences we never heard before How many grammatical sentences under 20 words? About 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 How do we do it? Abstract and unconscious rules
Language
https:///portal/
• Go to “Announcements” -- minor change to syllabus -- note-taking opportunity -- Pinker reading is on p. 97 -- only 9 reading responses needed
3
Basic facts about language
• Every human society has language Cultural innovation? No -- creation of language in a single generation pidgin --> creole (creolization) • Every normal human has language
Ambiguous sentences = Different rules to interpret the same string of words
“I once shot an elephant in my pajamas. How it got into my pajamas, I’ll never know” -- Groucho Marx Shot [an elephant] [in my pajamas]
分享自学耶鲁大学公开课《心理学导论》
心理健康维护策略分享
自我观察与记录
关注自己的情绪变化，及时记录 并分析。
积极应对压力
学习有效应对压力的方法，如放 松训练、冥想等。
建立良好的人际关系
与家人、朋友保持联系，分享彼 此的感受和经历。
培养健康的生活方式
合理饮食、充足睡眠、适量运动 等有助于维护心理健康。
寻求专业帮助途径和资源
专业心理咨询机构
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社会心理学与人际关系
社会认知过程剖析
认知过程定义
社会认知是指个体对社会环境中的人、事、物进 行感知、理解和评价的过程。
认知过程影响因素
个体的经验、文化背景、情感状态等都会影响社 会认知过程。
认知偏差
由于主观因素和客观条件的限制，个体在社会认 知中容易出现偏差，如刻板印象、晕轮效应等。
人际关系建立和维护技巧
能，形成自己的社会角色和身份认同。
教育原则和方法应用
因材施教
根据儿童的发展阶段和个 体差异，采用针对性的教 学方法和策略，促进儿童 的全面发展。
激发兴趣
通过生动有趣的教学内容 和活动设计，激发儿童的 学习兴趣和内在动机，提 高学习效果。
实践应用
鼓励儿童将所学知识应用 于实际生活和问题解决中， 培养实践能力和创新精神。
分享自学耶鲁大学公 开课《心理学导论》
目录
• 课程简介与背景 • 认知过程与意识 • 情绪、动机与行为 • 发展心理学与教育应用 • 社会心理学与人际关系 • 异常心理学与心理健康维护
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课程简介与背景
耶鲁大学公开课《心理学导论》概述
01
课程名称
《心理学导论》
02
授课机构
耶鲁大学
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课程性质
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论 第2课中文课件
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论第2课中文课件耶鲁大学开放课程心理学导论第2课基础：这是你的大脑今天我们开始正式上课，心理学导论，我们首先要来探讨的是大脑；我想先提到一种观点，这种观点的提出者是位诺贝尔奖得主,生物学家、费兰西斯.克里克；他将这种观点称为“惊人的假说”，这一惊人的假说大致观点如下：正如他在其著作《惊人的假说》中写道“你、你的喜悦、悲伤、回忆、抱负，你对人格同一性的感知、你的自由意志；事实上这一切都不过是大量神经细胞集与其缔合分子的生理反应而已；正如刘易斯.卡罗尔在《爱丽斯》中所描述的“你不过是一堆神经元罢了”，用“惊人”来形容这个观点是贴切的，这是个古怪又反常的观点：我并不奢望大家在一开始就能接受这个观点，即使到课程结束时能否接受这个观点，依然是你们的自由；相反、你们要现在就能接受，倒是会让我感到很奇怪，我知道多数人接受不了。
实际上、他们持有另外一种观点，大多数人都是二元论者，二元论则是一种截然不同的假说，你能够在有史以来的所有宗教和绝大多数哲学体系中找到这个假说，比如、柏拉图就曾明确提出过；但是最著名最有影响力的二元论拥护者则非哲学家勒奈.笛卡尔莫属，勒奈.笛卡尔明确地提出了一个问题“人类是否仅仅是生理机器、是生理客体而已”他的答复是“不”，他认为动物都是机器，实际上他将动物称之为“野兽机器”；他认为非人类动物全是机器人，但人类是不同的、人类具有二元性；我们和动物一样拥有有形的生理客体，但与动物不同，我们的本质却并非是生理的，我们是拥有生理客体的无形心灵，我们的心灵占据着生理客体，寄居其中与其形成紧密的联系，这便是二元论，因为它主张至少对于人类而言存在两种独立的成分，即有形的生理客体与无形的心理；笛卡尔为二元论提出了两点论据：第一点是基于对人类行为的观察，笛卡尔生活在一个人类社会发展相对成熟的时代，在他生活的年代已经出现了机器人，当然不是我们现代的电动机器人，当时的机器人需要用水力来带动，笛卡尔曾经在法国皇家园林中散步，当时的法国皇家园林被建造得犹如17世纪的迪斯尼乐园一般，园林中有很多人偶造型可以运用水流来控制他们的动作；当你踏上相应的踩踏板，一个剑客便会跳出来向你挥剑，如果你踩到了另一块，一个正在沐浴的美女便会藏到树丛里去；因此笛卡尔说“天呐、这些机器可以对特定的动作做出特定的反应，原来机器也是可以完成某些动作的”；实际上他说道“我们的身体也是这样运作的，如果你轻击某人的膝盖，小腿就会弹出去，或许这就是我们的本质”但是笛卡尔否定了这一观点，因为有些事情人类可以做到，机器永远不可能做到；人类的行为不光只有反射，相反、人类拥有协调能力、创造力以及发起自发性行为的能力；例如我们能够运用语言，当然有时我说出的话会是反射性的，比如有人问我“你好吗？”我会说“很好、你呢？”但有时、我可以选择那些我想要说的话“你好吗”“非常好”我完全可以进行选择;笛卡尔认为机器无法做出这种选择，因此我们不仅仅只是机器；当然、他的第二个论据非常的有名，在这里他用到了怀疑方法，他首先问自己一个问题“我究竟能够确信什么呢”之后他自答到“我相信上帝、但说实话、我不能确定上帝的存在，我相信我生活在一个富有的国度，但我可能是被愚弄了”；他甚至说“我相信我拥有朋友与家人，但或许我只是他们的一颗棋子罢了，或许是有个恶魔在戏弄我，让我产生错觉感受到了一些并不存在的东西”；《黑客帝国》便是这些怀疑的现代版演绎，《黑客帝国》的创意完全基于笛卡尔的哲学，笛卡尔对于恶灵的忧虑，或许你现在所经历的一切都不是真实的，而是某种邪恶生物制造出的幻觉；笛卡尔甚至同样怀疑自己身体的存在，事实上他注意到疯子有时会相信自己有额外的四肢或者相信他们的大小与形状是与实际不同的，笛卡尔问道“我如何让才能确定我不是个疯子，疯子们都认为自己是正常的，所以我觉得自己不是疯子，我又如何能确定我现在不是在做梦呢”；但迪卡尔认为有一点是他无法质疑的，那就是他无法怀疑自我思考的存在，而这又成为了对自己的反驳；因此、笛卡尔运用怀疑方法得出与拥有不可确定的身体不同、拥有心理是肯定的；他用这一论据来支持二元论、来支持身心二元的观点；因此他总结到“我知道我是个实体、是思考主体的本质或本性，而这种思考主体的存在，无需任何空间，也不依赖与任何有形实体；也就是说我的心灵、我的本质完全不同于我的身体”；我之前说过这是个普通观点，现在我要从几个方面来说明这个普遍观点：首先、二元论镶嵌于我们的语言之中，我们对我们所拥有的或是与我们有关的事物有着特定的表述模式，比如“我的胳膊、我的心脏、我的孩子、我的爱车”但我们对自己身体和大脑的表述，却也是如此在我们谈及我们拥有大脑时，似乎大脑是与我们相分的;二元论揭示了直觉上的人格同一性，这也就是在说普通观点告诉我们，一个人、即使经历了身体上的巨变也依旧是原先的那个人，很多虚构的故事非常能说明这个道理；我们完全能够看懂电影中，一个少女睡去一觉醒来却变成了詹妮弗.加纳一个成年人，没人会说“这就是纪录片、我相信这些全部是真的”但同时无论大人、青少年还是孩子、没有人会选择中途离开，说“我完全不知道电影在讲些什么”；相反、我们能够理解电影中的故事情节，我们也能理解很多包含更大转变的故事；比如某人死后又转世投胎到新生儿的身上，你可能有些不同的观点是关于对于转世投胎是否真的存在，在座的各位可能会有很多不同的看法；但我们可以想象一下，我们可以想象有这么个一个人死了，然后出现在另一个身体里；这并非是好莱坞首创上世纪最伟大的短篇小说之一，弗郎茨.卡夫卡所写的名篇是这样开头的“一天早晨，格里高尔.萨姆沙从不安的睡梦中醒来发现自己躺在床上变成了一只巨大的甲虫”这里卡夫卡再带次领我们去想象一觉醒来却变成一只甲虫的场景，而我们是可以想象到的；还有一个古老的例子，在公元前几百年荷马这样描述奥德赛的几个同样的命运，一个女巫将它们变成了猪，实际上这么说并不准确，他并未将它们变成猪，他的做法更加过分，女巫将它们封锁在猪的身体里，他们拥有猪的脑袋、声音、鬃毛和身体，但他们的心里却从未改变，他们被关在猪圈里轻声哭泣，在这里、作者再次邀请我们去想象，我们自己被困在其他动物身体里的场景，如果你能想象如此场景，那是因为你将自己当做了与所依肉体分离的心理实体；我们相信许多人是能够“灵魂附体”的，这是滑稽戏剧的一贯伎俩;同样也出现在经典电影《衰鬼上错身》中史蒂芬.马丁和莉莉.汤普林主演大力推荐，但很多人认为这种事情是真实存在的，对多重人格障碍的一种解释就是在你的身体中存在着多个心灵争夺对身体的控制权；我们将在本学期结束之前探讨多重人格障碍，到时大家会发现，事情要远比这复杂得多，但我想说的并非多重人格障碍究竟是什么，而是我们如何看待它，普通观点告诉我们，你的身体里可以拥有不止一个的心灵，这种普遍观点出现在许多不同的故事之中，也包括恶灵附体；许多信任系统都相信，个体行为，尤其是那些邪恶或非理性行为之所以会出现，是因为某种事物占据了他们的身体。
2024版耶鲁大学公开课《心理学导论》笔记
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遗忘规律及提高记忆方法
遗忘规律
德国心理学家艾宾浩斯研究发现，遗忘在学 习之后立即开始，而且遗忘的进程并不是均 匀的。最初遗忘很快，以后逐渐缓慢。
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提高记忆方法
包括反复复习、尝试回忆、多样化练习、合 理安排学习时间等。此外，还可以通过联想
记忆、形象记忆等技巧来提高记忆效果。
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认知偏差与决策失误
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注意概念及影响因素
注意的定义
指心理活动对一定对象的指向和集中，是 伴随着感知觉、记忆、思维、想象等心理 过程的一种共同的心理特征。
VS
注意的影响因素
包括刺激物的强度、对比度、新颖性、运 动变化等物理特征，以及个体的需要、兴 趣、情感、经验和知识结构等主观因素。
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记忆类型与加工过程
记忆类型
记忆加工过程
根据信息保持时间的长短，可分为感觉记忆、 短时记忆和长时记忆。
包括编码、存储和提取三个阶段。编码是对 输入信息进行加工处理，使之转化为易于存 储和提取的形式；存储是将编码后的信息保 存在大脑中；提取则是将存储的信息从大脑 中取出来，以供使用。
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采取主动措施来解决问题或缓解 压力，如寻求帮助、制定计划、
调整心态等。
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接受与适应
当无法改变压力源时，接受现实 并适应环境，通过调整自己的态 度和行为来减轻压力。
寻求社会支持
与家人、朋友或专业人士交流， 分享自己的感受和压力，获得情 感支持和建议。
培养健康的生活方式
保持充足的睡眠、均衡的饮食和 适量的运动，有助于缓解身体和
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第六课(耶鲁大学-心理学导论讲稿)
心理学导论（耶鲁大学公开课）第二讲大脑
心理学导论（耶鲁大学公开课）第二讲大脑诺贝尔得主生物学家Francis Crick有一个“惊人的假说”：你，你的喜悦，悲伤，回忆，抱负，你对人格同一性的感知，你的自由意志，事实上，这一切都不过是大量神经细胞集与其缔合分子的生理反应而已。
你不过是一堆神经元而已。
这个观点很多人接受不了，因为很多人都是二元论者Dualist. 二元论在所有的宗教和很多哲学体系里都有，历史久远。
最著名的二元论者是笛卡尔。
他认为动物是野兽机器，但人类是二元的，人和动物一样拥有有形的生理客体，但是与动物有着本质区别的是，人类是非物理性的，人类是拥有物理身体的无形心灵。
心理占据着身体，形成紧密的联系。
既人类有2部分组成，有形的物质的身体和无形的心灵。
笛卡尔的二元论基于二个论据：1. 基于对人类行为的观察笛卡尔观察了那个时代的机器人，他们可以根据设定完成一些动作，但笛卡尔认为人类的行为不光只有反射，人类更具有协调，创造及自发性行为能力2. 用怀疑的方法来证明Ø “我信仰上帝，但无法证明上帝的存在“；Ø “我有亲朋好友，但也许这只是一个幻像”（电影黑客帝国就说基于笛卡尔的这一学说，你所经历的一切都非真实的）Ø “我如何证明我不是疯子”笛卡尔通过这些疑问和思考，能够确认的是“自我思考的存在”，所以他能够确定的是“心灵的存在”，从而也就证明心灵和身体是分离的。
我知道我是个实体是思考主体的本质或本性，而这种思考主体的存在无需任何空间，也不依赖于任何有形的实体，我的心灵，我的本质完全不同于我的身体二元论被广泛的接受：1. 存在与日常语言当中，我们常说我的汽车如何如何，我的孩子如何如何，同样我们也会说我的心如何如何2. 存在与各种文艺作品中，小说（卡夫卡《变形记》），电影，传说3. 人们普遍相信灵魂附体或者死后灵魂会进天堂/地域，既灵魂不灭4. 对于多重人格障碍，有一种解释就是身体存在多个心灵，在争夺对身体的控制而科学早已证明二元论是错误的，不存在与身体相分离的另一个你！心理是大脑活动的产物，心理反应大脑的活动，就像运算结果反应了计算机的运行一样。
耶鲁大学心理学公开课
电驴资源下面是用户共享的文件列表，安装电驴后，您可以点击这些文件名进行下载 耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.01.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.V2.rmvb详情119.3MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.02.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.V2.rmvb详情212.6MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.03.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.V2.rmvb详情226.7MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.04.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.rmvb详情236MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.05.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.rmvb详情196.3MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.06.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.rmvb详情226.2MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：240.3MB制作.rmvb详情耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.08.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.rmvb详情224MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.09.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.rmvb详情279.7MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.10.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.rmvb详情238MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.11.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.rmvb详情214.6MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.12.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.rmvb详情226.1MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：Introduction.to.Psychology.13.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.rmvb详情264.8MB耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.Open.Yale.course ：212.9MB制作.rmvb详情耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论.OpenYalecourse ：IntroductiontoPsychology.15.Chi_Eng.640X360-YYeTs 人人影视制作.rmvb详情246.7MB。
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Cognitive DevelopmentReading Response #1 • Give a Freudian explanation for alcoholism. Then give a behaviorist explanation. Finally, invent a behaviorist treatment to get people to stop drinkingWho is my TF?(corrected)A -Colb Sunny Bang, sunjung.bang@ Coll - G Erik Cheries, erik.cheries@H -Lio Jane Erickson, jane.erickson@ Lip -O Koleen McCrink, koleen.mccrink@ P - Star Izzat Jarudi, izzat.jarudi@Stau - Z Greg Laun, un@Cognitive DevelopmentBig Questions1. Morality2. ContinuityBig Questions 3. KnowledgeEmpiricismv.Nativismv.ConstructivismJean Piaget• 1896-1980• Geneticepistemology• Theories• Methods• ObservationsPiaget’s Theory ofCognitive Development• Piaget believed that “children are activethinkers, constantly trying to construct moreadvanced understandings of the world”• Little scientists• These “understandings” are in the form ofstructures he called schemasDevelopment of Schemas• Schemas are frameworks that develop to help organize knowledge• Assimilation -process of taking new information or a new experience and fitting it into an already existing schema• Accommodation -process by which existing schemas are changed or new schemas are created in order to fit new informationPiaget’s approach• Primary method was to ask children to solve problems and to question them about the reasoning behind their solutions • Discovered that children think in radically different ways than adults• Proposed that development occurs as a series of ‘stages’ differing in how the world is understoodSensorimotor Stage(birth -2)• Information is gained through the senses and motor actions• In this stage child perceives and manipulates but does not reason • Object permanence is acquiredObject Permanence• The understanding that objects exist independent of one’s actions or perceptions of them• Before 6 months infants act as if objects removed from sight cease to exist– Can be surprised by disappearance / reappearance of a face (peek-a-boo)• Then, failure at A-not-B taskPreoperational Stage(2-7 years)• Emergence of symbolic thought• EgocentrismPreoperational Stage(2-7 years)• Emergence of symbolic thought• Egocentrism• Lack the concept of conservation Concrete Operational Stage(7-12 years)• Understanding of mental operations leading to increasingly logical thought • Less egocentric• But .. inability to reason abstractly or hypotheticallyFormal Operational Stage (age 12 -adulthood)• Abstract and scientific reasoningPiaget: Scientific evaluationHighly positive:--interesting & falsifiable claims--rich theoretical framework--striking findingsPiaget: Scientific evaluationTheoretical: Does he really explaindevelopment?Methodological: Limitations of Q&A Factual: What do infants andchildren really know?The modern science of infantcognitionMethods for studying infants • Brain waves• Sucking• Looking-- preference-- habituation & surpriseInfant understanding of thephysical worldThe case of object permanenceMuch understanding of thephysical world is there fromthe very startBut not everything…How do we explaindevelopment?• Neural maturation• Problems with inhibition--A-not-B• The accumulation ofknowledgeInfant understanding of thesocial worldSocial babySocial prediction by babies(with Valerie Kuhlmeier & KarenWynn)• 9-month-olds & 12-month-olds• Shown movies in which one character “helps” a ball achieve a goal, and another character “hinders” the ball• Then shown test movies in which the ball interacts with these characters in an entirely different situation• Do babies expect the ball to behave differently with regard to the helper vs. the hinderer?Some understanding of the social world may be there from the very start But there are also some strikinglimitations …Open question IWhy do children do so poorly at these social tasks?They need to learn more about mindsVs.They have the right knowledge but suffer from problems with inhibition and actionOpen question IIWhat is the relationship between different sorts of development?General changes in how children think(Freud, Piaget)Vs.Separate modules(Chomsky, Fodor)A modular conception ofdevelopment• Separate partially pre-wired systems for reasoning about the physical and social world• Innate knowledge• Constrained developmentA damaged module: Autism• About 1 in 1,000• Mostly boys• Lack of social connectedness• Language impairment• Treat people “as objects”• MindblindnessOpen question III If there are modules, what are they?• Physics and people, but also …--artifacts--sociology--biology?Open question IV Are there any profound general differences between the minds of children and adults?--effect of language?Why study development? “Everything is the way it isbecause it got that way.”--D’Arcy Thompson。