耶鲁大学-心理学导论class15
耶鲁大学开放课程《心理学导论》第一讲摘录
耶鲁大学开放课程《心理学导论》第一讲摘录耶鲁大学开放课程《心理学导论》第一讲摘录Paul Bloom教授：欢迎来到《心理学导论》课堂。
我是Paul Bloom博士，这堂课的讲师。
本课程将对人类心理学进行全面的介绍，课程涉及内容广泛，包括大脑、儿童、语言、性、记忆、疯狂、作呕、种族歧视和爱，以及其他方面。
我们要讨论一些内容，例如，为什么会有男女差别？动物能否学会语言？是什么让我们作呕？为什么我们当中有些人暴饮暴食，如何纠正？为什么有人会发疯？为什么一些人会变得抑郁而其他人不会？《心理学导论》是讲什么的？与其他课程不同的是，一些人是带着特殊目的来学习这门课的。
或许你觉得你疯了，希望能减轻这种症状；或许你想了解怎样提高学习成绩，怎样改善性生活，怎样实现理想，或是怎样结交朋友以及影响他人【笑】。
这些原因都不无道理，除了改善性生活，这门课确实能帮到你不少。
学习科学心理学能增加你对与我们日常生活所发生的问题息息相关的现实世界的了解。
当遇到这些问题时，我会强调这些问题，并希望你们思考我接下来要讲的这些实验室里的研究工作对你的日常生活会产生多大影响，包括你如何学习，如何与人交往，你如何说服别人接受另一种观点，怎样的治疗对你最有效。
我认为你从这门课程学到的东西要远比你想象的有趣得多。
首先我们要介绍一个最重要的话题：我们。
人类的大脑是怎样工作的？我们怎样思考？是什么使我们成为现在这样的人？我们将从几方面来讲授这些内容。
心理学通常分为五个板块：1、神经科学，通过观察、了解大脑的反应来研究心理学。
2、发展心理学，这是我重点研究的领域，研究人们如何成长、发育和学习。
3、认知心理学，对这个术语一些同学可能不太熟悉，它通过计算机来进行研究，观察并分析人的行为，例如，理解语言、认知物体和做游戏之类。
4、社会心理学，研究人在群体中的行为、交往方式。
5、临床心理学，听到心理学一词时，或许人们第一个想到的就是临床心理学，这部分是研究心理健康和心理疾病的。
耶鲁–公开课《心理学导论》笔记-13.人类的差异
耶鲁–公开课《心理学导论》笔记-13.人类的差异第一篇：耶鲁–公开课《心理学导论》笔记-13.人类的差异耶鲁–公开课《心理学导论》笔记13.人类的差异••人们如何不同，及人类差异的不同理论人们之间产生差异的原因人们如何不同？•归根结底，人类所有差异源于两大因素：一是人格（intelligence？），二是智力；•描述人格的一种方法：通过人和人在应对世界的风格中体现，尤其是与他人打交道的方式........我们在说人格的时候，实际上也在说其他的东西，我们在说一种稳定的特性，不受环境和时间左右。
我们如何科学的描述人格的差异？任何好的评估必须满足两个条件一个是可信度（reliability），这意味着没有评估错误...如何看待可信度？一个简单的方法：如果你在不同的时间测试同一个人，得出的结论是一样的，那么这个测试就是可信的。
也就是说，可信意味着不以时间为转移...有效性和可信度不同，有效性是指测试评估的是所期望评估的东西......生活中不乏有人格测试，你随处可以做，包括在网上测试........人格差异：“The big five” 理论即当我们描述对方时，我们会用一些形容词（我们可以使用成千上万的形容词），但是从根本上说，我们是从五大维度来描述的。
这意味着用一个心理学测试来评估某人时，人格方面的...如果是一个不错的测试，当我们和其他人交流时，这是我们感兴趣的五个方面。
••••神经性(N)VS情绪稳定性忧心忡忡还是心如止水？外倾性（E）VS内倾性开放性（O）VS封闭性宜人性（A）直率，友好或者讨厌，粗鲁，自私？•有责任心（C）VS不负责任细心，可靠或者粗心，不可靠？“Ocean”简称为，海洋。
每个因素的开头字母....这个理论被很多观察确认：你在责任心维度上处于什么位置？这和你对配偶的忠诚度相关；开放性，和你跳槽的可能性相关；外向的人，较多的直视人的眼睛，有更多性伴侣；你在五个维度中所处的位置，似乎能反映真实的世界。
Lecture+18(耶鲁大学-心理学导论讲稿)
Lecture 18
Yale University
I am extremely pleased to introduce the fourth and final guest lecture of the semester. Professor Susan Nolen-Hoeksema. Susan is a professor in the Department of Psychology and the Director of Graduate Studies. She is well known for her work in clinical psychology and especially her research in depression, the nature and causes of people with depression, with special focus on sex differences in depression. She basically does everything someone can do. She is a noted scientist, winning many awards and publishing massive amounts of work in scientific journals. She is an award-winning teacher and has authored what, in my mind, is the very best textbook in her area. And she's a noted popular writer who has written popular and accessible books bringing the message and ideas and theories of clinical psychology to the broader public. The only other thing I'll mention before we welcome her is that she's going to teach next year her course in clinical psychology, which has a superb reputation as an extremely interesting course. If you are interested in what you hear today and you want to learn more about it, that's the course you should take. So, let's please welcome Dr. Susan Nolen-Hoeksema. [applause] Professor Susan Nolen-Hoeksema: Thank you Paul. Can everybody hear me okay? Okay. So, what I want to do today is to give you a very brief overview of how modern clinical psychology looks at mental disorders, some of the ways we think about what constitutes a mental disorder, some of the characteristics that kind of cut across mental disorders, and then I'm going to use the case of mood disorders, that is depression and what is now called bipolar disorder, what you may know more popularly as manic-depression, as sort of examples of how we think about a particular set of disorders and some of the ways we go about researching the theories -- different theories for the disorders and some of the prominent treatments for disorders these days. Okay? So, I'm going to do both a fair amount of lecturing, and then I've got lots of video clips to show you as well. So, I'm going to be roaming around and changing venues here fairly often. So, the first and most fundamental question in clinical psychology is, "What is abnormality?" Where do we draw the line between normal, healthy, typical behavior and what we might want to call abnormal, atypical, deviant, unhealthy, maladaptive mental problems? We tend to have an intuitive sense of what we mean by abnormality, and we'd like to believe--a lot of people who come into my course say, "Well, of course, you know, you guys have figured it out. You know where to draw the line. You have criteria. You have blood tests, right? --that tell me whether I have depression or schizophrenia or one of the things I've read about." Well, the reality is that we don't. First of all, there is no biological test for any of the known mental disorders right now. And instead what we have is a set of behavioral criteria for how to diagnose different mental disorders. And what I mean by behavioral criteria is a set of symptoms that the person reports to you about how they feel, how they think, and a set of observations about their behavior and how typical or atypical it is. And you take the sort of set of symptoms the person shows or reports, and you match them up against the existing criteria for different mental disorders. And then it comes down to a fairly subjective judgment call about whether the person meets the criteria or not. Unfortunately, these judgment calls, because they are so subjective, can be influenced by a lot of factors. And we won't have a chance to go into these too much today, but just to highlight a few of them. The first is social norms. Whether you get labeled as having a mental disorder or a problem depends very heavily on what your social or cultural norms are. So, a woman wearing a veil in a Muslim community or culture
耶鲁公开课[1].心理学导论
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我要用一个不同的演示I'll begin the class officially来正式开始这堂课的内容with a different sort of demonstration.我想给你们看一个在现实中进行的I want to just show you one of thechange-Blindness studies变化盲视实验that has been done in the real world.这些录像带没有公开发行And these videotapes are not available publicly.我们在网上找到了这些录像带We get them from the web然后用了一些java脚本来打开and see them as little java scripts.这是丹尼尔·西蒙斯So, this is one of the first studies done在康奈尔大学时所做的早期研究之一by Dan Simons when he was at cornell.他当时的导师是如今在我们系任教的And his adviser at the time was our Frank Keil,弗兰克·凯尔Who's now in our department.这就是他的研究So, here's the study.人们根本没有注意到And you don't notice it.变化盲视是实验科学家们Change blindness is one of the more striking phenomena和心理学家们所发现的discovered by laboratory scientists较为引人注意的现象之一and by psychologists.但是请大家But it's important to realize,抛开对大猩猩的惊奇to get away from the sort of surprise of the gorilla,以及人们很难看到闪过物体的and the fact that it's hard to see the flickering,这个事实the object that's flickering,理解这之中隐含的寓意是非常重要的and appreciate the big moral of this,因为我觉得这里的寓意because the big moral of this is actually, I think,实际上是非常惊人也是十分重要的striking and quite important.你觉得你正在感知着这个世界You think right now that you're perceiving the world.我在这里俯视你们I look down on you 觉得自己对每个人的位置都了如指掌and I think I have a whole sense of where everybody is.我无法看清坐在后面的每位同学I can't see everybody perfectly in back.因为你们离我太远有点模糊You're kind of far away and blurry但我还是能感知到周围的世界but there's a sense in which I have a world around me.同样如果我把眼睛闭上几秒钟Similarly, if I'm to close my eyes for a second,一切照旧everything just remains我大概能够记起一些原先的事物and I could sort of remember some of the things that are there.刚才的声音是我做的一个很好的声音定位That's really good sound localization by me.你们从下面往讲台上看So you're looking up觉得自己感知并记住了这个场景and you think you have a sense of the world both in perception and memory.而变化盲视实验则表明事实并非如此The change-blindness experiment suggested this isn't true.变化盲视实验表明The change-blindness experiment suggests that如果你盯着我看一小会if you look at me for a second而在这段时间里and during that second你所有的同学包括坐在你旁边的同学all of your classmates change positions,都换了座位including those next to you,你是很难注意到的you are extremely unlikely to notice.变化盲视实验表明The change-blindness experiment suggests如果你将目光从我身上挪到那边去that if you turn your eyes away from me towards there停留片刻然后再看回来for a second and turn back,即便我换了一身完全不同的衣服and I'm dressed entirely differently,你也不会注意到you wouldn't notice.除非你有意识地告诉自己The exceptions would be if you told yourself consciously,"记住这个人的衣着"remember what this guy is wearing;他穿的是这样那样的衣服"He's wearing this, that and the other."但如果你并不是有意识地去观察But if you don't do it consciously那你就不会注意到了you'll lose it,通常情况下这是没问题的and usually this is okay.通常来说没什么问题Usually, it's okay是因为你的记忆系统和视觉系统because your memory and your visual system会应用一个关于宇宙万物的基本事实exploits a basic fact about the universe,这个事实就是which is that多数事物在大部分的时间里是保持不变的most things stay the same most of the time.我转头的时候I don't have to explicitly remember并不需要明确地记住that you're over there你是在那里的when I turn my head for a second因为无论如何你还是会在那里because you'll be over there in any case.你不需要拥有关于世界的准确表征You don't need to hold precise representations of the world.所以只有在某些特定情况下And so you only notice it你才会注意到这些变化in certain clever circumstances.一种特定情况是心理学家们One sort of clever circumstance is when psychologists change reality在变化盲视实验中改变现实场景as in the change-blindness studies.另一种情况就是电影A second sort of circumstance is in movies.人们在制作那些含有切换画面的电影时So, one of the big surprises会惊奇地发现when people started making movies involving cuts想要连续地理解电影中的一切was it is extremely difficult是极其困难的to get everything continuously right.你要非常努力才能注意到这一点And you need to work very hard to notice.电影里到处都是这种一致性错误So, there's all of these continuity errors that creep up into movies而你必须得像电影爱好者那样and you have to be a film buff把错误记录下来and writing it down才会注意到这种情况to even notice this.所以变化盲视在总体上所表达的寓意便是And the overall moral here then is你对现实的感知程度远比你想象中的that your perception of reality is a lot more sparse, a lot more limited,更加稀少也更加有限than you might think it is.这就是我们在上节课的最后所讲的内容So, this is where we were at the end of last class.我们讲了不同种类的记忆We were talking about the different sorts of memories.感觉记忆即你对当下的所见所闻Sensory memory, which is the sort of fraction of a second在瞬间的感觉残留of sensory residue of what you're hearing and what you're seeing,工作记忆短时记忆working memory, short-term memory,然后是长时记忆and then long-term memory.我们上节课讲了And we talked last class外界信息是如何进入感觉记忆about how things get into sensory memory,又是如何进入工作记忆的into working memory,以及注意在其中所起到的作用the role of attention.实际上对变化盲视的各种研究And in fact, the change-blindness studies are actually just studies正是在探查信息如何从感知进入意识of how something gets from your senses to your consciousness以及哪些信息能够进入意识哪些不能and what does and what doesn't.现在我想讲一下Now I want to move to the distinction工作记忆短时记忆between working memory, short-term memory,和长时记忆之间的区别and long-term memory.最明显的区别便是储存容量上的差异Now, the obvious distinction is actually just in fact--is storage differences.长时记忆简称"LTM" So, long-term memory or "LTM"拥有巨大的储存能力has a huge storage capacity.这种记忆很像你的电脑硬盘This is your memory like the hard drive of your computer.它是会伴随你一生的记忆This is the memory you walk around with.比如它存储着所有的英语单词It includes all the words in English, just for example,大约六到八万个单词to , words.它存储着你对所遇之人的印象It includes everybody you've ever met,各种的语言面孔故事位置languages, faces, stories, locations,童谣歌曲以及电视节目nursery rhymes, songs, TV programs.没有人知道它的存储容量有多大Nobody knows the storage.你能记住所有曾经发生在你身上的事情It is not true that you remember everything这个观点并不正确that has ever happened to you.没有任何理由能够使你相信There's no reason to believe这个观点是正确的that this is true.但与此同时At the same time though,你在大脑中的长时记忆里储存了海量信息you have a huge amount stored in your brain in long-term storage事实上没有人--and nobody actually记忆的储存容量肯定是有限的It has to be limited因为大脑是有限的because it's a finite, limited brain.但并没有人知道储存容量到底有多大But nobody knows how big it is.没人知道你的大脑能存储多少兆兆的字节Nobody knows how many terabytes you carry around in your brain但是容量确实很大and--but it's a lot.与之相比工作记忆Compare this to working memory,短时记忆的储存容量the short-term memory,实际上则非常有限which is actually very limited.此时此刻Your memory of what you could store你能够保持在意识之中的记忆on in--where you could hold in consciousness right now是十分有限的is quite limited.我们来做个练习不要把我说的写下来Here is an exercise. Do not write these things down.我想要你们记住我说的And I want you to remember them.我念一组数字I'm just gonna give you a fewnumbers. , , , , , , , , , , .请把这些数字写下来Please write them down.你们可以把这当做一次智力测验View this as an IQ test如果这样想能让你们放松点的话if that would relax you.参与这个实验的你们有多少人How many of you who decided to participate in this experiment只写出了三个或者更少got three or less?很好很好Good. Good.四个呢五个六个Four, five, six,七个八个九个或者更多的seven, eight, nine or more?有将十一个数字全部写出的人吗Anybody get all eleven?这是个非常难的记忆任务This is a particularly difficult memory task.这些数字毫无意义The numbers are meaningless.我忘了告诉你们And I told--and I forgot to tell you要准备好你们的笔准备好写东西to get your pen and pencil ready,所以有些人就只是瞪着我在看So some of you just glared at me.但认知心理学家乔治·米勒认为But under normalcircumstances,这个实验表明the cognitive psychologist, George Miller said在通常情况下that this sort of suggested短时记忆的标准记忆容量that the standard memory storage of short-term memory 是七加减二is seven, plus or minus two.这也就是说大约是五到九And what that means is anywhere from five to nine roughly.我相信肯定有人记下了比这更多的数字Some of you, I bet, can beat that.有些人今天不在状态Some of you on a not-so-good day可能没记下那么多maybe won't make it that much."七加减二"Now "seven plus or minus two" is what you--;这就是你能在意识中保持的信息数量So, that's what you hold in consciousness.我告诉你You know, I can tell you , .你边走边说You walk around," ""oh, yeah, , ."你很轻松的就把它们保存在了意识之中You hold that in consciousness with no problem.但我一下对你说了十一个数字But I throw eleven numbers at you,你就记不住了you can't.一些数字就被漏掉了Some dribble out.你无法将这些数字保存在You can't hold that有意识的短时记忆之中in your conscious window in your short-term memory.现在这就引出了个问题Now, this raises the question"七加减二"个什么"seven plus or minus two" what?答案便是And the answer seems to be被乔治·米勒称之为"组块"的东西what George Miller calls "chunks."组块是基本的记忆单位And a chunk is a basic memory unit,你可以将它看做是单一独立的实体Something you think of as a single, individual entity.假设你看到一串字母So, suppose you see the string of lettersl a m al, a, m, a,i s o ni, s, o, n如果你不知道If you don't know--如果你不能把它们组合成词If you can't form these into words要记住它们and you have to remember them,就要记住八个组块these are eight chunks.你必须把这些组块分别记住You have to just pick them up separately.另一方面如果你把它们组合成四个词On the other hand, if you break them up into four words那你只需要四个组块就能记住这些字母you could just remember it as four chunks.如果你把这串字母组成两个法语单词And if you break it up into two words in french,"la maison""la maison,"也就是"房子"的意思"the house,"这就只需要记住一个或两个组块了it could just be one or two.你的理解程度How much you know depends--会影响你记住的信息量affects how much you memorize影响你在记忆中存储的信息量how much you could store in memory因为你的理解程度会影响记忆的基本单位because it affects what counts as a basic unit of memory.这方面的例子有很多And there's all sorts of examples of this.如果我念If I tell you" ", , , , , ,", , , , , ,"你们当中不懂二进制数的人Those of you who don't know binary numbers可能会把我刚才念的数字记成might have to remember that" " 类似这样as ", , , ," whatever I said.对于那些计算机科学家们Those of you who are computer scientists或是数学家们or mathematicians或是无论出于什么原因or, for whatever reason,懂的二进制数的人来说know binary numbers他们能够将这串数字转化成could convert it一个单独的二进制数into a single binary number.有人记得那个数字是多少吗Anybody know what the number is?可惜我也记不清了No, I cannot say it again.某个数字吧二十四Some number, ,或者不是二十四反正就某个数字吧or not --to some number,二十四然后你记住二十四就可以了, and then you remember "."这就简单多了It's easier.假设你看见一个棋盘Suppose you see a chessboard一个已经摆好的棋盘And the chessboard is set up and你不会下国际象棋you don't know how to play chess.那么要记住棋盘就非常困难了It is murderously hard to remember that.有人做过相关的实验They've done the experiments.他们把不会下国际象棋的人带到实验室They've taken people in a lab who don't know how to play chess.摆好准备好一个棋局然后说They set up a chessboard and then they say,"好了请观察这个棋盘五分钟""Okay. Look at this for five minutes."然后他们把棋盘拿走Then they take it away,要求把它重新摆好set it up again,这简直太难了And it's murderously hard."那个边上有个马等等""There is a horse-y thing on the side there and everything."但是如果棋子是按照对棋手来说But if these chess pieces are set up in some way存在逻辑关系的某种方式进行摆放that's logical for a chess player,那么国际象棋大师便可在很短的时间内then a chess master could look at it记住棋盘摆放的位置and remember it in a glance,"这是斐波纳契防守阵" 或别的什么"Oh. It's the Fibonacci Defense" or something like that,之后便能迅速地将棋盘重新摆好And then immediately recover it.同样橄榄球教练会接受Similarly, football coaches have been tested对橄榄球示意图的记忆测试on theirmemories of football diagrams.他们拥有对橄榄球示意图的照片式记忆And they have a photographic memory for football diagrams因为这些示意图对于他们来说是有意义的because it corresponds to things that make sense.建筑师也会拥有照片式记忆Architects could have a photographic memory,对布图规划的完美记忆a perfect memory for floor plans因为布图规划对他们来说是有意义的because it makes sense to them.他们能够理解其中含义They understand it.事物在记忆中的存储方式And so the way you store things in memory,很大程度上取决于你对该事物的理解程度and this is a theme we're going to return to等我们讲到长时记忆时when we get tolong-term memory,我们还会回头来讲这个问题depends in a large extent on how much you understand it.这种不同会在专业知识的效果上表现出来And this shows up in expertise effects.这些是目前所讲到的关于短时记忆的内容Now, this is what's happening so far in short-term memory,短时记忆的容量how much you hold in there.问题是你又如何让它进入长时记忆呢The question is how do you get it into long-term memory?长时记忆是你主要的储存系统So, you have long-term memory, your major storage system.信息是如何从意识进入长时记忆的呢How does information get from your consciousness to long-term storage?有这么一种方法Well, there's one thing--there's one way有时候还算有用但效果一般which sort of works sometimes but not very well.这种方法叫做"保持性复述"And it's called "maintenance rehearsal."假设我让你记住一些数字Suppose I said you have to remember this number,一串数字this string of numbers.如果你能在二十分钟内将它们记下来And if you remember it in twenty minutes就能得到一千美元you will get one thousand dollars.这串数字是我小时候的电话号码And the string is my phone number when I was a kid.也包括区号and include the area code --.现在如果你把这些告诉一个四岁小孩Now, if you tell that to a four-year-old, well,四岁的孩子会说"我会记住的"the four-year-old will say, "I'll remember it."然后你问他们"我刚才说了什么"And then you ask them, "what did I just say?""我不知道""well, I don't know."如果你把电话号码告诉成年人If you tell it to an--如果你经常需要用电话because you know something那你就会知道这是什么if a lot depended on it,也就会知道该做些什么you would know to do something.你会对自己说What you would do is you'd say to yourself," "--, --, "- --"你会在头脑中不断地重复You'd rehearse it in your head over and over again.问题是只有不断重复你才能记住这些The problem is you could hold it as long as you can do that.这和我们在电影中看到的情节很像It's like these movies.你可以经常看到这种情节You see this all the time,比如在《小时》的一集中like an episode of :"杰克给反恐局打电话"jack, call CTU告诉他们号特工被困在..."and tell them agent is trapped in a--"我记不住这情节And I can't even remember this但记住这一情节的方法是but the way to remember it将你刚刚听到的内容is you hold you've just got to repeat it在你的脑袋里不断重复over and over again in your head.但这种复述通常不能将信息转入长时记忆But this will not typically get things into long-term memory.要让信息进入长时记忆To get things into long-term memory,光复述是不够的rehearsal is usually not enough.你还需要做些其他的事情You need to do other things.通常你需要将信息结构化并进行组织Typically, what you need is structure and organization.经典的"加工深度"实验And one way to demonstrate this从一个方面证明了这个观点was in a classic "depth of processing" experiment该实验非常清晰地表明which nicely illustrates the fact你对信息组织越充分that the more you structure something,对信息理解的越深刻the deeper you think about it,信息进入长时记忆的效果就越好the better it gets entrenched in the long-term memory.在该实验中研究者们要求被试So, in this study what they did was they asked people他们告诉被试they told people屏幕上将会闪现一些单词that there's going to be words flashed on a screen.所有被试看到的都是相同的一串的单词And all of the subjects saw the same strings of words.总共四十八个单词There were forty-eight words.被试们并未被告知去记住这些单词They were not told to memorize the words.三分之一的被试被告知One third of the subjects was told,"请注意将要出现的单词中"Look. Some of these words有些用的是大写字母are going to come out in capital letters,有些并没用大写字母some of them not capital letters.分别对大写字母和非大写字母进行按键"Press a button for capitals, non-capitals."就这样Sure.另一组被试被告知The other group was told,"这些单词中"Some of these words有些将与'train'同韵will rhyme with 'train',其他则不是others won't.如果与'train'同韵请按键"Press a button if it rhymes in 'train'."第三组被试被告知The third group was told,"出现的单词能否填入这句话中"Does it fit into the sentence'女孩将__放到桌子上''The girl placed the blank on the table?'若能填入请按这个键Press a button if it does.若不能请按那个键"Press a button if it doesn't."然后突然问被试Then they were asked as a surprise,"你们看到的单词是什么""what words did you see?"实验结果大致是这样的And the findings looked like this.当被试被要求关注单词的外形时When they were asked to focus on just what the word looked like,他们对单词的记忆效果非常差memory was very poor,当关注声音时稍好关注意义时最好the sound better, the meaning better.如果你想记住些东西If you want to remember something,最好的方法就是为信息赋予含义the best way to remember it is to give it meaning,让其拥有意义to give it sense.通过一项非常古老的技术可以证明此观点This is illustrated through a very ancient technique,这种记忆方法就是通过记忆术which is that the way to remember things that are otherwise arbitrary通过生动图像歌曲或是诗歌is to give them some organization through memory tricks,将杂乱的信息组织起来through vivid imagery or songs or poetry.这样的例子有很多And there's a lot of examples of this.你们知道如何记住海马体这个术语吗Do you know how to remember that the hippocampus,大脑中有个部位叫海马体there's a part of the brain called the hippocampus.这是史上最烂的记忆术了This is the worst memory trick ever但却能保证你二十年忘不掉but it will stick with you for twenty years.海马体与空间记忆有关The hippocampus is involved in spatial memory.它与认路有关It's involved in finding your way around.你这么想Think to yourself,"我是通过海马体在校园里认路的""The way I find my way around campus is through the hippocampus."你会想"这太傻了"And you think, "well, that's stupid,"但你永远不会都忘记But you'll never forget now海马体是控制空间记忆that the hippocampus is in charge of spatial memory.你上完这门课就只能记住这个了It's going to be all you retain from this course.关于如何记住人名的记忆类书籍Memory books on how to remember people's names通常会在你想要记住诗歌或者表演图像时usually try to exploit this sort of thing采用这些方法when you try to get poetry or dramatic images.因此记忆类书籍里总是会有些经典例子So, the memory books always typically involve somebody比如你遇到某个留着钉子头的人like you meet somebody with very spiky hair他说"我是菲什先生" [鱼先生]and they say "My name is Mr. Fish"之后你就牢牢记住了and then you remember--因为你会觉得他的头发像是钉了一条大鱼you think of their of a big fish impaled on their hair.以后每当你看到他就会想起他的名字And then whenever you see them you remember their name.只有名字是"菲什"这种时It only really works该方法才会起作用for names like "fish"但其实是你在试图创造生动的形象But the idea is you try to generate vivid imagery.当你需要记住十个字母时When stuck with a situation where you have to remember ten letters,将它们变成一首歌好了turn it into a song where--或是一首色情诗or a dirty poem用这些字母来作为开头where each of the letters is the first words of it.当你需要记住一些看似完全随机的东西时When having to remember something that seems totally arbitrary,试着去想一个可乐的淫秽的try to figure out a grand and obscene image又容易想起的场景that will come to mind easily.这就是如何And this is how--这是使信息进入记忆的一种方法these are one way to get things into memory.但从深层来讲记忆事物的方法At a deep level though, the way to get things into memory,这种方法在这门课和其他事情上同样适用and this applies to this course no less than anything else,就是去理解信息is by understanding the--understanding it.我给大家读一段材料I'm going to read you something我希望你们能够尽可能地记住我念的内容and I want you to try your best to remember what I tell you.这不是一串数字These are not going to be strings of numbers.而是一些句子This's going to be a series of sentences"报纸比杂志好"A newspaper is better than a magazine.海岸比街道好的A seashore is a better place than the street.起初奔跑比走路好At first it is better to run than to walk.你可能需要尝试几次You may have to try several times.这需要一些技巧但很容易学会It takes some skill but it's easy to learn.就连小孩也会喜欢上Even young children can enjoy it.一旦成功并发症的可能性会是最小Once successful, complications are minimal.鸟儿很少靠得太近Birds seldom get too close.然而雨水浸透地非常快Rain, however, soaks in very fast.太多的人做相同的事情会产生很多问题Too many people doing the same things can also cause problems.一个人需要很多房间One needs lots of room.如果没有并发症就会非常安静If there are no complications, it can be very peaceful.最后岩石可以当做锚来用Finally, a rock will serve as an anchor.但如果事态无法得到控制If things break loose from it, however,你就不会再有机会了"You will not have a second chance."这就是我刚才念的And here is what I said.要记住这些是极其困难的This is murderously hard to remember.现在试试看Now try it.理解内容的含义将其放入特定情境中Knowing what this is about, being able to put a context to it能够促进记忆也有助于回忆helps the memory and helps it come to mind.好了这就是Okay. So, this is about how to get memory--信息如何进入记忆了how to get information into your memory.那你又是如何提取信息呢How do you get information out?比如说这是考试周So, you know, it's exam period.你把知识大概都记到脑子里了You got the stuff presumably into your head.你必须把知识拿出来You have to get it out.你需要将知识提取出来You have to retrieve it.比如有个诉讼案件There is a court case.你必须得明白You have to figure out--你必须重新讲述你所目睹的犯罪过程You have to recount the crime that you witnessed.你看到某人想知道他或她的名字You see somebody and you want to know his or her name.你听到过你只是需要把它提取出来And you heard it; you just have to get it out.那么你是如何将信息提取出来的Well, how do you do that?这依赖于"提取线索"Well, there's "retrieval cues."提取线索是有意义的Retrieval cues make sense.提取线索就是Retrieval cues are just things那些与你所要记住的内容有关的事物that have been associated with what you what you're trying to remember.如果我要记住去更换窗户If I have to remember to replace the windows,当我走进我的客厅看到窗户破了when I walk in to my living room and see that a window is cracked,这提醒我去换窗户that will remind me to replace the windows.如果我约了你去吃午饭但我忘了If I had a lunch date with you and forgot about it,当我看到你when I see you,"想起来了我们本该一起吃午饭的""Oh, yeah. We were supposed to get together to have lunch."提取线索能让我们回忆起某些事物Retrieval cues bring things back但实际要比这稍微复杂一些but it's a little bit more complicated than that.编码和提取之间有着更一般的联系There's a more general relationship between encoding and retrieval叫做"相容性原则"called the "compatibility principle."相容性原则是指And what this means is你对已学内容中信息的记忆you're much better to remember something in the context会比较好一些in which you have learned it.这也叫做"情境依赖记忆"And this is also known as "context-dependent memory"或"状态依赖记忆"and "state-dependent memory."相容性原则是由心理学史上It's illustrated by one of the strangest experiments最奇怪的实验之一证明的in the history of psychology研究者们让被试上了一艘船where they had people on a boat然后让被试用水下呼吸器进行潜水and then they had them scuba dive underwater.被试们被要求在船上And they taught them things或戴着呼吸器在水下either on the boat or underwater学习实验材料with things that they held up.随后他们对被试进行测试And then they tested them later.结果表明And it turns out如果测试情境与学习情境相同that you'll remember it better你回忆的效果会更好if you're tested on it in the context in which you learned it.这也许是因为提取线索帮助你回忆起东西And it might be because then the retrieval cues help bring it back.但原因并不止如此But it's more general than that.如果你需要回忆你在这节课学到的知识If you have to remember something you learned in this class,如果你试着去想学习时所在的教室you will do better回忆的效果会更好if you try to think about the room in which you learned it in.如果你在这间教室参加期末考试You will do better on your final exam就会比在其他教室参加期末考试if you were to take it in this room考得更好than if you were to take it in another room因为这间教室就成了提取线索Because being in this room will bring back the cues.提取线索不仅只是环境It's not just the environment.那些在醉酒状态下学习的人People who learn things when they're stoned当其处于不影响其他心理活动的remember them better keeping stoned微醉状态时at a sort of a low-level会回忆起更多that doesn't disrupt。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论笔记
1.Introduction2.Foundations:This is Your Brain3.Foundations:Freud4.Foundations:Skinner5.What Is It Like to Be a Baby:The Development of Thought6.How Do We Communicate?:Language in the Brain, Mouth and the Hands7.Conscious of the Present;Conscious of the Past: Language(cont.);Vision and Memory8.Conscious of the Present;Conscious of the Past: Vision and Memory(cont.)9.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Love(Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey)10.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Evolution and Rationality11.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Emotions,Part I12.Evolution,Emotion,and Reason:Emotions,Part II13.Why Are People Different?:Differences14.What Motivates Us:Sex15.A Person in the World of People:Morality16.A Person in the World of People:Self and Other, Part I17.A Person in the World of People:Self and Other, Part II18.What Happens When Things Go Wrong:Mental Illness,Part I19.What Happens When Things Go Wrong:Mental Illness,Part II20.The Good Life:Happiness第一节课Introduction教材：彼得•格雷的《心理学》第五版阅读书目：格雷•马库斯《诺顿读本》心理学研究领域：1、神经科学2、发展心理学（研究人类如何成长、发育以及学习）3、认知心理学（用计算机方法研究心理学）4、社会心理学（研究人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流）5、临床心理学（心理健康、心理疾病）如今，经济学和博弈论已经成为理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法。
耶鲁大学心理学导论(第1-9课)
心理学导论第一课我所要做的就是向大家介绍在人文领域里对最重要主题，也就是对我们人类的研究现状，人类大脑如何运作，我们如何思考，又是什么让我们变成了现在的样子？我们将从多个方面来理解这些问题，所以传统上，心理学通常被分为以下五个子领域：神经科学，通过观察大脑反应来研究心理发展心理学，研究人类是如何成长、发育以及学习的认知心理学，也许是五个子领域里，对你们有些人来说最不熟悉的一个领域，它用计算机方法来研究心理，通常将心理比作计算机，并探究人类如何行动，如言语理解、物体辨认、游戏等等还有社会心理学，主要研究人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流；最后就是临床心理学，这也许是当人们提到心理学时，最先想到的方面，它主要研究心理健康和心理疾病。
我们会涉及以上所有的领域，我们还会涉及一些相关的领域。
我坚信，仅仅局限于心理学学科的学习，是不可能让你有能力去研究人类心理的，心理学学科充满了心理如何发展的问题。
经济学和游戏理论如今已经成为了理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法。
这些问题涉及哲学、计算机科学、人类学、文学、神学，以及许多其他的科学领域，因此这门课程涉及到的方面将相当的广泛。
到现在为止，我一直都在进行一些概述。
我想通过给出五个，我们将会涉及到的一些主题的例子，来结束这节导论课。
我以我们下周一要讨论的主题作为开始，这是个特殊人物的大脑，有意思的是大脑上有个白色的小标记。
这是个女人的大脑，是特丽·夏沃的大脑，你们能更好地从她的照片上认出她。
想象一下这样的情况，某人正陷于昏迷之中，由于脑部损伤而失去了意识，这是心理活动的生理属性毫无修饰的图解，我们所拥有的一切的生理基础，如自由意志、意识、道德和情绪。
我们的课程将会以此作为开始，讨论生理的东西如何能产生心理活动。
我们会讨论很多与孩子有关的问题，这实际上是个特殊的小孩，是我儿子扎卡里，我的小儿子扮成蜘蛛侠的样子，这个还是有故事可说的。
我主要研究儿童的发展，我对很多问题都感兴趣，其中一个便是发展的问题。
耶鲁大学心理学导论中英文字幕01
欢迎大家来到心理学导论的课堂I'd like to welcome people to Introduction to Psychology.我是保罗·布罗姆博士My name is Dr. Paul Bloom.是本门课程的教授I'm professor of this course.如果还有同学没领取教室前面的教学大纲If you haven't pick up the syllabus in front of the class请举手示意我Please raise your hand.我们有教学大纲吧Are we... Are we have syllabus?请举手示意我Please raise your hand研究生助教会发给你and the teaching fellow will bring it to you如果你还没领到教学大纲的话If you don't have the syllabus.大家也可以在这个网站上下载教学大纲The syllabus is also available on this website这个网站将会成为你学习本门课程This website will become important to you to的得力助手assist you to take this class.网站上资源里有教学大纲It will include the syllabus我会不定期更新which will occasionally be revised会非常及时well and advance所有的课程资料也会放在网上Also all of the class material will be on the site包括我所展示的幻灯片including copies of slides I'm presenting包括我现在放的这个课件including this slides right now.还有关于练习考试Practice and exam和每一次阅读作业的细节要求and every ditail on the reading assignments所以大家要经常登录这个网站So you have to use this website regularly以获取最新的课程信息to keep in touch with the course今天的课会很简短Today will be a short class只是帮助大家理清本课程的研究方向What I just wanna do today is orient you介绍一下课程tell you what this course is about我知道课程都在预选阶段I know this is a shopping period所以我希望让大家and I'll give you a good sence对课程有一个整体感知what you be in for, if you took this course.首先我会向大家展示I wanna go over本门课程的安排与考核the style of the classes,以及会涉及书目等等the evaluation the readings and so on.接下来我会给出一些And then I'll give you some examples我们会涉及话题的具体实例of some of the specific topics that would be covering.但在我开始之前But before I get started,我要告诉大家这个课程的一点特别之处I have to point out something a little bit unusual about this class我们会被录像We're being filmed.本课程是"耶鲁大学公开视频课程计划"This course is one of the seven courses chosen to begin 的七个实验课程之一the Yale University Open Educational Resourse Vidio Lecture Project那么这也就意味着And what's this means is,在本年度结束时that when the year's over所有的视频录像都会在网上these vidioes well be on the internet,免费对所有人开放free for anybody who wants to see them.希望它能够通过网络传播到各个国家And ideally will be access by people across many different countries为无法通过正常渠道接受大学教育的人们some of them wouldn't normally have access提供便利to the university education我视此为耶鲁之荣I see this is a good and honorable更是对资源的充分利用use of Yale resources.当然这也是耶鲁建立and of course, this is a part of"世界学术霸权"的大计Yale's plan for world domination.因此来自媒体创新中心的So, because of this, Yale University Production Team耶鲁大学节目制作组from the Center of Media Initiatives将会在教室后面全程录制本课程is gonna be taping all the class in there up there.这一计划的目标在于The idea is that让全世界看到真实的耶鲁课堂this should be the as honor truth as possiable让观看录像的人们获得与在座各位and the classroom experence should have centrally be the same同样的知识as they're not there.因此他们需要录制的是课程So there attention to tape the lecture也就是我和后面的幻灯片to tape me and sometimes the slides,而不会拍摄同学们but not tape your faces or voices.所以没有让各位签署授权协议So we're not having you sign the release forms两点需要说明第一Two things, one thing is就我而言我会尽量注意自己的言辞personally, I have to remind myself not to use profanity因为可能会有孩子观看'Cause children maybe watching.所以我会很注意So, I'll try not to do that另一件事情就是Result to another complex thing如果你们坐在第一排If you're in the front roll,或者前几排or second roll or third roll那么你们的头部It's possible that some part of your head,背部甚至脸部your back or even your face都可能被镜头扑捉到might end up on the film.如果你在证人保护计划之内If you're on a witness protection program或者是个逃犯级人物or you're sort of fugitive就尽量不要坐在前排了you probably don't want to sit on the front roll.各位要是现在想换到后排就放心换If people wanna kind of slide back,没关系的that's fine,我不介意as I'm talking好我们可以开始了Okay, we're ready.欢迎大家选择心理学导论这门课程I'd like to welcome people to this course, Introduction to Psychology.我是保罗·布罗姆博士My name is Dr. Paul Bloom.负责教授本门课程I'm professor of this course.本课程旨在让大家And what this is going to be在宏观上对人类心智研究形成基本的认识is a comprehensive introduction to the study of the human mind.因此我们讨论的主题会非常之广泛So, we are going to cover a very, very wide range of topics 其中囊括了大脑儿童语言性including brains, children, language, sex,记忆狂躁厌恶memory, madness, disgust,歧视以及爱恋等等racism and love, and many others.我们将会探讨的问题诸如We're going to talk about things like the proper explanation如何合理解释两性差异for differences between men and women;动物究竟能否学习语言the question of whether animals can learn language;我们作呕究竟因何而起the puzzle of what grosses us out;为何我们有些人会进食过量the problem of why some of us eat too much而我们又该如何阻止and what we could do to stop;为何当人们融入团体时会变得疯狂the question of why people go crazy in groups;我们同样关注research into你能否相信自己的儿时记忆whether you could trust your childhood memories;以及为何抑郁只存在于一部分人中research into why some of us get depressed and others don't.这门课一周两节The style of this is there'll be two lectures a week,也会有指定的阅读材料as well as course readings.要想在这门课中取得好成绩Now, to do well in the course,必须要认真听讲用心阅读指定书目you have to attend both the lectures and do the readings.两者内容会有些重叠There will be some overlap.有时In some cases,讲课的内容与阅读内容紧密相连the lectures will be quite linked to the readings.但部分的阅读内容But there will be some parts of the readings并不会在课上进行讨论that will not find their way into the lectures,也会有一些课堂内容and some lectures--some entire lectures完全与阅读材料无关that will not connect at all to the readings.因此想要学好这门课程So, to pursue this course properly你就必须两者兼顾you have to do both.这也就意味着What this means is that如果你落下了一节课你就要看笔记if you miss a class you need to get notes,你可以向朋友或者身边的同学借来看and so you should get them from a friend or from the person sitting next to you.我会把幻灯片放到网上The slides are going to be made available online.你不用抄我的课件So, one of the things you don't have to do is you don't have to write this down.你可以用自己的方式做笔记You take notes any way you choose,但如果你不想记笔记but if you don't get anything on there也大可直接下载课件it'll be available online.我会把它做成黑白板式上传I'm going to post it in a format which will be black and white方便同学打印and easy to print out所以完全不用担心笔记问题so you don't have to worry about this.但我要强调But again,看课件绝对不可能替代上课attending to the slides is not a substitute for attending class.我们的教材是There's a textbook,彼得·格雷的《心理学》第五版Peter Gray's Psychology, 5th edition,我们的阅读书目是and there's also a collection of short readings,格雷·马库斯主编的《诺顿读本》The Norton Reader edited by Gary Marcus.这是一本非常经典的教材It's an excellent textbook;当然读本也同样精彩it's an excellent collection,要求大家两本书都有and you should get them both.你能够在约克街的迷宫书店买到They're available at Labyrinth bookstore on York Street或者网购or you get them online.告诉大家一个小秘密上一期课我用了I should note that last time I taught the course我指定的教材是马库斯的读本I used the Marcus Reader,上学期马文·春教授指定的是and when Professor Marvin Chun taught his course last semester 彼得·格雷的第五版教材he used Peter Gray's 5th edition textbook.所以会有很多旧书So, there may be a lot of used copies floating around.大家大可以光明正大地拿来用You should feel free to try to get one of those.下面我们来说分数The evaluation goes like this.期中和期末我们各有一次考试There is a Midterm and there is a Final.期末考试不会拖到考试周The Final will not be held in the exam period,因为长假的魅力实在太大because I like to take long vacations.所以我把考试安排在了最后一次课上It will be held the last day of class.题型分为单项选择简答The exams will be multiple choice and short answer,还有填空之类的fill in the blank, that sort of thing.考试前我会把历年真题放在网上Prior to the exams I will post previous exams online,以便大家熟悉考试模式so you have a feeling for how these exams work and so on.还会同时上传复习大纲There will also be review sessions.本课程将于开学后三周开课Starting at the beginning of the third week of class也就是自下下周开始每周一上课that is not next week but the week after on each Monday我会提出一系列问题I'm going to put up a brief question or set of questions,要同学们思考并回答which you have to answer大家的答案要在周五前交给研究生助教and your answers need to be sent to your teaching fellow.周五会将各位研究生助教安排给你们大家And you'll be given a teaching fellow, assigned one, by Friday.这个作业不会很难This is not meant to be difficult.几分钟就能完成It's not meant to be more than five, ten minutes of work,这个作业的目的but the point of the question,要十几到二十分钟完成吧--15, 20 minutes of work,这个作业的目的在于激励大家but the point of the question is to motivate people跟上课程的进度并去阅读材料to keep up with the material and do the readings.这些作业会被评为"及格"或"不及格"These questions will be marked pass, fail.我希望大家在所有的问题上都能及格I expect most everybody could pass all of the questions但这只是想让大家不要掉队督促一下but it's just to keep you on track and keep you going.我们还要写一篇简短的书评There is a book review, a short book review,在临近期末的时候完成to be written towards near the end of the class.我在之后的课上会给大家讲详细的要求I'll give details about that later on in the semester.我还要求你们以被试的身份去参加实验And there's also an experimental participation requirement,下个星期我会给你们and next week I'll hand out一份关于要求的介绍a piece of paper describing the requirement.这项要求的重点在于让你们去亲身体会The point of the requirement is to give you all experience看看心理学到底在研究些什么actually seeing what psychological research is about同时也能够为我们的研究as well as to give us提供数百名的被试hundreds of subjects to do our experiments on.有时会有同学问到The issue sometimes comes up as to如何才能学好这门课程how to do well in the course.下面我来告诉你们该怎样做Here's how to do well.不要缺课Attend all the classes.一定要阅读指定的材料Keep up with the readings.最好是在上课前就已经阅读过指定材料Ideally, keep up with the readings before you come to class.我强烈建议大家建立一些学习小组And one thing I would strongly suggest is to form some sort of study groups,正式的或非正式的都可以either formally or informally.这样在考试之前Have people you could talk to你就能和大家一起讨论when the--prior to the exams or—她拍了下她旁边的人she's patting somebody next to her.希望你能认识他I hope you know him.事实上我会安排大家相互认识And in fact, what I'm going to do,这节课不会了因为这是节试听课not this class because it's shopping period.我不知道下节课会有谁来有什么情况I don't know who's coming next class, or what不过我会在课程开始的时候but I'll set up a few minutes prior,先安排几分钟at the beginning of the class,让你们向前后左右的同学for people just to introduce进行一番自我介绍themselves to the person next to them这样你们就能在这个班里so they have some sort of resource认识一些新同学了in the class.这是一门大班课程Now, this is a large class,如果你并不打算和周围人相互介绍的话and if you don't do anything about it,也就不会有什么人能够认识你了it can be very anonymous.也许你们有些人会选择这种做法And some of you may choose to pursue it that way当然这样做是完全可以的and that's totally fine.但我还是建议你们But what I would suggest you do与我们大家建立些联系is establish some contact with us,不论是和我还是和研究生助教either with me or with any of the teaching fellows,我会在下周向你们介绍研究生助教们and I'll introduce the teaching fellows sometime next week.你们可以在课前或课后与我们交谈You could talk to us at the beginning or at the end of class.如果没有什么特殊情况Unless there are special circumstances,我一般都会至少提前十分钟到教室I always try to come at least ten minutes early,我也愿意在课后和大家一起讨论问题and I am willing to stay late to talk to people.你们可以在我的办公时间来找我You could come by during my office hours,教学大纲上有写我的办公时间which are on the syllabus,你们也可以通过电子邮件跟我预约and you could send me e-mail and set up an appointment.我非常愿意同学生们一起讨论些好的想法I'm very willing to talk to students about intellectual ideas,讨论下学习困难之类的话题about course problems and so on.如果你们在校园里碰见了我And if you see me at some point just on campus,你们可以向我进行自我介绍you could introduce yourself碰见我教的学生我会很开心的and I'd like to meet people from this class.那么我再强调一遍So, again, I want to stress你们可以选择在这门课上默默无闻you have the option of staying anonymous in this class,但是你们也可以选择站出来but you also have the option of seeking out跟我们多多接触and making some sort of contact with us.好了Okay.刚才讲了些课程的规定That's the formal stuff of the course.那这门课讲了些什么呢What's this course about?与其他很多课程不同Unlike a lot of other courses,一些学生是带着非同寻常的动机some people come to Intro Psychology来上心理学导论这门课的with some unusual motivations.也许是你觉得自己疯了Maybe you're crazy所以希望能够不那么疯and hope to become less crazy .也许你想学会如何更好地学习Maybe you want to learn how to study better,想提升你的性生活质量improve your sex life,想为自己释梦interpret your dreams,想多交点交朋友and win friends想学会如何影响他人and influence people.作为选择这门课程的理由Those are not necessarily bad reasons这些倒也并不算太差to take this course,当然除了性这个方面and with the exception of the sex part,这门课实际上还是能够帮助你们this course might actually help you out解决一些问题的with some of these things.科学的心理学研究The study of scientific psychology能让你们更多地了解has a lot of insights of real world与我们日常面对的真实问题有关的relevance to real problems真实的世界that we face in our everyday lives.当这些问题出现的时候And I'm going to try-- and when these issues come up—我会强调这些问题I'm going to try to stress them并让你们试着思考and make you try to think about the extent想想我将讲到的实验室研究to which the laboratory research I'll be talking about对你们日常生活的影响can affect your everyday life:你们是如何学习的how you study,是如何与他人交流的how you interact with people,是如何说服他人去认同别人观点的how you might try to persuade somebody of something else,哪种心理治疗最适合你what sort of therapy works best for you.但实际上我觉得这门课的总体目标But the general goals of this course要比上面的这些更有意思are actually I think even more interesting than that.我所要做的What I want to do is就是向大家介绍在人文领域里to provide a state of the art introduction对最重要主题to the most important topic也就是对我们人类的研究现状that there is: us.人类大脑如何运作How the human mind works,我们如何思考how we think,又是什么让我们变成了现在的样子what makes us what we are.我们将从多个方面来理解这些问题And we'll be approaching this from a range of directions.所以传统上So, traditionally,心理学通常被分为以下五个子领域psychology is often broken up into the following--into five sub-areas:神经科学Neuroscience,通过观察大脑反应来研究心理which is the study of the mind by looking at the brain;发展心理学这是我的主要研究方向developmental, which is the area which I focus mostly on,研究人类是如何成长发育以及学习的which is trying to learn about how people develop and grow and learn;认知心理学cognitive,也许是五个子领域里which is the one term of the five对你们有些人来说最不熟悉的一个领域that might be unfamiliar to some of you,它用计算机方法来研究心理but it refers to a sort of computational approach to studying the mind,通常将心理比作计算机often viewing the mind on analogy with a computer并探究人类如何行动如言语理解and looking at how people do things like understand language,物体辨认游戏等等recognize objects, play games, and so on.还有社会心理学There is social,主要研究人类的群体行为which is the study of how people act in groups,如何与他人交流how people act with other people.最后就是临床心理学And there is clinical,这也许是当人们提到心理学时which is maybe the aspect of psychology最先想到的方面that people think of immediately when they hear psychology,它主要研究心理健康和心理疾病which is the study of mental health and mental illness.我们会涉及以上所有的领域And we'll be covering all of those areas.我们还会涉及一些相关的领域We'll also be covering a set of related areas.我坚信仅仅局限于心理学学科的学习I am convinced that you cannot study the mind是不可能让你有能力去研究人类心理的solely by looking at the discipline of psychology.心理学学科充满了心理如何发展的问题The discipline of psychology spills over to issues of how the mind has evolved.经济学和游戏理论如今已经成为了Economics and game theory are now essential tools理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法for understanding human thought and human behavior—这些问题涉及哲学计算机科学those issues connecting to philosophy, computer science,人类学文学神学anthropology, literature, theology,以及许多其他的科学领域and many, many other domains.因此这门课程涉及到的方面将相当的广泛So, this course will be wide ranging in that sense.到现在为止我一直都在进行一些概述At this point I've been speaking in generalities我想通过给出五个so I want to close this introductory class我们将会涉及到的一些主题的例子by giving five examples of the sorts of topics来结束这节导论课we'll be covering.我以我们下周一要讨论的主题And I'll start with the topic that we'll be covering作为开始next week on Monday大脑The brain.这是一个大脑This is a brain.实际上这是个特殊人物的大脑In fact, it's a specific person's brain,有意思的是大脑上有个白色的小标记and what's interesting about the brain is that little white mark there.这是个女人的大脑It's her brain.是特丽·夏沃的大脑It's Terri Schiavo's brain.你们能更好地从她的照片上认出她You recognize her more from pictures like that.想象一下这样的情况And what a case like this,某人正陷于昏迷之中where somebody is in a coma,由于脑部损伤而失去了意识is without consciousness as a result of damage to the brain,这是心理活动的生理属性毫无修饰的图解is a stark illustration of the physical nature of mental life.我们所拥有的一切的生理基础The physical basis for everything that we normally hold dear,如自由意志意识道德和情绪like free will, consciousness, morality and emotions,我们的课程将会以此作为开始and that's what we'll begin the course with,讨论生理的东西如何能产生心理活动talking about how a physical thing can give rise to mental life.我们会讨论很多与孩子有关的问题We'll talk a lot about children.这实际上是个特殊的小孩This is actually a specific child.是我儿子扎卡里It's my son, Zachary,我的小儿子my younger son,扮成蜘蛛侠的样子dressed up as Spider-Man,不过这是在万圣节but it is Halloween.不对不是万圣节No, it's not Halloween.这个还是有故事可说的Well, there's more to say about that.我主要研究儿童的发展I study child development for a living我对很多问题都感兴趣and I'm interested in several questions.其中一个便是发展的问题So, one question is just the question of development.这个教室里的所有人都能讲英语Everybody in this room can speak也能听得懂英语and understand English.大家对于这个世界是如何运作的Everybody in this room has some understanding身体是如何运作的of how the world works,多少都有一些了解how physical things behave.大家对于他人对于人类如何行动Everybody in this room has some understanding of other people,都多少有些了解and how people behave.发展心理学家们所关心的问题And the question that preoccupies developmental psychologists 就是我们如何获得这些知识的is how do we come to have this knowledge,特别是and in particular,这其中有多少是固有的how much of it is hard-wired,内在的天生的built-in, innate.又有多少是文化的产物And how much of it is the product of culture,语言的产物或是教育的产物of language, of schooling?发展心理学家们使用了许多巧妙的方法And developmental psychologists use many ingenious methods试图将这些因素分开to try to pull these apart试图找出人性的基本成分and try to figure out what are the basic components究竟是什么of human nature.还有一个连续性的问题There's also the question of continuity.这时的扎卡里To what extent is Zachary, at that age,会在多大程度上一直保持不变going to be that way forever?你的人生又有多少是由命运决定的呢To what extent is your fate sealed?又在多大的程度上可能To what extent could--如果在你五岁的时候我见过你if I were to meet you when you were five years old那我可以描述出现在的你吗I could describe the way you are now?诗人威廉·华兹华斯写道The poet William Wordsworth wrote,"三岁定终身""The child is father to the man,"意思是你可以从孩子儿时的身影中and what this means is that you can see within every child 看出他或她成人后的样子the adult he or she will become.我们会去探索并质疑此话的正确性We will look and ask the question whether this is true.你的人格真会是这样的吗Is it true for your personality?你的兴趣也是这样吗Is it true for your interests?你的智力是这样的吗Is it true for your intelligence?与发展有关的另一个问题是Another question having to do with development什么让我们成为了如今的样子is what makes us the way we are?我们在很多方面都有所不同We're different in a lot of ways.大家的口味不尽相同The people in this room differ according to their taste in food.他们的智商也不同They differ according to their IQs;他们自信还是害羞whether they're aggressive or shy;他们是否喜欢男人女人whether they're attracted to males, females,都喜欢还是都不喜欢both or neither;他们是否擅长于音乐whether they are good at music;他们是政治上的自由派还是保守派whether they are politically liberal or conservative.为什么我们会不同Why are we different?对我们为什么不同的解释又是什么What's the explanation for why we're different?再一次And again,这可以从基因和环境的角度this could be translated in terms of加以理解a question of genes and environment.在多大程度上我们被我们的基因所决定To what extent are things the result of the genes wepossess?在多大程度上我们的个性To what extent are our individual natures the result of被如何抚养所决定how we were raised?在多大的程度上这些区别And to what extent are they best explained可以从相互作用的角度得到最佳的解释in terms of an interaction?一个常见的理论例如One common theory, for instance,是我们的父母塑造了我们的人格is that we are shaped by our parents.这一点被一位英国诗人菲利普·拉金This was best summarized most famously很好地总结了他写道by the British poet Philip Larkin who wrote,他们害了你They mess you up,你爸和你妈your mum and dad.他们不是故意的但事实却如此They may not mean to but they do.他们将他们身上的毛病传给了你They fill you with the faults they had还有灌输了许多其他的毛病and add some extra just for you.他说得对吗Is he right?这是很有争议的It's very controversial.你有一系列的You-- It's been a series of--关于父母在多大程度上起作用a huge controversy in the popular culture在流行文化里是有很大争议的to the extent of which parents matter我们将会在这门课里用很多的时间and this is an issue which will preoccupy us来讲这个问题for much of the course.另一个问题A different question:是什么使一个人如此迷人What makes somebody attractive?这可以在很多层面上问及And this can be asked at all sorts of levels但一个简单的层面就是什么才是好看but a simple level is what makes for a pretty face?这些就是So, these are,根据投票according to ratings,非常迷人的面孔very attractive faces.它们不是真人的面孔They are not the faces of real people.屏幕上面的这些是电脑生成的What's on the screen are computer generated faces一个高加索男性和一个高加索女性的面孔of a Caucasian male and a Caucasian female他们在现实世界中并不存在who don't exist in the real world.但是通过使用电脑合成But through using this sort of computer generation,然后问人们他们觉得这个长相如何and then asking people what they think of this face,那个长相如何what they think of that face,科学家多少了解到scientists have come to some sense怎样才算是迷人的面孔as to what really makes a face attractive,无论是在一种文化下还是跨文化的both within cultures and across cultures.这是当我们谈到社会行为时And that's something which we're going to devote some time to 要花一些时间去讲的东西when we talk about social behavior,特别是当我们谈到性的时候and in particular, when we talk about sex.迷人或是美丽并非仅仅指性Not all attractiveness, not all beauty of course, is linked to sex.比如说熊猫So, pandas for instance,像这只熊猫就是公认的可爱like this panda, are notoriously cute,关于这我并没有什么可说的and I don't have anything to say about it really.这只是一张可爱的图片It's just a cute picture .道德在我们生活中是极为核心的Morality is extremely central to our lives,我们要在大部分课中探讨的and a deep question, which we will struggle with一个深入的问题throughout most of the course,就是善与恶的问题is the question of good and evil,恶与善evil and good.这三张图展示了不同种类的恶These three pictures exemplify different sorts of evil.你可以将此称作机构性邪恶What you could call institutional evil产生于某人残忍地对待他人by somebody behaving cruelly toward somebody else,或许不是出于恶意perhaps not due to malice而是由于她所处的境况而导致but because of the situation that she's in.这是一张奥萨马·本·拉登的照片It has picture of Osama bin Laden,他是个被政治原因所驱使的杀人狂a mass murderer driven by political cause?然后是底下的这个人And then there's this guy on the bottom.有人知道他是谁吗Anybody know who he is?泰德·邦迪谁看出来了Ted Bundy. Who got that?给这位同学一个特写Film that man .不用了No.没错就是泰德·邦迪Ted Bundy, exactly,这就像是在我们去了解and that's like, before we get into诸如邪恶事物的专业知识之前the technical stuff like crazy-evil,我们会先想到and we're going to have to come to terms为什么人们会那样with why some people are like that.同样的情况又再次出现了And again, the same situation comes up.人性究竟是善还是恶Is it part of your nature to be good or bad或者说是否应当更多地归因于所处的环境or is it largely due to the situation that you fall in?有许多非常引人注目的实验And there's a lot of some quite spectacular experiments试图把这两者分开that try to tease that apart.如果我们要谈论恶If we're going to talk about evil,那么我们也应该谈谈善we should also talk about good.这是些众所周知的好人的照片These are pictures of two notoriously good men,奥斯卡·辛德勒和保罗·卢斯赛伯吉纳Oskar Schindler and Paul Rusesabagina,两人在不同的历史时期each who at different times in history冒着生命危险挽救了很多人的生命saved the lives of many, many people at great risk to themselves.大屠杀中的辛德勒Schindler in the Holocaust,以及另外一个人and then the other guy,我不知道他的名字怎么发音in and I can't pronounce his name卢斯赛伯吉纳在卢旺达Rusesabagina, in Rwanda.关于这两个人都有很好的电影And they both had real good movies made about them.但这些例子所表明的就是But what's interesting with these cases is你不可能提前预知you couldn't have predicted ahead of time他们会成为英雄that they would be heroes.。
2019年耶鲁大学心理学导论-范文模板 (17页)
本文部分内容来自网络整理，本司不为其真实性负责，如有异议或侵权请及时联系，本司将立即删除！== 本文为word格式，下载后可方便编辑和修改！ ==耶鲁大学心理学导论篇一：耶鲁大学心理学导论笔记整理精华版耶鲁大学公开课心理学导论讲师：Paul Bloom目录1.Introduction导论2. Foundations: This is Your Brain 这是你的大脑3. Foundations: Freud 弗洛伊德4. Foundations: Skinner 斯金纳5. What Is It Like to Be a Baby: The Development of Thought 思维发展历程6. How Do We Communicate?: Language in the Brain, Mouth and the Hands 我们如何交流7. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Language (cont.); Vision and Memor当前意识8. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Vision and Memory (cont.) 意识的呈现9. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Love (Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey) 进化和情感10. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Evolution and Rationality 进化情感理性11. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part I 进化情感理性①12. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part II进化情感理性②13. Why Are People Different?: Differences 人们为什么会有差异14. What Motivates Us: Sex 什么激发我们性15. A Person in the World of People: Morality 一个人在这个世界上道德16. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part I 一个人在这个世界上①17. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part II 一个人在这个世界上②18. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part I 精神病①19. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part II 精神病②20. The Good Life: Happiness 最好的生活—高兴第一节课 Introduction一、简介，目的，书目1. 目的本课程旨在让大家在宏观上对人类心智研究形成基本的认识, 科学了解与日常生活相关的真实世界2. 主题:非常广泛，其中囊括了大脑；儿童；语言；性；记忆；狂躁；厌恶；歧视以及爱恋等等..探讨的问题诸如，如何合理解释两性差异，动物究竟能否学习语言；我们作呕究竟因何而起，为何我们有些人会进食过量，而我们又该如何阻止，为何当人们融入团体时会变得疯狂；我们同样关注，你能否相信自己的儿时记忆，以及为何抑郁只存在于一部分人中；最主要的主题，也就是对我们人类的研究现状，人类大脑如何运作，我们如何思考，又是什么让我们变成了现在的样子3. 书目教材：彼得?格雷的《心理学》第五版阅读书目：格雷?马库斯《诺顿读本》二、心理学分支传统上心理学通常被分为以下五个子领域:1. 神经科学:通过观察大脑反应来研究心理；2. 发展心理学:研究人类是如何成长，发育以及学习的；3. 认知心理学:也许是五个子领域里对你们有些人来说最不熟悉的一个领域，它用计算机方法来研究心里，通常将心理比作计算机并探究人类如何行动；如语言理解，物体辨认，游戏等等；4. 社会心理学:主要研究人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流；5. 临床心理学:它主要研究心理健康和心理疾病；心理学学科充满了心理如何发展的问题，经济学和游戏理论如今已经成为了理解人类思维和人类行为的重要方法，这些问题涉及哲学、计算机科学、人类学、文学、神学以及许多其他的科学领域；因此这门课程涉及到的方面将相当的广泛三、主题1. 大家对于他人、对于人类如何行动，都多少有些了解，发展心理学家们所关心的问题就是我们如何获得这些知识的，特别是这其中有多少是固有的、内在的、天生的、又有多少是文化的产物、语言的产物、或是教育的产物；发展心理学家们使用了许多巧妙的方运决定的呢，又在多大的程度上可能如果在你五岁的时候我见过你，那我可以描述出现在的你吗；3. 诗人威廉.华兹华斯写道‘三岁定终身’意思是你可以从孩子儿时的身影中看出他或她成人后的样子；我们会去探索并质疑此话的正确性，你的人格真会是这样的吗，你的兴趣也是这样吗，你的智力是这样的吗，与发展有关的另一个问题是什么让我们成为了如今的样子，我们在很多方面都有所不同，大家的口味不尽相同，他们的智商也不同，他们自信还是害羞，他们是否喜欢男人、女人，都喜欢还是都不喜欢；他们是否擅长于音乐，他们是政治上的自由派还是保守派；为什么我们会不同，对我们为什么不同的解释又是什么；再一次，这可以从基因和环境的角度加以理解，在多大程度上我们被我们的基因所决定，在多大程度上我们的个性被如何抚养所决定，在多大的程度上这些区别可以从相互作用的角度得到最佳的解释；4. 我们的父母塑造了我们的人格，这一点被一位英国诗人菲利普.拉金，很好地总结了，他写道‘他们害了你’你爸和你妈；他们不是故意的，但事实却如此，他们将他们身上的毛病传给了你，还有灌输了许多其他的毛病；这是很有争议的；关于父母在多大程度上起作用，在流行文化里是有很大争议的；另一个问题，是什么使一个人如此迷人，这可以在很多层面上问及，但一个简单的层面就是什么才是好看；道德在我们生活中是极为核心的，在大部分课中探讨的一个深入的问题，就是善与恶的问题。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论英文字幕 transcript03
Introduction to Psychology: Lecture 3 Transcript January 24, 2007 << backProfessor Paul Bloom: Okay. The last class we talked about the brain. Now we're going to talk a little bit about some foundations. So today and Monday we're going to talk about two very big ideas and these ideas are associated with Sigmund Freud and B. F. Skinner and are psychoanalysis and behaviorism. And I want to talk about psychoanalysis today and behaviorism next week.Now, one of these things--One of the things that makes these theories so interesting is their scope. Most of the work we're going to talk about in this class--Most of the ideas are narrow. So, we're going to talk about somebody's idea about racial prejudice but that's not a theory of language acquisition. We'll talk about theories of schizophrenia but they're not explanations of sexual attractiveness. Most theories are specialized theories but these two views are grand theories. They're theories of everything, encompassing just about everything that matters, day-to-day life, child development, mental illness, religion, war, love. Freud and Skinner had explanations of all of these.Now, this is not a history course. I have zero interest in describing historical figures in psychology just for the sake of telling you about the history of the field. What I want to tell you about though is--I want to talk about these ideas because so much rests on them and, even more importantly, a lot of these ideas have critical influence on how we think about the present. And that's there. [pointing at the slide]Now, for better or worse, we live in a world profoundly affected by Sigmund Freud. If I had to ask you to choose a--no, name a famous psychologist, the answer of most of you would be Freud. He's the most famous psychologist ever and he's had a profound influence on the twentieth and twenty-first century. Some biographical information: He was born in the 1850s. He spent most of his life in Vienna, Austria, but he died in London and he escaped to London soon after retreating there at the beginning of World War II as the Nazis began to occupy where he lived.He's one of the most famous scholars ever but he's not known for any single discovery. Instead, he's known for the development of an encompassing theory of mind, one that he developed over the span of many decades. He was in his time extremely well known, a celebrity recognized on the street, and throughout his life. He was a man of extraordinary energy and productivity, in part because he was a very serious cocaine addict, butalso just in general. He was just a high-energy sort of person. He was up for the Nobel Prize in medicine and in literature; didn't get either one of them; didn't get the prize in medicine because AlbertEinstein--Everybody loves Albert Einstein. Well, Albert Einstein really wrote a letter because they asked for opinions of other Nobel Prizes. He wrote a letter saying, "Don't give the prize to Freud. He doesn't deserve a Nobel Prize. He's just a psychologist." Well, yeah. Okay.While he's almost universally acclaimed as a profoundly important intellectual figure, he's also the object of considerable dislike. This is in part because of his character. He was not a very nice man in many ways. He was deeply ambitious to the cause of promoting psychoanalysis, to the cause of presenting his view and defending it, and he was often dishonest, extremely brutal to his friends, and terrible to his enemies. He was an interesting character.My favorite Freud story was as he was leaving Europe during the rise of the Nazis, as he was ready to go to England from, I think, either Germany or Austria, he had to sign a letter from the Gestapo. Gestapo agents intercepted him and demanded he sign a letter saying that at no point had he been threatened or harassed by the Gestapo. So he signs the letter and then he writes underneath it, "The Gestapo has not harmed me in any way. In fact, I highly recommend the Gestapo to everybody." It's--He had a certain aggression to him. He was also--He's also disliked, often hated, because of his views. He was seen as a sexual renegade out to destroy the conception of people as good and rational and pure beings. And when the Nazis rose to power in the 1930s he was identified as a Jew who was devoted to destroying the most sacred notions of Christianity and to many, to some extent, many people see him this way. And to some extent, this accusation has some truth to it.Freud made claims about people that many of us, maybe most of us, would rather not know. Well, okay. What did he say? Well, if you ask somebody who doesn't like Freud what he said, they'll describe some of the stupider things he said and, in fact, Freud said a lot of things, some of which were not very rational. For instance, he's well known for his account of phallic symbols, arguing certain architectural monuments are subconsciously developed as penile representations. And related to this, he developed the notorious theory of penis envy. And penis envy is an account of a developmental state that every one of you who is female has gone through, according to Freud. And the idea is that you discovered at some point in your development that you lacked a penis. This is not--This is a catastrophe. And so, each of you inferred at that point that you had been castrated. You had once had a penis but somebody had taken it from you. You then turn to your father and love your father because your fatherhas a penis, so he's a sort of penis substitute. You reject your mother, who's equally unworthy due to her penis lack, and that shapes your psychosexual development.Now, if that's the sort of thing you know about Freud, you are not going to have a very high opinion of him or of his work, but at the core of Freud's declamation, the more interesting ideas, is a set of claims of a man's intellectual importance. And the two main ones are this. The two main ones involve the existence of an unconscious, unconscious motivation, and the notion of unconscious dynamics or unconscious conflict which lead to mental illnesses, dreams, slips of the tongue and so on.The first idea 鈥� the idea of unconscious motivation 鈥� involvesrejecting the claim that you know what you're doing. So, suppose you fall in love with somebody and you decide you want to marry them and then somebody was asked to ask you why and you'd say something like, "Well, I'm ready to get married this stage of my life; I really love the person; the person is smart and attractive; I want to have kids" whatever. And maybe this is true. But a Freudian might say that even if this is yourhonest answer 鈥�you're not lying to anybody else 鈥搒till, there aredesires and motivations that govern your behavior that you may not be aware of. So, in fact, you might want to marry John because he reminds you of your father or because you want to get back at somebody for betraying you.If somebody was to tell you this, you'd say, "That's total nonsense," but that wouldn't deter a Freudian. The Freudian would say that these processes are unconscious so of course you just don't know what's happening. So, the radical idea here is you might not know what--why you do what you do and this is something we accept for things like visual perception. We accept that you look around the world and you get sensations and you figure out there is a car, there is a tree, there is a person. And you're just unconscious of how this happens but it's unpleasant and kind of frightening that this could happen, that this could apply to things like why you're now studying at Yale, why you feel the way you do towards your friends, towards your family.Now, the marriage case is extreme but Freud gives a lot of simpler examples where this sort of unconscious motivation might play a role. So, have you ever liked somebody or disliked them and not known why? Have you ever found yourself in a situation where you're doing something or you're arguing for something or making a decision for reasons that you can't fully articulate? Have you ever forgotten somebody's name at exactly the wrong time? Have you ever called out the wrong name in the throes of passion?This is all the Freudian unconscious. The idea is that we do these things--these things are explained in terms of cognitive systems that we're not aware of.Now, all of this would be fine if your unconscious was a reasonable, rational computer, if your unconscious was really smart and looking out for your best interest. But, according to Freud, that's not the way it works. According to Freud, there are three distinct processes going on in your head and these are in violent internal conflict. And the way you act and the way you think are products, not of a singular rational being, but of a set of conflicting creatures. And these three parts are the id, the ego, and the superego and they emerge developmentally.The id, according to Freud, is present at birth. It's the animal part of the self. It wants to eat, drink, pee, poop, get warm, and have sexual satisfaction. It is outrageously stupid. It works on what Freud called, "The Pleasure Principle." It wants pleasure and it wants it now. And that's,according to Freud, how a human begins 鈥� pure id. Freud had thiswonderful phrase, "polymorphous perversity," this pure desire for pleasure.Now, unfortunately, life doesn't work like that. What you want isn't always what you get and this leads to a set of reactions to cope with the fact that pleasure isn't always there when you want it either by planning how to satisfy your desires or planning how to suppress them. And this system is known as the ego, or the self. And it works on the "Reality Principle." And it works on the principle of trying to figure out how to make your way through the world, how to satisfy your pleasures or, in somecases, how to give up on them. And the ego 鈥� the emergence of the ego for Freud--symbolizes the origin of consciousness.Finally, if this was all there it might be a simpler world, but Freud had a third component, that of the superego. And the superego is the internalized rules of parents in society. So, what happens in the course of development is, you're just trying to make your way through the world and satisfy your desires, but sometimes you're punished for them. Some desires are inappropriate, some actions are wrong, and you're punished for it. The idea is that you come out; you get in your head a superego, a conscience. In these movies, there'd be a little angel above your head that tells you when things are wrong. And basically your self, the ego, is in between the id and the superego.One thing to realize, I told you the id is outrageously stupid. It just says, "Oh, hungry, food, sex, oh, let's get warm, oh." The superego is also stupid. The superego, point to point, is not some brilliant moral philosopher telling you about right and wrong. The superego would say, "You should be ashamed of yourself. That's disgusting. Stop doing that. Oh." And in between these two screaming creatures, one of you; one of them telling you to seek out your desires, the other one telling you, "you should be ashamed of yourself," is you, is the ego.Now, according to Freud, most of this is unconscious. So, we see bubbling up to the top, we feel, we experience ourselves. And the driving of the id, the forces of the id and the forces of the superego, are unconscious in that we cannot access them. We don't know what--It's like the workings of our kidneys or our stomachs. You can't introspect and find them. Rather, they do their work without conscious knowledge.Now, Freud developed this. This is the Freudian theory in broad outline. He extended it and developed it into a theory of psychosexual development. And so, Freud's theory is, as I said before, a theory of everyday life, of decisions, of errors, of falling in love, but it's also a theory of child development. So, Freud believed there were five stages of personality development, and each is associated with a particular erogenous zone. And Freud believed, as well, that if you have a problem at a certain stage, if something goes wrong, you'll be stuck there. So, according to Freud, there are people in this room who are what they are because they got stuck in the oral stage or the anal stage. And that's not good.So, the oral stage is when you start off. The mouth is associated with pleasure. Everything is sucking and chewing and so on. And the problem for Freud is premature weaning of a child. Depriving him of the breast, could lead to serious problems in his personality development. It could make him, as the phrase goes, into an oral person. And his orality could be described literally. Freud uses it as an explanation for why somebody might eat too much or chew gum or smoke. They're trying to achieve satisfaction through their mouth of a sort they didn't get in this very early stage of development. But it can also be more abstract. If your roommate is dependent and needy, you could then go to your roommate and say, "You are an oral person. The first year of your life did not go well."A phrase even more popular is the anal stage and that happens after the oral stage. And problems can emerge if toilet training is not handled correctly. If you have problems during those years of life, you could become an anal personality, according to Freud, and your roommate could say, "Your problem is you're too anal." And, according to Freud, literally,it meant you are unwilling to part with your own feces. It's written down here. I know it's true. And the way it manifests itself, as you know from just how people talk, is you're compulsive, you're clean, you're stingy. This is the anal personality.Then it gets a little bit more complicated. The next stage is the phallic stage. Actually, this is not much more complicated. The focus of pleasure shifts to the genitals and fixation can lead to excessive masculinity in females or in males or if you're female a need for attention or domination. Now, at this point something really interesting happens called the "Oedipus Complex." And this is based on the story, the mythical story of a king who killed his father and married his mother. And, according to Freud, this happens to all of us in this way. Well, all of us. By "all of us," Freud meant "men."So, here's the idea. You're three or four years old. You're in the phallic stage. So, what are you interested in? Well, you're interested in your penis and then you seek an external object. Freud's sort of vague about this, but you seek some sort of satisfaction. But who is out there who'd be sweet and kind and loving and wonderful? Well, Mom. So the child infers, "Mom is nice, I love Mom." So far so--And so this is not crazy; a little boy falling in love with his mother. Problem: Dad's in the way.Now, this is going to get progressively weirder but I will have to say, as the father of two sons, both sons went through a phase where theyexplicitly said they wanted to marry Mommy. And me 鈥�if something badhappened to me that wouldn't be the worst thing in the world. So, there's this. But now it gets a little bit aggressive. So, the idea is the child determines that he's going to kill his father. Every three- andfour-year-old boy thinks this. But then because children, according to Freud, don't have a good sense of the boundary between their mind and theworld, which is a problem 鈥�the problem is they don't 鈥�they thinktheir father can tell that they're plotting to kill him and they figure their father is now angry at them. And then they ask themselves, "What's the worst thing Dad could do to me?" And the answer is castration. So, they come to the conclusion that their father is going to castrate them because of their illicit love for their Mom. And then they say, "Dad wins" and then they don't think about sex for several years and that's the latency stage.The latency stage is they've gone through this huge thing with Mom and Dad, "fell in love with Mom, wanted to kill my father, Dad was going to castrate me, fell out of love with Mom, out of the sex business." And then,sex is repressed until you get to the genital stage. And the genital stageis the stage we are all in 鈥� the healthy adult stage. Now that you'readults and you've gone through all the developmental stages, where do you stand? You're not out of the woods yet because unconscious mechanisms are still--Even if you haven't got fixated on anything, there's still this dynamic going on all the time with your id, your ego and your superego. And the idea is your superego--Remember, your superego is stupid. So, your superego isn't only telling you not to do bad things, it's telling you not to think bad things. So, what's happening is your id is sending up all of this weird, sick stuff, all of these crazy sexual and violent desires, "Oh, I'll kill him. I'll have sex with that. I'll have extra helpings on my dessert." And your superego is saying, "No, no, no." And this stuff is repressed. It doesn't even make it to consciousness.The problem is Freud had a very sort of hydraulic theory of what goes on and some of this stuff slips out and it shows up in dreams and it shows up in slips of the tongue. And in exceptional cases, it shows up in certain clinical symptoms. So what happens is, Freud described a lot of normal life in terms of different ways we use to keep that horrible stuff from the id making its way to consciousness. And he called these "defense mechanisms." You're defending yourself against the horrible parts of yourself and some of these make a little bit of sense.One way to describe this in a non-technical, non-Freudian way is, there are certain things about ourselves we'd rather not know. There are certain desires we'd rather not know and we have ways to hide them. So, for instance, there's sublimation. Sublimation is you might have a lot of energy, maybe sexual energy or aggressive energy, but instead of turning it to a sexual or aggressive target what you do is you focus it in some other way. So, you can imagine a great artist like Picasso turning the sexual energy into his artwork.There is displacement. Displacement is you have certain shameful thoughts or desires and you refocus them more appropriately. A boy who's bullied by his father may hate his father and want to hurt him but since this would--this is very shameful and difficult. The boy might instead kick the dog and think he hates the dog because that's a more acceptable target.There is projection. Projection is, I have certain impulses I am uncomfortable with, so rather than own them myself, I project them to somebody else. A classic example for Freud is homosexual desires. The idea is that I feel this tremendous lust towards you, for instance, and--any of you, all of you, you three, and I'm ashamed of this lust so what I say is, "Hey. Are you guys looking at me in a sexual manner? Are you lustingafter me? How disgusting," because what I do is I take my own desires and I project it to others. And Freud suggested, perhaps not implausibly, that men who believe other men--who are obsessed with the sexuality of other men, are themselves projecting away their own sexual desires.There is rationalization, which is that when you do something or think something bad you rationalize it and you give it a more socially acceptable explanation. A parent who enjoys smacking his child will typically not say, "I enjoy smacking my child." Rather he'll say, "It's for the child's own good. I'm being a good parent by doing this."And finally, there is regression, which is returning to an earlier stage of development. And you actually see this in children. In times of stress and trauma, they'll become younger, they will act younger. They might cry. They might suck their thumb, seek out a blanket or so on. Now, these are all mechanisms that for Freud are not the slightest bit pathological. They are part of normal life. Normally, we do these things to keep an equilibrium among the different systems of the unconscious, but sometimes it doesn't work. Sometimes things go awry and what happens is a phrase that's not currently used in psychology but was popular during Freud's time: hysteria.Hysteria includes phenomena like hysterical blindness and hysterical deafness, which is when you cannot see and cannot hear even though there'snothing physiologically wrong with you 鈥�paralysis, trembling, panicattacks, gaps of memory including amnesia and so on. And the idea is that these are actually symptoms. These are symptoms of mechanisms going on to keep things unconscious. It's a common enough idea in movies. Often in movies what happens is that somebody goes to an analyst. They have some horrible problem. They can't remember something or they have some sort of blackouts and so on. And the analyst tells them something and at one point they get this insight and they realize what--why they've blinded themselves, why they can't remember, and for Freud this is what happens. Freud originally attempted to get these memories out through hypnosis but then moved to the mechanism of free association and, according to Freud, the idea is patients offer resistance to this and then the idea of a psychoanalyst is to get over the resistance and help patients get insight.The key notion of psychoanalysis is your problems are--actually reflect deeper phenomena. You're hiding something from yourself, and once you know what's going on to deeper phenomena your problems will go away. I'm going to give you an example of a therapy session. Now, this is not a Freudian analysis. We'll discuss later on in the course what a Freudian analysis is, but this is not a pure Freudian analysis. A Freudian analysis, ofcourse, is lying on a couch; does not see their therapist; their therapist is very nondirective. But I'm going to present this as an example here because it illustrates so many of the Freudian themes, particularly themes about dreams, the importance of dreams, about repression and about hidden meaning.So, this is from a television episode and the character's--Many--Some of you may have seen this. Many of you will not have. The character is suffering from panic attacks. [Professor Paul Bloom plays a short episode from the Sopranos]Freud's contributions extend beyond the study of individual psychology and individual pathology. Freud had a lot to say about dreams as you could see in this illustration. He believed that dreams had a manifest content, meaning; "manifest" meaning what you experience in your dream. But dreams always had a latent content as well, meaning the hidden implication of the dream. He viewed all dreams as wish fulfillment. Every dream you have is a certain wish you have even though it might be a forbidden wish that you wouldn't wish to have, you wouldn't want to have. And dreams had--and this is an idea that long predated Freud. Dreams had symbolism. Things in dreams were often not what they seemed to be but rather symbols for other things. Freud believed that literature and fairy tales and stories to children and the like carried certain universal themes, certain aspects of unconscious struggles, and certain preoccupations of our unconscious mind. And Freud had a lot to say about religion. For instance, he viewed a large part of our--of the idea of finding a singular, all-powerful god as seeking out a father figure that some of us never had during development.What I want to spend the rest of the class on is the scientific assessment of Freud. So, what I did so far is I've told you what Freud had to say in broad outline. I then want to take the time to consider whether or not we should believe this and how well it fits with our modern science. But before doing so, I'll take questions for a few minutes. Do people have any questions about Freud or Freud's theories? Yes.Student: [inaudible]Professor Paul Bloom: So, that's some question. The question is: The conflicts in psychosexual development that Freud describes is--always assumes that a child has a mother and a father, one of each, in a certain sort of familial structure. And the question then is, "What if a child was raised by a single parent, for example?" What if a child was never breast fed, but fed from the bottle from the start? And Freudians have had problems with this. Freud's--Freud was very focused on the family lifeof the people he interacted with, which is rather upper class Europeans, and these sort of questions would have been difficult for Freud to answer.I imagine that what a Freudian would have to say is, you would expect systematic differences. So, you would expect a child who just grew up with a mother or just grew up to be a father--with a father to be in some sense psychologically damaged by that, failing to go through the normal psychosexual stages. Yes.Student: [inaudible]Professor Paul Bloom: The issue--The question is, "Do modern psychoanalysts still believe that women do not have superegos?" Freud was--As you're pointing out, Freud was notorious for pointing, for suggesting that women were morally immature relative to men. I think Freud would say that women have superegos, they're just not the sort of sturdy ones that men have. I think psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic scholars right now would be mixed. Some would maintain that there really are deep sex differences. Others would want to jettison that aspect of Freudian theory. Yes.Student: Do you define sublimation as being displacement? Does that make it sort of a subgroup of displacement?Professor Paul Bloom: Well, what sublimation is--A lot of these--It's a good question. The question is sort of, what is sublimation? How does it relate to the other defense mechanisms? A lot of defense mechanisms involve taking a desire and turning it. Now, what displacement does is it takes it from you to her. I'm angry at you but maybe that's forbidden for some reason, so I'll be angry at her. What projection does is takes a desire from me and then puts it on somebody else heading outwards. And what sublimation does is it just gives up the details and keeps the energy. So, you stay up--Your roommate stays up all night working and you say to your roommate, for instance, "That's just because you haven't had sex in a long time and you want to have sex so you devote all your energy to your math exam." And then you say, "That's sublimation. I learned that in Intro Psych." And your roommate would be very pleased. One more question. Yes.Student: What kind of evidence is there for cross-cultural variation?Professor Paul Bloom: The question is, which is related to theissue--extending the issue of the two-parent versus one-parent family is, "To what extent are these notions validated cross-culturally?" And that's such a good question I'm going to defer it. I'm going to talk about it in a few minutes because that's actually--That speaks to the issue of the。
耶鲁大学心理学导论笔记讲师PaulBloom
耶鲁大学心理学导论笔记讲师PaulBloom1.Introduction 导论2. Foundations: This is Your Brain 这是你的大脑3. Foundations: Freud 弗洛伊德4. Foundations: Skinner 斯金纳5. What Is It Like to Be a Baby: The Development of Thought 思想开展历程6. How Do We Communicate?: Language in the Brain, Mouth and the Hands 我们如何交流7. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Language (cont.); Vision and Memor以后看法8. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Vision and Memory (cont.) 看法的出现9. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Love (Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey) 退化和情感10. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Evolution and Rationality 退化情感理性11. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part I 退化情感理性①12. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part II退化情感理性②13. Why Are People Different?: Differences 人们为什么会有差异14. What Motivates Us: Sex 什么激起我们性15. A Person in the World of People: Morality 一团体在这个世界上品德16. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part I 一团体在这个世界上①17. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part II 一团体在这个世界上②18. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part I 肉体病①19. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part II 肉体病②20. The Good Life: Happiness 最好的生活—快乐第一节课Introduction教材：彼得•格雷的«心思学»第五版阅读书目：格雷•马库斯«诺顿读本»心思学研讨范围：1、神经迷信2、开展心思学〔研讨人类如何生长、发育以及学习〕3、认知心思学〔用计算机方法研讨心思学〕4、社会意思学〔研讨人类的群体行为，如何与他人交流〕5、临床心思学〔心思安康、心思疾病〕如今，经济学和博弈论曾经成为了解人类思想和人类行为的重要方法。
耶鲁大学心理学导论笔记整理版
耶鲁大学心理学导论笔记整理版一、心理学分为五大块：1、神经科学：研究大脑与心理现象之间的关系。
2、发展心理学：我们如何获取知识？我们的特质是天生的，基因决定的，还是后天通过学习、环境的影响导致的？3、认知心理学：心理就像计算机，将人的各种心理过程变成一系列的步骤。
4、社会心理学：人在群体中的心理与行为。
5、临床心理学：变态心理，心理障碍，心理疾病等。
二、植物人：特丽.夏沃特丽·夏沃（Terri Schiavo，全名特里萨·玛丽·珊德勒·夏沃，1963年12月3日- 2005年3月31日），是美国佛罗里达州圣彼得堡一妇女，1990年2月25日，她被确诊患因为心脉停止而导致严重的脑损害，据信导致的原因可能是饮食功能紊乱症引起的血液成分失衡，夏沃丈夫坚持移除其生命支持系统的行为导致了一系列关于生物伦理学，安乐死，监护人制度，联邦制以及民权的严重争论。
特丽·夏沃在被拔掉进食管13天后于2005年3月31日因脱水死亡。
2005年6月15日公布的尸检报告指出，夏沃的脑损伤非常严重，大面积的脑神经组织已经死亡，任何治疗都不可能帮助其復原其脑损伤。
同时参与尸检的乔恩·特洛马丁指出，尸检令他们对夏沃生前患有饮食功能紊乱症的说法产生怀疑，但是使其成为植物人的原因还不明确。
此外，针对有人怀疑其丈夫虐待特丽·夏沃的说法，尸检报告指出：特丽的骨折是由于陷入昏迷后十多年间因为严重的骨质疏松症而造成的。
同时尸检也没有发现任何证据表明特丽·夏沃是被她丈夫毒死的，或她在住院期间曾被注射过某种神秘药物。
三、美国史上变态杀人狂- 优等生杀手：泰德.邦迪每个人都应该曾经遇上过一个这样的人物——他品学兼优，样貌英俊，从来不忧心没有约会对象，曾经是男童军，运动方面也十分优秀，之後进入一间著名的大学，同样以优秀的成绩毕业，跟著在政府内工作，高薪厚职且社会地位崇高。
分享自学耶鲁大学公开课《心理学导论》
心理健康维护策略分享
自我观察与记录
关注自己的情绪变化，及时记录 并分析。
积极应对压力
学习有效应对压力的方法，如放 松训练、冥想等。
建立良好的人际关系
与家人、朋友保持联系，分享彼 此的感受和经历。
培养健康的生活方式
合理饮食、充足睡眠、适量运动 等有助于维护心理健康。
寻求专业帮助途径和资源
专业心理咨询机构
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社会心理学与人际关系
社会认知过程剖析
认知过程定义
社会认知是指个体对社会环境中的人、事、物进 行感知、理解和评价的过程。
认知过程影响因素
个体的经验、文化背景、情感状态等都会影响社 会认知过程。
认知偏差
由于主观因素和客观条件的限制，个体在社会认 知中容易出现偏差，如刻板印象、晕轮效应等。
人际关系建立和维护技巧
能，形成自己的社会角色和身份认同。
教育原则和方法应用
因材施教
根据儿童的发展阶段和个 体差异，采用针对性的教 学方法和策略，促进儿童 的全面发展。
激发兴趣
通过生动有趣的教学内容 和活动设计，激发儿童的 学习兴趣和内在动机，提 高学习效果。
实践应用
鼓励儿童将所学知识应用 于实际生活和问题解决中， 培养实践能力和创新精神。
分享自学耶鲁大学公 开课《心理学导论》
目录
• 课程简介与背景 • 认知过程与意识 • 情绪、动机与行为 • 发展心理学与教育应用 • 社会心理学与人际关系 • 异常心理学与心理健康维护
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课程简介与背景
耶鲁大学公开课《心理学导论》概述
01
课程名称
《心理学导论》
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授课机构
耶鲁大学
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课程性质
心理学笔记-15.道德（耶鲁大学公开课《心理学导论》）
心理学笔记笔记-15.-15.-15.道德道德一个在世界上的人 ——道德我们将从三个方面学习道德：道德情感，道德判断，道德行为。
道德情感移情，存在与我们大部分人中间，但不是全部移情，存在与我们大部分人中间，但不是全部..........日常的道德；内群性：群体内的团结合作，群体间的竞争关系内群性：群体内的团结合作，群体间的竞争关系............消除的方法是：让不消除的方法是：让不同的群体有共同的最高目标，，，，比如，消除不同宗教矛盾的方法是让外星人攻击地球，这个。
也就是说，关心、移情等部分取决于我们本身所属的群体。
道德判断：好坏之分，公平和不公平之分我们在心理学上所说的道德，不是指你对一些重大问题的立场，例如政治问题或者重大的道德问题，堕胎或者死刑例如政治问题或者重大的道德问题，堕胎或者死刑..................道德判断是一种道德判断是一种你不停的作出的判断，通常是无意作出的你不停的作出的判断，通常是无意作出的....三个特点——强制，惩罚，道德推理Shweder 理论 ：认为思考可以分为3种，种，33种不同的道德思想体系，3种不同的伦理种不同的伦理............· 自治道德（自治道德（an an ethnic of autonomy ）：道德哲学家——对√，）：道德哲学家——对√，平等，自由；·但很多重于集体道德，强调义务、地位、等级制度、互相依赖； · 还有的文化重于神性道德，他们的道德则与纯洁，神圣，亵渎，罪孽等有关。
西方文化具有强烈的自治道德，所以我们文化中的争议都是从自治道德的观点出发的。
但是，我们会遇到一些道德困境，道德直觉是无意识的，即“总之，这是不对的”。
而真正的认为“比如，宠物狗死了，我们晚餐就吃了它吧”....这可能是真正的自治道德者。
使人变坏的力量：1. 去个性化：抹杀自己的个性，你不再是你自己去个性化：抹杀自己的个性，你不再是你自己................................................责任分散责任分散——群体的责任而不是我个人的责任，群体的一个作用是使得责任变小（再比如，“接受命令”、“匿名”也是减少责任的方法）；例子，在街头被抢大喊救命，不如指着某个人说“穿绿色毛衣的那个人，快报警”。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论 第2课中文课件
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论第2课中文课件耶鲁大学开放课程心理学导论第2课基础：这是你的大脑今天我们开始正式上课，心理学导论，我们首先要来探讨的是大脑；我想先提到一种观点，这种观点的提出者是位诺贝尔奖得主,生物学家、费兰西斯.克里克；他将这种观点称为“惊人的假说”，这一惊人的假说大致观点如下：正如他在其著作《惊人的假说》中写道“你、你的喜悦、悲伤、回忆、抱负，你对人格同一性的感知、你的自由意志；事实上这一切都不过是大量神经细胞集与其缔合分子的生理反应而已；正如刘易斯.卡罗尔在《爱丽斯》中所描述的“你不过是一堆神经元罢了”，用“惊人”来形容这个观点是贴切的，这是个古怪又反常的观点：我并不奢望大家在一开始就能接受这个观点，即使到课程结束时能否接受这个观点，依然是你们的自由；相反、你们要现在就能接受，倒是会让我感到很奇怪，我知道多数人接受不了。
实际上、他们持有另外一种观点，大多数人都是二元论者，二元论则是一种截然不同的假说，你能够在有史以来的所有宗教和绝大多数哲学体系中找到这个假说，比如、柏拉图就曾明确提出过；但是最著名最有影响力的二元论拥护者则非哲学家勒奈.笛卡尔莫属，勒奈.笛卡尔明确地提出了一个问题“人类是否仅仅是生理机器、是生理客体而已”他的答复是“不”，他认为动物都是机器，实际上他将动物称之为“野兽机器”；他认为非人类动物全是机器人，但人类是不同的、人类具有二元性；我们和动物一样拥有有形的生理客体，但与动物不同，我们的本质却并非是生理的，我们是拥有生理客体的无形心灵，我们的心灵占据着生理客体，寄居其中与其形成紧密的联系，这便是二元论，因为它主张至少对于人类而言存在两种独立的成分，即有形的生理客体与无形的心理；笛卡尔为二元论提出了两点论据：第一点是基于对人类行为的观察，笛卡尔生活在一个人类社会发展相对成熟的时代，在他生活的年代已经出现了机器人，当然不是我们现代的电动机器人，当时的机器人需要用水力来带动，笛卡尔曾经在法国皇家园林中散步，当时的法国皇家园林被建造得犹如17世纪的迪斯尼乐园一般，园林中有很多人偶造型可以运用水流来控制他们的动作；当你踏上相应的踩踏板，一个剑客便会跳出来向你挥剑，如果你踩到了另一块，一个正在沐浴的美女便会藏到树丛里去；因此笛卡尔说“天呐、这些机器可以对特定的动作做出特定的反应，原来机器也是可以完成某些动作的”；实际上他说道“我们的身体也是这样运作的，如果你轻击某人的膝盖，小腿就会弹出去，或许这就是我们的本质”但是笛卡尔否定了这一观点，因为有些事情人类可以做到，机器永远不可能做到；人类的行为不光只有反射，相反、人类拥有协调能力、创造力以及发起自发性行为的能力；例如我们能够运用语言，当然有时我说出的话会是反射性的，比如有人问我“你好吗？”我会说“很好、你呢？”但有时、我可以选择那些我想要说的话“你好吗”“非常好”我完全可以进行选择;笛卡尔认为机器无法做出这种选择，因此我们不仅仅只是机器；当然、他的第二个论据非常的有名，在这里他用到了怀疑方法，他首先问自己一个问题“我究竟能够确信什么呢”之后他自答到“我相信上帝、但说实话、我不能确定上帝的存在，我相信我生活在一个富有的国度，但我可能是被愚弄了”；他甚至说“我相信我拥有朋友与家人，但或许我只是他们的一颗棋子罢了，或许是有个恶魔在戏弄我，让我产生错觉感受到了一些并不存在的东西”；《黑客帝国》便是这些怀疑的现代版演绎，《黑客帝国》的创意完全基于笛卡尔的哲学，笛卡尔对于恶灵的忧虑，或许你现在所经历的一切都不是真实的，而是某种邪恶生物制造出的幻觉；笛卡尔甚至同样怀疑自己身体的存在，事实上他注意到疯子有时会相信自己有额外的四肢或者相信他们的大小与形状是与实际不同的，笛卡尔问道“我如何让才能确定我不是个疯子，疯子们都认为自己是正常的，所以我觉得自己不是疯子，我又如何能确定我现在不是在做梦呢”；但迪卡尔认为有一点是他无法质疑的，那就是他无法怀疑自我思考的存在，而这又成为了对自己的反驳；因此、笛卡尔运用怀疑方法得出与拥有不可确定的身体不同、拥有心理是肯定的；他用这一论据来支持二元论、来支持身心二元的观点；因此他总结到“我知道我是个实体、是思考主体的本质或本性，而这种思考主体的存在，无需任何空间，也不依赖与任何有形实体；也就是说我的心灵、我的本质完全不同于我的身体”；我之前说过这是个普通观点，现在我要从几个方面来说明这个普遍观点：首先、二元论镶嵌于我们的语言之中，我们对我们所拥有的或是与我们有关的事物有着特定的表述模式，比如“我的胳膊、我的心脏、我的孩子、我的爱车”但我们对自己身体和大脑的表述，却也是如此在我们谈及我们拥有大脑时，似乎大脑是与我们相分的;二元论揭示了直觉上的人格同一性，这也就是在说普通观点告诉我们，一个人、即使经历了身体上的巨变也依旧是原先的那个人，很多虚构的故事非常能说明这个道理；我们完全能够看懂电影中，一个少女睡去一觉醒来却变成了詹妮弗.加纳一个成年人，没人会说“这就是纪录片、我相信这些全部是真的”但同时无论大人、青少年还是孩子、没有人会选择中途离开，说“我完全不知道电影在讲些什么”；相反、我们能够理解电影中的故事情节，我们也能理解很多包含更大转变的故事；比如某人死后又转世投胎到新生儿的身上，你可能有些不同的观点是关于对于转世投胎是否真的存在，在座的各位可能会有很多不同的看法；但我们可以想象一下，我们可以想象有这么个一个人死了，然后出现在另一个身体里；这并非是好莱坞首创上世纪最伟大的短篇小说之一，弗郎茨.卡夫卡所写的名篇是这样开头的“一天早晨，格里高尔.萨姆沙从不安的睡梦中醒来发现自己躺在床上变成了一只巨大的甲虫”这里卡夫卡再带次领我们去想象一觉醒来却变成一只甲虫的场景，而我们是可以想象到的；还有一个古老的例子，在公元前几百年荷马这样描述奥德赛的几个同样的命运，一个女巫将它们变成了猪，实际上这么说并不准确，他并未将它们变成猪，他的做法更加过分，女巫将它们封锁在猪的身体里，他们拥有猪的脑袋、声音、鬃毛和身体，但他们的心里却从未改变，他们被关在猪圈里轻声哭泣，在这里、作者再次邀请我们去想象，我们自己被困在其他动物身体里的场景，如果你能想象如此场景，那是因为你将自己当做了与所依肉体分离的心理实体；我们相信许多人是能够“灵魂附体”的，这是滑稽戏剧的一贯伎俩;同样也出现在经典电影《衰鬼上错身》中史蒂芬.马丁和莉莉.汤普林主演大力推荐，但很多人认为这种事情是真实存在的，对多重人格障碍的一种解释就是在你的身体中存在着多个心灵争夺对身体的控制权；我们将在本学期结束之前探讨多重人格障碍，到时大家会发现，事情要远比这复杂得多，但我想说的并非多重人格障碍究竟是什么，而是我们如何看待它，普通观点告诉我们，你的身体里可以拥有不止一个的心灵，这种普遍观点出现在许多不同的故事之中，也包括恶灵附体；许多信任系统都相信，个体行为，尤其是那些邪恶或非理性行为之所以会出现，是因为某种事物占据了他们的身体。
2024版耶鲁大学公开课《心理学导论》笔记
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遗忘规律及提高记忆方法
遗忘规律
德国心理学家艾宾浩斯研究发现，遗忘在学 习之后立即开始，而且遗忘的进程并不是均 匀的。最初遗忘很快，以后逐渐缓慢。
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提高记忆方法
包括反复复习、尝试回忆、多样化练习、合 理安排学习时间等。此外，还可以通过联想
记忆、形象记忆等技巧来提高记忆效果。
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认知偏差与决策失误
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注意概念及影响因素
注意的定义
指心理活动对一定对象的指向和集中，是 伴随着感知觉、记忆、思维、想象等心理 过程的一种共同的心理特征。
VS
注意的影响因素
包括刺激物的强度、对比度、新颖性、运 动变化等物理特征，以及个体的需要、兴 趣、情感、经验和知识结构等主观因素。
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记忆类型与加工过程
记忆类型
记忆加工过程
根据信息保持时间的长短，可分为感觉记忆、 短时记忆和长时记忆。
包括编码、存储和提取三个阶段。编码是对 输入信息进行加工处理，使之转化为易于存 储和提取的形式；存储是将编码后的信息保 存在大脑中；提取则是将存储的信息从大脑 中取出来，以供使用。
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采取主动措施来解决问题或缓解 压力，如寻求帮助、制定计划、
调整心态等。
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接受与适应
当无法改变压力源时，接受现实 并适应环境，通过调整自己的态 度和行为来减轻压力。
寻求社会支持
与家人、朋友或专业人士交流， 分享自己的感受和压力，获得情 感支持和建议。
培养健康的生活方式
保持充足的睡眠、均衡的饮食和 适量的运动，有助于缓解身体和
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耶鲁大学心理学导论（第五课）
心理学导论第五课我们这些天所讲的Most of what we do these days,各种方法理论思想our methods, our theories, our ideas,它们的形成都在一定程度上are shaped, to some extent,受到了皮亚杰的影响by Piaget's influence.所以这堂课我想And so, what I want to do is begin this class通过他的理论 that's going to talk about cognitive development来讲讲认知发展by talking about his ideas.皮亚杰认为儿童是主动思考者His idea was that children are active thinkers;他们试图去理解世界they're trying to figure out the world.他常把儿童称为小科学家He often described them as little scientists.我想顺便提一下他为何会去研究儿童And incidentally, to know where he's coming from on this,他有着一个宏伟且远大的目标he had a very dramatic and ambitious goal.他研究的初衷并不是出于对儿童的兴趣He didn't start off because he was interested in children.而是出于He started off他对认识产生的一般规律的兴趣because he was interested in the emergence of knowledge in general.皮亚杰主张发生认识论It was a discipline he described as genetic epistemology 即认识的起源the origins of knowledge.但是由于他深信But he studied development of the individual child个体儿童的发展because he was convinced能够表现出认识发展的一般规律that this development will tell him所以他才选择去研究个体儿童的发展about the development of knowledge more generally.有一个听上去很傲慢的短语There's a very snooty phrase that--不知你们之前是否已经有所耳闻I don't know if you ever heard it before.这是一个很非常了不起的短语It's a great phrase.叫做"胚胎重演律"It's "Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny."这个短语的意思是And the idea of this--What that means is个体的发展that development of an individual模拟或重演了种族的发展mimics or repeats development of the species.现在看来这个观点完全错误Now, it's entirely not true,但这却是个美妙的短语but it's a beautiful phrase皮亚杰对此深信不疑and Piaget was committed to this.他常说He was very interested in saying,"只要能够理解儿童如何发展"Look. We'll figure how a kid develops and就能够理解认识发展的一般规律"that will tell us about the development of knowledge more generally."皮亚杰将儿童视为科学家So, Piaget viewed the child as a scientist认为儿童能够形成关于世界的who developed this understanding, these schemas, 一系列看法图示或者说小型理论these little miniature theories of the world.而这一过程可以通过两种机制实现And they did this through two sorts of mechanisms:同化和顺应assimilation and accommodation.同化是指So, assimilation would be the act of expanding反应范围的扩大the range of things that you respond to.皮亚杰举例说Piaget's example would be一个习惯吸吮乳房的婴儿a baby who's used to sucking on a breast可能会去吸吮奶瓶或是拨浪鼓might come to suck on a bottle or on a rattle.这就是在改变反应范围了That's changing the scope of things that you respond to.顺应是改变你的行为方式Accommodation is changing how you do it.婴儿会因为吸吮物体的不同A baby will form his mouth differently而改变他的嘴型depending on what he's sucking on.所以你们听到的这些过程And so, these processes where you take in--我刚才是从生理的角度来谈论这些过程的I'm giving this in a very physical way, 从心理上来讲but in a more psychological sense你拥有一种看待世界的方式you have a way of looking at the world.你将新信息纳入已有的认知结构中You could expand it to encompass new things, 便是同化assimilation.你改变已有的认知结构But you could also change以适应新的环境和信息your system of knowledge itself,便是顺应accommodation.皮亚杰认为这两种学习机制And Piaget argued that these two mechanisms of learning帮助儿童跨越各个阶段drove the child through different stages.他提出了一个阶段理论And he had a stage theory,这个阶段理论与我们之前所介绍的which was quite different from the Freudian stage theory弗洛伊德的阶段理论有着很大的不同that we have been introduced to.他所用的研究方法是So his methods要求儿童解决问题were to ask children to solve problems并询问他们一些问题and to ask them questions.他发现And his discoveries that--儿童在不同的年龄拥有不同的行为方式they did them in different ways at different ages他根据这一发现提出了阶段理论led to the emergence of the Stage Theory.皮亚杰认为第一个阶段 So, for Piaget, the first stage是感知运动阶段is the sensorimotor stage或者说感知运动期or the sensorimotor period.在此阶段儿童只是个纯粹的自然生物For here the child is purely a physical creature.儿童对于外部世界并没有什么真正的认识The child has no understanding in any real way of the external world.他们对于过去There's no understanding of the past,未来稳定差别no understanding of the future, no stability,没有任何的概念no differentiation.儿童只是触摸和观看The child just touches and sees,但还不能进行逻辑推理but doesn't yet reason.在这一阶段儿童逐渐发展起And it's through this stage that a child gradually comes to acquire客体永存性的概念object permanence.客体永存性是指Object permanence is知道某人或某物虽然现在看不见the understanding that things exist但仍然是存在的when you no longer see them.前面的各位So those of you in front,你们看着我躲在这里you're looking at me and I go.如果我突然在后排出现It occurred to me it'd be a great magic trick那就是非常精彩的魔术了if I then appeared in back.但我没动我还在这But no, I'm just here.这就是客体永存性That's object permanence.如果我蹲在这里有人说If I went under here and then the people said,"他去哪了下课了耶""Where the hell did he go? Class is over,"这话就表现出他缺乏客体永存性的概念that would show a lack of object permanence.成年人是拥有客体永存性概念的So, adults have object permanence.皮亚杰认为婴儿并没有这一概念Piaget's very interesting claim is that kids don't.皮亚杰发现在六个月之前Before six-month-olds, Piaget observed,你将婴儿喜欢的物体比如说拨浪鼓you take an object the kid likes like a rattle,藏起来隐藏在某物的后面you hide it, you put it behind something,就像这东西消失了一样it's like it's gone.皮亚杰认为And he claimed婴儿真的会以为the child really thinks他喜欢的东西就这么凭空消失了it's just gone.只要物体从婴儿的视野中消失Things don't continue to exist婴儿就会认为物体已经不存在了when I'm not looking at them anymore.他注意到And so he noticed they--儿童会对捉迷藏感到惊奇they're surprised by peek-a-boo.皮亚杰认为And Piaget's claim was one reason他们对捉迷藏感到惊奇的一个原因便是why they're surprised at peek-a-boo你凭空消失了你看着婴儿is you go-- you look at a kid,婴儿会对你笑然后你和他玩捉迷藏the kid's smiling and go,"躲猫猫""Oh, peek-a-boo,"你用双手遮住了你的脸 and you close--and you cover your face婴儿会以为 "他不见了" and the kid says, "He's gone.""躲猫猫" "哈他回来了""Peek-a-boo." "Oh, there he is. ""他又不见了""He's gone."这就是他的观点了And you really--That's the claim.皮亚杰还发现Piaget also discovered稍大的婴儿无法完成that older children fail at a taskA非B错误任务that's known as the A-not-B task.彼得·格雷在他的心理学教科书中And Peter Gray in his psychology textbook refers to it将这一任务称为"变换藏身地"问题as the "changing hiding places" problem,这可能是个更为恰当的名字which is probably a better name for it.这个任务的内容如下And here's the idea.你找到一个九个月大的婴儿You take a nine-month-old在皮亚杰看来and for Piaget九个月大的婴儿才刚刚发展出a nine-month-old is just starting客体以及客体永存性的概念to make sense of objects and their permanence.你将物体放到这里的一个杯子中You take an object and you put it here in a cup 婴儿看不见这个物体where the kid can't see it,但这个物体是在杯子之中的but it's in the cup.如果你是这个婴儿你便会伸手去拿So the kid, if you were the kid, will reach for it.你再做一遍他会伸手去拿You do it again, reach for it.你再做一遍他还是会伸手去拿You do it again, reach for it.这个地点是AThat's point A.然后你把杯子拿到这边Then you take--you move it over here.皮亚杰观察到Piaget observed婴儿仍然会将手伸向此处 kids would still reach for this.好像他们还不够聪明不能明白It's like they're not smart enough to figure out 物体已经不在那里了that it's not there anymore,即使他们看到物体被拿走了even if they see it move.这更证明了他们并不理解客体的概念And this was more evidence that they just don't understand objects,而这种概念需要通过大量的时间学习and that this thing takes a lot of time and learning才能够掌握to develop.下一个阶段是前运算阶段The next stage is the preoperational stage.开始的时候儿童只能通过生理的方式The child starts off grasping the world 通过感知运动的方式only in a physical way,来认识世界in a sensorimotor way,但是当儿童进入了前运算阶段but when he gets to the preoperational period, 他们便逐渐拥有了表征事物the capacity to represent the world,在头脑中构建世界的能力to have the world inside your head, comes into being.但这种能力是有局限的But it's limited表现在以下几个显著方面and it's limited in a couple of striking ways.局限之一儿童是以自我为中心的One way in which it's limited is that children are egocentric.自我中心这个词在如今的日常英语里Now, egocentrism has a meaning in common English是自私的意思which means to be selfish.皮亚杰对该词的定义则更为专业Piaget meant it in a more technical way.他认为这个年龄的儿童完全没有意识到He claimed that children at this age literally can't understand别人眼中的世界that others can see the world可以与自己看到的世界有所不同differently from them.他的证据之一就是三山实验So, one of his demonstrations was the three mountains task.那里有三座不同的假山模型We have three mountains over there.你让孩子在模型的一边You put a child on one side of the mountains要求他把自己看到的三山模型画出来and you ask him to draw it,四五岁的儿童便能够轻易做到and a four- or five-year-old can do it easily, 但是如果你要求儿童画出but then you ask him to draw it从模型另一边看过去的样子as it would appear from the other side儿童就会觉得非常困难and children find this extraordinarily difficult.他们很难从他人的角度出发来认识世界They find it very difficult to grasp the world as another person might see it.皮亚杰在该发展阶段中的另一个重大发现Another significant finding Piaget had about this phase of development就是"守恒"concerns what's called "conservation."守恒是指物体某方面的特征The notion of conservation is that there's ways to transform things不会因为其他方面特征的改变such that some aspects of them change而有所改变but others remain the same.比如说你有一杯水So, for instance, if you take a glass of water将水倒进另一个更浅或者更深的杯子里and you pour it into another glass that's shallow or tall,含水量并未发生任何改变it won't change the amount of water you have.如果你把一卷硬币全部摊开If you take a bunch of pennies and you spread them out, 你不会得到更多的硬币you don't get more pennies.但皮亚杰认为儿童并不知道会这样But kids, according to Piaget,don't know that 这个概念是非常精彩的证据之一and this is one of the real cool demonstrations.如果你身边有四五岁大的孩子Any of you who have access to a four- or five-year-old,兄弟姐妹什么的a sibling or something--一定要先得到同意再去试验Do not take one without permission,如果你身边有四五岁大的孩子but if you have access to a four- or five-year-old你可以自己去试试you can do this yourself.情况大体上会是这样的This is what it looks like.第一段影片没有声音The first one has no sound.第二段影片的最后会有些声音The second one is going to be sound that's going to come on at the end.这里有两排方格But there's two rows of checkers.她问儿童哪一排更多She asks the kid which one has more.儿童说一样多The kid says they're the same.然后她问现在哪一排更多Then she says--Now she asks him which one has more, 这个还是那个这孩子真笨that or that. So that's really stupid.儿童会这样做这是个令人惊奇的发现And it's an amazing finding kids will do that.也是个生动的发现And it's a robust finding.这是另一个例子Here's another example.它们其实是一样的 So, they're the same.这是该阶段的一个重要发现So, it's a cool finding of that stage,表明儿童在考虑和理解世界的方式上suggesting a limitation in how you deal 存在着局限性and make sense of the world.下一阶段具体运算阶段The next phase, concrete operations,七到十二岁儿童可以解决守恒问题from seven to twelve, you can solve the conservation problem,但儿童的抽象推理能力仍然有限but still you're limited to the extent you're capable of abstract reasoning.因此对于无限这个数学概念So the mathematical notions of infinity or或者是像逻辑蕴涵这样的逻辑概念logical notions like logical entailment 超出了该年龄阶段儿童的理解范围are beyond a child of this age.虽然此时的儿童有能力进行一些逻辑思考The child is able to do a lot,但他们的思维在某种程度上but still it's to some extent仍然是局限于具体情境的stuck in the concrete world.最后大约在十二岁的时候And then finally, at around age twelve,儿童的抽象推理和科学推理能力得以完善you could get abstract and scientific reasoning.这就是皮亚杰理论的大体内容And this is the Piagetian theory in very brief form.皮亚杰要比弗洛伊德或是斯金纳成功很多Now, Piaget fared a lot better than did Freud or Skinner原因有以下几点for several reasons.一个原因是这些是关于儿童发展的One reason is these are interesting and falsifiable claims有趣且可证伪的论断about child development.关于不同年龄阶段的儿童So claims that--about the failure of conservation 缺乏守恒概念的论断in children at different ages能够很轻易的得到系统的检验could be easily tested and systematically tested, 事实上有相当多的证据支持这些论断and in fact, there's a lot of support for them.通过将各种观察结果Piaget had a rich theoretical framework,以不同的方式组合在一起pulling together all sorts of observations皮亚杰的理论内容变得十分丰富in different ways,他写了大量的书籍和论文wrote many, many books and articles丰富了他的理论and articulated his theory very richly.我认为最重要的是他令人震惊的发现And most of all, I think, he had some really striking findings.在皮亚杰之前没有人注意到守恒Before Piaget, nobody noticed these conservation findings.在皮亚杰之前Before Piaget,并没有人注意到婴儿在追踪和理解客体上nobody noticed that babies had this problem存在着守恒的问题tracking and understanding objects.然而与此同时At the same time, however,皮亚杰的理论也有其局限之处there are limitations in Piaget's theory.有些局限是理论上的Some of these limitations are theoretical.问题是It's an interesting question他是否真的解释了as to whether he really explains儿童思维是如何从具体向抽象转变的how a child goes from a concrete thinker to an abstract thinker,或是真的解释了or how he goes from not having object permanence儿童的客体永存性概念是如何从无到有的to understanding object permanence.还有些研究方法上的局限There's methodological limitations.皮亚杰非常热衷用问与答的方法进行研究Piaget was really big into question and answer,但这里存在的一个问题便是but one problem with this is儿童并未能完全掌握语言that children aren't very good with language,这可能会导致你低估他们的理解能力and this might lead you to underestimate how much they know.往往儿童越小这个问题就越明显And this is particularly a problem the younger you get.在讨论包括心理学在内的任何科学时Methodology is going to loom heavy研究方法是个重要的方面in the discussion of any science and that includes psychology.研究中90%的内容通常都是在寻找Often 90% of the game is discovering a clever method一种能够检验假说的精巧方法through which to test your hypotheses.我们会谈谈与婴儿有关的研究方法We're going to talk a little bit about that regarding babies.我给大家再举一个不同方面的例子I'll give you another example from a very different domain.很多科学家对研究挠痒痒非常感兴趣There was a set of scientists interested in studying tickling.在什么情况下So, when you tickle somebody,你挠别人痒痒他们会发笑under what circumstances will they laugh?要挠哪里才行你挠自己会感到痒吗Where do you have to tickle them? Can you tickle yourself?需要出其不意吗等等Does it have to be a surprise, and so on?事实证明很难对此进行实验室研究It turns out very difficult to study this in a lab.你又不能靠傻笑来得到你的实验学分You're not going to have your experimental credit.你走进实验室说You come into the lab and say,"我是研究生然后傻笑""Okay. I'm the graduate student. Ha, ha, ha."实际上And in fact,宾夕法尼亚大学的亨利·葛雷曼an example of a methodological attempt was done 曾经进行过研究方法上的尝试by Henry Gleitman at University of Pennsylvania, 他发明了一台挠痒痒的机器who built a tickle machine,这是一个装有两只大手的箱子which was this box双手会不停的去挠痒痒with these two giant hands that went "r-r-r-r."这是一个失败的发明This was a failure因为人们还没靠近挠痒痒的机器because people could not go near the tickle machine就已经被它的模样逗笑了without convulsing in laughter.我们会在讲到关于笑的课程时But we will discuss再来讨论这个关于挠痒痒的科学when we have a lecture on laughter a bit of the tickle sciences.最后是证据上的局限And finally there's factual.婴幼儿究竟知道些什么What do infants and children really know?皮亚杰很可能由于研究方法上的局限It's possible that due to the methodological limitations of Piaget,而系统地低估了婴幼儿的理解能力he systematically underestimated what children and babies know.事实上我要给大家呈现一些证据And in fact, I'll present some evidence这些证据表明事实确实如此suggesting that this is in fact--that this is the case.我要给大家介绍下So, I want to introduce you关于婴儿认知的现代科学发现to the modern science of infant cognition.婴儿认知已经得到了多年的研究Infant cognition has been something studied for a very long time.这些研究都基于某个观点And there was a certain view这是一个在哲学和心理学领域中that has had behind it广泛达成的共识a tremendous philosophical and psychological consensus.这份《洋葱报》的标题总结出了这个共识And it's summarized in this Onion headline here.那就是婴儿是愚笨的And the idea is that babies are stupid,婴儿对世界一无所知that babies really don't know much about the world.《洋葱报》的这个标题很是讽刺Now, the work that this Onion headline issatirizing接下来我要来讲一下最近的研究is the recent studies, which I'm going to talk about,与此标题相反suggested that on the contrary,最新的研究表明babies might be smarter婴儿可能比你想象中更加聪明than you think.要想探究婴儿的智力And to discover the intelligence of babies我们就必须足够聪明we have to ourselves be pretty smart发明出不同的研究技术in developing different techniques.你不能用提问的方式To study what a baby knows,去研究婴儿知道些什么you can't ask your questions.因为婴儿不会说话Babies can't talk.你可以观察婴儿You could look at what it does但婴儿不怎么配合but babies are not very coordinated或者说他们的言语技能并不熟练or skilled所以你必须要用精巧的方法才能做到so you need to use clever methods.一种聪明的方法便是去观察脑电波One clever method is to look at their brain waves.右边的这个孩子在测试时死掉了This child on the right died during testing.是个悲剧被电极的重量给压死了It was a tragic--It was crushed by the weights of the electrodes.他临死还是挺高兴的He's happy though.你可以去研究他们的脑电波You could study their brain waves.吮吸奶嘴是婴儿能够做到的One of the few things babies can do为数不多的事情之一is they could suck on a pacifier.你也许会想And you might think,你能从婴儿的行为中知道些什么呢well, how could you learn anything from that?举例来说Well, for instance,你可以制造一个机器you could build machines每当婴儿吮吸奶嘴that when babies suck on a pacifier他们就会听到音乐或是话语they hear music or they hear language,然后你可通过观察婴儿有多喜欢吮吸奶嘴and then you could look at how much they suck on the pacifier来确定他们喜欢音乐还是话语to determine what they like.但不可否认的是But undeniably我们所拥有的绝大多数关于婴儿的知识we know most of our -- we got most of our knowledge about babies都来自于对婴儿注视次数的研究from studies of their looking times.这是婴儿们能够做到的一件事That's one thing babies can do.他们能够注视某物They can look.这里是一张伊丽莎白·斯皮克的照片And I have up here--This is a picture of Elizabeth Spelke,她是一个发展心理学家who is a developmental psychologist在婴儿注视次数who's developed the most research on looking at babies' lookingtimes及其意义方面研究颇多and what you could learn from them.你可以通过两种方法And I have here two ways从注视这个动作中得出一些结论you could learn from looking.一种方法便是呈现One is preference.比如说假设你没来由的想知道So for instance, suppose you want to know, for whatever reason,婴儿会喜欢狗的模样还是猫的摸样do babies like the looks of dogs or cats?你可以抱来一个婴儿Well, you could put a baby down,在这里呈现一张狗的照片have a picture of a dog here,在这里呈现一张猫的照片a picture of a cat here,然后观察婴儿会看哪一张照片and see which one the baby looks at.你可以从婴儿移动的眼珠中找到答案Babies can move their eyes and that could tell you something.婴儿能区分出漂亮和丑陋的脸庞吗Do babies distinguish pretty faces from ugly faces?在这边放一张漂亮的脸庞Well, put a pretty face here,在这边放一张丑陋的脸庞an ugly face here,观察婴儿是否更喜欢注视漂亮的那个see if the baby prefers to look at the pretty one.你也可以通过习惯化和惊奇来进行探究You could also do habituation and surprise.我在随后提到的各种研究And much of the studies I'm going to talk about here 很多都会涉及到习惯化和惊奇involve habituation and surprise.习惯化是厌倦这个词的一种华丽表达Habituation is a fancy word for boredom.向婴儿反复呈现某物What you do is you show a baby something over and over again.根据行为主义Now, remember from behaviorism婴儿会觉得这东西没什么意思the baby will learn this isn't very interesting.这时你向婴儿呈现某个不同的物体Then you show the baby something different.如果婴儿认为此物与之前出现物体不同If the baby really sees it as different, 婴儿的注视时间会变长the baby will look longer,你可以将注视时间变长and you could use that视为婴儿发现物体间区别的一种标志as a measure of what babies find different.比如假设你想知道For instance, suppose you want to know婴儿是否能够区分绿色和红色if the baby can tell green from red.你可以向婴儿呈现一个绿色色块Well, you could show the baby a green patch, 将这个绿色色块不停的重复呈现a green patch, a green patch, a green patch;婴儿便会感到厌倦the baby'll get bored,然后呈现一个红色色块then a red patch.如果对于婴儿来说两种颜色没有差别If they all look the same to the baby, 他就仍然不予理会the baby will just continue to tune out,但如果他觉得红色与绿色不同but if the red looks different那他就会重新活跃起来the baby will perk up.实际上And this is, in fact,这是一种研究婴儿颜色视觉的方法one way they study color vision in babies.惊奇也与此相关Surprise is related to this.你给婴儿呈现一些本不该出现的事物You could show babies something that shouldn't happen.如果婴儿也觉得该事物出乎意料If babies are like--If babies also think it shouldn't happen,那么他们会注视的更久they might look longer,基本上科学家们and essentially what happens就是通过魔术技巧来进行研究is scientists do magic tricks to explore this very thing.下面给大家介绍一些实例And to start with some real examples,许多的婴儿研究都回到了a lot of this infant research has gone back皮亚杰的客体永存性问题上to the Piagetian question of object permanence, 去探讨 "婴儿是否真的不知道asking, "Is it really true babies don't know 物体即使离开视线也仍然是存在的"that objects remain even when they're out of sight?"斯皮克和巴亚热昂做了一个简单的研究So one very simple study by Spelke and Baillargeon:向婴儿呈现一个木块Have babies shown a block木块中间有一个能够来回移动的木杆with a bar going back and forth就像这个样子like that.这个木杆可以来回移动So the bar just goes back and forth.现在你做了件你自己都未必意识到的Now, there's something you do that's so obvious超级无聊的事情you probably don't even know you're doing it.当你看到这样的演示时When you see a display like that,你已经假定那里有一根木杆what you assume is there's a bar there,也就是说中间的部分and what that means is there's something in the middle 有你之前所未曾见过的物体that you've never seen before.但是But of course,如果你只是个拥有感知的简单生物if you were a simple perceptual creature, 你只会看到在顶端和底端分别有一根木杆you would just see that there'd be a bar on top and a bar on the bottom.你不会觉得中间有什么物体You wouldn't expect anything in the middle因为你并未在中间部分看到些什么because you never saw anything in the middle.接下来你向婴儿呈现这个装置So, what you do then is you show babies this再给他们看B或C选项and then you show them either B or C如果是成人来进行测试肯定会选Band if we do this with adults you expect B, C基本上就是个笑话C is almost a joke.事实上婴儿也有相同的反应方式And, in fact, babies respond the same way.婴儿会期待那是一根完整的木杆Babies expect there to be an entire, complete bar 所以会对断开的木杆感到惊讶and are surprised并且会有更长的注视时间and look longer at the broken bar.还有些其他的研究Other studies, some of them--这是勒奈·巴亚热昂所进行的另一项研究Well, here's another study by ReneBaillargeon通过不同的方式去观察同一个物体looking at the same thing in a different way.将一个木块放在平台上You show the baby, say a six-month-old,然后让一个六个月大的婴儿来观看a stage with a block on it.然后升起屏板遮住木块Then a screen rises and obscures the block.这时如果婴儿会期待木块留在原处Now, if the babies expect the block to still be there,那么他们会认为木块能阻止屏板上升they should think the block should stop the screen.另一方面On the other hand,如果看不见就觉得不存在if out of sight out of mind,那么婴儿会期待屏板继续移动they should expect the screen to keep going.所以你可以设计几个演示 So, what you do is you set up a couple of displays, 一个是木块被挡住了one where the block is stopped,另一个是用活门把木块挪开the other one where you take this away with a trap door 使得屏板继续上升and it keeps going.正如你所看到的And, as you see,当这种情况发生时婴儿会发出尖叫the baby screams when this happens.这实际上是假的That doesn't really happen,但他们的注视时间的确更长了but they do look longer.最后举一个关于客体永存性研究的例子One final example of an object permanence study.这个研究的一些部分是在耶鲁的Some of this work's been done凯伦·韦恩实验室进行的at Yale in Karen Wynn's lab,他们在那里观察婴儿对加减法的理解where they look at babies' understanding of addition and subtraction.大部分实验启用了实物And a lot of it is done with real objects,但也有些动画视频but there's also animated versions这就是个动画的例子so here is an animated example.婴儿感到很惊奇Babies are surprised.它们认为2-1=1They expect 2 - 1 = 1所以当2-1=2或3或0and when 2 - 1 = 2 or 3 or 0,他们注视时间更长表明了惊奇they look longer, indicating surprise.即便六个月大的婴儿And even six-month-olds are sensitive对算术的基础知识已经相当敏感to these rudimentary facts of arithmetic,向我们展示了婴儿所具有的数学知识telling us something about their mathematical knowledge,但也同时告诉了我们but also telling us something about婴儿在看不到物体时that they expect things to remain仍然会认为物体依然存在when they're out of sight.这个研究表明Now, this research suggests婴儿从出生that infants' understanding of the physical world就对物质世界有所理解is there from the very start,但同时这种理解并不完善but at the same time not entirely.。
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第六课(耶鲁大学-心理学导论讲稿)
心理学导论（耶鲁大学公开课）第二讲大脑
心理学导论（耶鲁大学公开课）第二讲大脑诺贝尔得主生物学家Francis Crick有一个“惊人的假说”：你，你的喜悦，悲伤，回忆，抱负，你对人格同一性的感知，你的自由意志，事实上，这一切都不过是大量神经细胞集与其缔合分子的生理反应而已。
你不过是一堆神经元而已。
这个观点很多人接受不了，因为很多人都是二元论者Dualist. 二元论在所有的宗教和很多哲学体系里都有，历史久远。
最著名的二元论者是笛卡尔。
他认为动物是野兽机器，但人类是二元的，人和动物一样拥有有形的生理客体，但是与动物有着本质区别的是，人类是非物理性的，人类是拥有物理身体的无形心灵。
心理占据着身体，形成紧密的联系。
既人类有2部分组成，有形的物质的身体和无形的心灵。
笛卡尔的二元论基于二个论据：1. 基于对人类行为的观察笛卡尔观察了那个时代的机器人，他们可以根据设定完成一些动作，但笛卡尔认为人类的行为不光只有反射，人类更具有协调，创造及自发性行为能力2. 用怀疑的方法来证明Ø “我信仰上帝，但无法证明上帝的存在“；Ø “我有亲朋好友，但也许这只是一个幻像”（电影黑客帝国就说基于笛卡尔的这一学说，你所经历的一切都非真实的）Ø “我如何证明我不是疯子”笛卡尔通过这些疑问和思考，能够确认的是“自我思考的存在”，所以他能够确定的是“心灵的存在”，从而也就证明心灵和身体是分离的。
我知道我是个实体是思考主体的本质或本性，而这种思考主体的存在无需任何空间，也不依赖于任何有形的实体，我的心灵，我的本质完全不同于我的身体二元论被广泛的接受：1. 存在与日常语言当中，我们常说我的汽车如何如何，我的孩子如何如何，同样我们也会说我的心如何如何2. 存在与各种文艺作品中，小说（卡夫卡《变形记》），电影，传说3. 人们普遍相信灵魂附体或者死后灵魂会进天堂/地域，既灵魂不灭4. 对于多重人格障碍，有一种解释就是身体存在多个心灵，在争夺对身体的控制而科学早已证明二元论是错误的，不存在与身体相分离的另一个你！心理是大脑活动的产物，心理反应大脑的活动，就像运算结果反应了计算机的运行一样。
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MoralityReminders• Book approval: April 9• Assignment due: April 16• Final exam: April 30• Also: Experimentalparticipation requirementMoralityWhere are we?• Brain• Freud and Skinner• Cognitive development, language, vision, memory• Love• Emotion, reason, evolutionWhere are we?• Cognitive neuroscience• Differences• Sex and food• Morality• Social thought and behavior• Mysteries• Mental illness• HappinessOutline• Moral feelings• Moral judgment• Why do good people do bad things? [The Milgram Study]Outline• Moral feelings• Moral judgment• Why do good people do bad things? [The Milgram Study] How could moral feelingsevolve?1. Selfish genes lead toaltruistic animals• To the extent that evolution operates at the level of the genes, there is no hard-and-fast distinction between oneself and anotherHaldane’s math--“Would you lay down your life for your brother?”--“No, but I would gladly give my life for three brothers, or five nephews, or nine first cousins”Choose:You die or your three brothersdie• Gene A: makes an animal choose to die • Gene B: makes an animal choose forits brothers to die• Gene A wins2. It benefits animals tocooperate• Warning cries• Grooming• Food exchange-- our minds have evolved to solve the prisoner’s dilemmaSocial emotions and theprisoners dilemma• We feel GRATITUDE and LIKING for people who cooperate with us. This motivates us to be nice tothem in the future• We feel ANGER and DISTRUST toward those who betray us. This motivates us to betray or avoid them in the future• We feel GULT when we betray someone who cooperates with us. This motivates us to behavebetter in the futureFirst case-study of moralfeeling:Empathy Instinctive empathy towards those close to usThe pain of others is aversive • For babies• For chimpanzees• Not logically linked to morality• But it does lead to moral concern and action(more empathy --> more concern & help)Psychopathy as a breakdown in instinctive empathy13-year-old mugger, when asked about one of his victims:“What do I care? I’m not her.”Gary Gillmore:“I was always capable of murder … I can become totally devoid of feelings of others, unemotional. I know I’m doing something grossly … wrong. I can still go ahead and do it.”Ted Bundy:"I mean, there are so many people"Second case-study of moralfeeling:In-group versus out-groupThe Robbers Cave study • 11 and 12-year-old boys at a 3 week camping program• Well-adjusted WASPs• Separate cabins, leaders, “Eagles” and “Rattlers”, for one week • Distinctive cultures• Competition--within-group solidarity--negative stereotyping--hostility, raids, violenceThe Robbers Cave study • Attempts to reduce hostility between groups: --peace talks--individual competitions--shared meals--shared movies--fun with firecrackers--sermons on brotherly loveALL FAILED The Robbers Cave study What could bring them together?Superordinate goal(shared enemy)“Minimal Groups”• Henri Tajfel, after World War II • Klee/Kandinksy lovers• Coin flipOutline• Moral feelings• Moral judgment• Why do good people do bad things? [The Milgram Study]Moral judgments• Evaluation• Obligation• SanctionsUniversals• Intuitions about fairness and reciprocity (anger at cheaters, gratitude toward sharers) • Intuitions about moral and immoral acts• Adult humans, but also:--young children--non-human primatesVariation• Richard Shweder notes that people …Three frameworks of moralthoughtEthics of autonomy--rights, equality, freedomEthics of community--duty, status, hierarchy, interdependenceEthics of divinity--purity, sanctity, pollution, sinThree frameworks of moralthoughtEthics of autonomy--rights, equality, freedomEthics of community--duty, status, hierarchy, interdependenceEthics of divinity--purity, sanctity, pollution, sin• Most Americans -- particularly college students -- believe that they hold to an ethics of autonomy• If it doesn’t harm anyone, it’s ok• E.g., sex between consenting adults • Ok?Moral disgust• Brother and sister• Family dog• Flag & toilet• ChickenConclusion: Our moral intuitions can surprise usOutline• Moral feelings• Moral judgment• Why do good people do bad things? [The Milgram Study]Stanley Milgram’s Studies • Basic studyprocedure– teacher and learner(learner alwaysconfederate)– watch learner beingstrapped into chair --learner expressesconcern over his “heartcondition”Stanley Milgram’s Studies • Teacher to another room with experimenter• Shock generator panel – 15 to 450 volts, labels “slight shock” to “XXX”• Asked to give higher shocks for every mistake learner makesBad explanations forMilgram’s Results• Abnormal group of subjects?– numerous replications with variety ofgroups shows no support• People in general are sadistic?– videotapes of Milgram’s subjects showextreme distressStanley Milgram’s Studies • Learner protests120 “Ugh! Hey this really hurts.” more and more150 “Ugh! Experimenter! That’s all. as shock get me out of here. I told youI had heart trouble. My heart’s increasesstarting to bother me now.” • Experimenter300 (agonized scream) “I absolutely continues to refuse to answer any more.get me out of here You can’t hold request me here. Get me out.” obedience even if330 “(intense & prolonged agonized teacher balks scream) “Let me out of here.Let me out of here. My heart’sbothering me. Let me out,I tell you…”Follow-Up Studies to Milgram• Original study• Different building• Teacher with learner• Put hand on shock• Orders by phone• Ordinary man orders• 2 teachers rebel• Teacher choosesshock levelCritiques of Milgram• 84% later said they were glad to haveparticipated and fewer than 2% saidthey were sorry, but, still, seriousdamage could have been done• Do these experiments really help usunderstand real-world atrocities?Is the issue really obedience?The perfect situation• Authority of Yale and value of science • Experimenter self-assurance and acceptance of responsibility• Distance of learner and experimenter • New situation and no model of howto behaveTwo forces for evil • Deindividuation of self• Denigration of otherTwo forces for evil • Deindividuation of self• Denigration of otherDeindividuation• There is a sense of reduced accountability and shifted attention away from the self that occurs in the context of groups• Responsible for riots, lynching, gang rapes, and other group violence• Deindividuation is not limited to groups • Effect of authority• Effect of anonymityWhy Don’t People AlwaysHelp Others in Need?• Diffusion of responsibility – presence of others leads todecreased help response– we all think someone else will help,so we don’tWhy Don’t People AlwaysHelp Others in Need?• Latane studies– several scenarios designed to measure thehelp response• found that if you think you’re the only one that canhear or help, you are more likely to do so• if there are others around, you will diffuse theresponsibility to others• Kitty Genovese incidentHow to make others matterless• Distance• Euphemism (‘cargo’, ‘extermination’)• Humor• Take away their names• See them as disgustingIf people are seen as disgusting, they matter less“Thus, throughout history, certain disgustproperties --sliminess, bad smell, stickiness,decay, foulness --have repeatedly andmonotonously been associated with… Jews,women, homosexuals, untouchables, lower-class people --all of those are imagined astainted by the dirt of the body”--Martha NussbaumDisgust(“the body and soul emotion”) • Human universal• Basic emotion: characteristic facial expression • Rozin: Animals and animal by-products – Feces– Urine– Blood– Vomit– Rotten flesh– Most meat“Just look at these guys!The louse-infestedbeards! The filthy,protruding ears, Thosestained, fatty clothes…Jews often have anunpleasant sweetish odor.If you have a good nose,you can smell the Jews."(Nazi School Book, 1938)Two forces for good• Contact and interdependence • Perspective-taking1. Contact and inter-dependence• Selfish motives for altruistic actionRobert Wright’s argument for the moral value of globalization“One of the many reasons I don’t want to bomb the Japanese is that they built my minivan.”Thomas Friedman:1. Contact and inter-dependence• Selfish motives for altruistic actionRobert Wright’s argument for the moral value of globalization“One of the many reasons I don’t want to bomb the Japanese is that they built my minivan.”Thomas Friedman:1. Contact and inter-dependence• The contact hypothesis--equal status--common goal--social supporte.g., -Robber’s Cave-military-universities?2. Perspective taking • If you take another person’s perspective, you care more about that personWays to motivate perspectivetaking in othersDirect:“How would you feel if you …”“Try to see it from their point of view …”Indirect:Representing something as similar to more familiar objects of empathy Fetus: similar to childAnimal: similar to humanStranger: similar to family member[metaphors of “brotherhood”, “sisterhood”]Reading response• If the Milgram experiment was done for the first time right now, at Yale, with Yale undergraduatesa) what do you think you would do?b) what do you think the average Yale student would do?。