英语语言学概论第七章笔记.
语言学概论：第七章__修辞学
识活动，而且具有美学价值。
2、从实用上看： 这有两个方面： （1）可以帮助我们提高语言表达能力，即运用于
说和写。 （2）可以帮助我们提高理解语言的能力，即运用
于听和读。
三、言语环境
言语环境指使用语言的环境，简称语境 （一）构成言语环境的因素 1、主观因素 2、客观因素 ①时间： ②地点、场合 ③民族习惯： ④对象：
（二）语境学是现代修辞学的基础
1、语境的主要作用有两点，解释功能和过滤功 能。
①解释功能： a 帮助听者推断出存在句子意义之外的信息，
（言外之意） b帮助听者从系统的意义推出具体的信息。 c 语境可以排除歧义，帮助听者获得准确信息。 d 语境可以补足省略 e 帮助听者从“不正常”逐步推断出正常的信息。
文艺
2、美国语言学家马丁·裘斯分为
语体
亲昵（intimate ） 随便 (casual) 商讨（consultative） 正式（formal） 冷淡（frozen）
3、英国伦敦学派
从语言使用者在使用语言过程中的目 的、方式及交际双方的关系和交际功能 等角度，把影响语体分类的情境分为三 种。
专业性：如科技、广告、新闻等
四、修辞手段和修辞方式
①词语选择 ②句式选择
五、语体 （一）修辞学与语体学的关系 目前有两种观点，一是语体学是修辞学的一门从
属学科。一是主张语体学是一门独立的学科， 从属于语言学下，与修辞学并列。 （二）语体的特点
（三）语体类型
1、苏联学者对功能语体的分类
口语体
科学体 语体 事务公文
书卷语体
政治
② 过滤功能
a 若一个句子只能表达语境已经提供的信息，一 般不宜说出。
语言学概论 复习总结
英语语言学概论期中作业专业：英语（翻译）学号：20131311202 姓名：汤汪第七章语言、文化与社会1、语言与文化(1)语言语言有广义和狭义之分。
狭义的语言包括口头语言、书面语言和书面语的物质载体——文字。
最狭义的语言不包括文字，只包括口语和书面语，口语和书面语是人类社会用来进行交际和思维的最重要、最常用、最发达、最严密的符号体系。
广义的语言不仅包括狭义语言，而且还包括准语言。
准语言又称副语言、类语言，根据诉诸感官的不同，准语言又可分为听觉的（伴随声音、音乐语言、其他声响符号）、视觉的（表情、体态等；图表、公式等；绘画语言；舞蹈语言；蒙太奇语言；符号、标识语言；其他视觉符号）、触觉的（盲文等）三类。
广义的语言其实包括了人类用于交际的所有手段，因此可以将广义的语言定义为“人类使用的一切符号”。
(2)文化文化是社会成员共同拥有的生活方式和为满足这些方式而共同创造的事事物物，以及基于这些方式而形成的心理和行为。
广义的文化可以分为物质文化、制度文化和心理文化三个层次。
物质文化是一种可见的显性文化。
制度文化和心理文化是不可见的隐性文化或曰潜在文化。
物质文化是指人类创造的种种物质文明。
诸如生产和交通工具，武器，日用器具，服饰，居住、饮食和其他人类行为所需要的物品等等。
制度文化是指种种制度和理论体系。
诸如饮食习惯、建筑工艺、卫生管理、娱乐方式等生活制度，婚姻形式、亲属关系、家庭财产分配等家庭制度，劳动管理、艺术生产、教育、道德、风俗、宗教、利益、法律、政治、警察、军队等社会制度，以及有关这些制度的各种理论体系。
心理文化包括思维方式、审美情趣、宗教信仰、价值观念等等，比之物质文化和制度文化，心理文化处于更深的层次上。
(3)语言与文化的关系语言与文化相互依赖、相互影响.语言是文化的重要载体；文化对语言有制约作用.本文对语言的内在系统,从语言的形式和结构上作了分析,并对语言的社会功能和其它外在因素进行了探讨。
语言在人类的一切活动中都起着十分重要的作用,是人类社会生活不可缺少的一个部分。
语言学概论笔记
语言学概论笔记第一章语言与语言学第一节语言的性质和范围一、为什么说社会性是自然语言的本质属性？为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？二、什么是符号？语言符号有什么特点？三、语言和言语有什么区别和联系？四、口语和书面语有什么区别？为什么会有区别？五、什么是副语言和人工语言？二者有什么关系？1、语言：从结构上看，语言就是由词语这种符号构成的复杂系统。
从功能上看，是人类进行社会交际和思维认识的工具。
语言具有符号性、系统性、社会性及其他属性{民族性和生成性（指人们可以根据有限的语言符号和组合规则生成无限的句子）模糊性}2、语言的能指和所指（什么是符号）：用甲事物代表乙事物，而甲乙两事物之间没有必然联系，甲事物就是代表乙事物的符号，其中甲事物就是符号的能指（形式），乙事物就是符号的所指（内容和意义）。
符号的能指和所指之间的关系是人为约定的。
3、语言符号的特征：语言中的词语就是一种符号，具有符号的特征。
1、语言符号的任意性（用什么能指代表什么所指是任意的）2、稳固性（语言符号一旦约定俗成以后就具有稳固性）3、渐变性（为了适应社会发展的变化，采取渐变的方式）4、线条性（语言符号在言语中只能有时间上的前后相继的关系）4、语言的社会性：语言是社会交际的工具，社会是语言的本质属性。
自然语言系统和规则是由特定的社会群体共同约定俗成的，而不是由个别人或少数人创造的语言的发展变化离不开社会，无论是新词语的产生，还是旧词语的消亡，都取决于社会交际的需要。
由于自然语言从生到长到死的整个过程都取决于整个社会，所以说社会性是自然语言的本质属性。
语言虽然不是人类唯一的交际工具，还有其他副语言如文字、体态等交际工具，但是副语言只是辅助性的交际工具，一般使用范围有限，语言是一种独立的交际工具，是第一性的，副语言是建立在语言的基础之上的，是第二性的。
因而，语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
5、语言和言语的区别：语言有广义和狭义之分，广义的语言包括语言系统、言语活动和言语作品，狭义的语言只指语言系统，而言语则包括言语活动和言语作品。
语言学概论--第七章 语言和社会
答：方言通常指地域方言，它是全民语言在不同地域的变体，是统一的全民语言的分支。
5. 解释“亲属语言”。
答：亲属语言是语言分化的产物，凡从同一种语言中分化出来的若干语言都是亲属语言。
6. 解释“社会方言”。
答：一种语言或地域方言内部同一定的社会特征和社会群体相关联的变体和特点就被称为“社会方言”。
9. 解释“共同语”。
答：共同语是一个社会的全体成员共同使用的语言形式。
10. 解释“基础方言”
答：作为民族共同语的基础的方言叫做基础方言。
11. 解释“？锵窒蟆薄？
答：某一语言社团使用两种方言或分别使用共同语和方言的社会现象即双语现象。
12. 简答语言分化的产物。
7. 解释“谱系分类”。
答：根据语言的历史来源或语言的亲属关系对世界上的语言进行分类，把有亲属关系的语言归在一起，把没有历史同源关系的语言相互分开，这种分类叫语言的“谱系分类”。
8. 解释“隐语”。
答：当社会上出现了由于各种原因而形成的隐秘团体之后，就有可能产生隐秘语言，也叫“隐语”。隐语是一种特殊的社会方言，有明显的排他性。
23. 什么是语言规范化？
答：语言是不断发展变化的，民族共同语在使用和推广的过程中，本身也会不断发展变化，会经常产生一些新的成分和新的用法。语言规范化就是要把那些符合语言发展规律的新成分、新用法肯定下来并加以推广，对那些不符合语言发展规律，且又难以被社会公众接受的成分和用法，则根据规范化的要求加以剔除，从而为共同语确定语音、语汇、语法方面的标准，并用这些标准去引导人们的语言使用。
20. 解释“克里奥耳语”。
答：克里奥耳语是作为某个社会群体的母语来使用的、由两种或更多种语言混合而成的语言。
第七章-文字
第七章文字名词解释1.文字：文字是用来记录语言的书写符号体系。
2.表音文字：表音文字是书写符号记录语言中的语音的文字系统。
表音文字利用一套字母来拼写语言中的语词，因此又称拼音文字。
表音文字以语言的音节或者音位为书写单位，又分为音节文字和音位文字。
3.表意文字：表意文字是用书写符号记录词或语素的意义的文字体系。
早期的表意文字都是象形字。
有的表意文字用书写符号综合表示词或者语素的意义和声音。
和表音文字相比，表意文字能使人产生对于事物的客观形态的联想。
但表意文字也有缺点：一个字一个形，文字数量大；只表意不直接表音；结构复杂，笔画繁多，等等。
4.表音节文字：表音节文字是指书写符号记录语言中的音节的文字体系。
表音节文字的一个书写符号代表一个音节。
5.自源文字：自源文字是指独自创立和发展起来的文字体系。
这种文字从它的产生开始到发展都没有参照其它文字，其文字的形体和体系都是独创的。
现在世界上发现的几种最古老的文字，如汉字、古埃及文字、楔形文字，都是自源文字。
6.借源文字：借源文字是指借用参照其他文字的形体或者文字体系而建立起来的文字体系。
现在世界上的多数文字属于借源文字。
复习思考题。
1.文字的性质和作用是什么？性质：（一）文字是用来记录语言的书写符号体系。
①有了人类社会就有了口头语言,口语只能用于人们的口耳交际。
他要受到时空的限制,人们为了克服这种时空限制，创制了文字。
世界上各种文字都是用来记录语言的。
②文字是符号具备符号的特征，它能记录一个个语言单位。
但是符号不一定就是文字,文字可通过不同的组合构成另一个语言单位，而其他符号只能简单孤立的表达某种意义。
文字是语言的视觉符号,它按照一定的规律规则组合成书面语言。
③文字是一个系统。
系统,是指同类事物按照一定的关系组成的整体，其各个组成部分之间既互相联系又互相制约。
单个的孤立的个体是不能成为系统的。
文字是一套特定的书写符号，在文字的内部有着不同的层次的组成部分的结构规则，他们使文字成为一个有机的整体。
英语语言学概论笔记
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of struc ture) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Ch omsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like t he dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a humanlanguage but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this fun ction, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction to o, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of thespeaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good ex amples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform action s. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, a nd more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. (2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a sp eech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confusedfacts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue isinvisi ble but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies t he characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in whicha speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the st udy of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are suppose d to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophonesof[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g.,indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographicall y represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features?“Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonologica l properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.1.42.What is morphology?“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology andlexical/derivational morphology.1.43.What is inflection/inflexion?“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affix es, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.1.44.What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?(1) The “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relati onship between expression and content, a。
七单元知识点总结英文
七单元知识点总结英文1. Introduction to Knowledge PointsUnit 7 of our course covers a wide range of knowledge points, including language, literature, and cultural aspects of the English-speaking world. In this summary, we will highlight key points from each section and provide a comprehensive overview of the unit.2. LanguageIn the language section, we have studied various aspects of English grammar and vocabulary. This includes understanding the difference between active and passive voice, the proper use of modal verbs, and the correct use of conjunctions and prepositions. It is important to master these language points in order to improve our overall English proficiency.2.1 Active and Passive VoiceUnderstanding the difference between active and passive voice is crucial for effective communication in English. In active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action, while in passive voice, the subject is acted upon. For example, "The chef prepared the meal" is in active voice, while "The meal was prepared by the chef" is in passive voice. Mastering this concept is essential for clear and concise writing and speaking.2.2 Modal VerbsModal verbs are another important aspect of English grammar. These verbs, such as can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would, are used to indicate necessity, possibility, ability, or obligation. Understanding their usage in different contexts is essential for expressing ideas and opinions effectively.2.3 Conjunctions and PrepositionsConjunctions and prepositions are crucial for connecting ideas and expressing relationships between different elements in a sentence. Understanding the correct usage of these words is essential for constructing coherent and meaningful sentences. Some common conjunctions include and, but, or, while, and yet, while prepositions include at, in, on, by, and with.3. LiteratureIn this section, we have explored various literary genres and analyzed works from well-known authors. Understanding the different forms of literature and their unique characteristics is important for appreciating and interpreting literary works.3.1 Literary GenresLiterary genres refer to different categories of literature, such as poetry, drama, fiction, and non-fiction. Each genre has its own distinct features and conventions, and understanding these can help us appreciate and analyze literary works more effectively.3.2 Analysis of Literary WorksWe have analyzed works from renowned authors, such as William Shakespeare, George Orwell, and Emily Dickinson. By examining their writing styles, themes, and symbolism, we have gained a deeper understanding of the literary techniques and devices used in their works. This has allowed us to develop critical thinking and analysis skills, which are essential for interpreting and evaluating literature.4. Cultural AspectsThe cultural aspects section of Unit 7 has provided us with insights into the customs, traditions, and social norms of English-speaking countries. Understanding these cultural aspects is important for effective communication and interaction with native English speakers.4.1 Customs and TraditionsWe have learned about various customs and traditions observed in English-speaking countries, including cultural festivals, social etiquettes, and traditional practices. Being aware of these customs and traditions can help us navigate social interactions and avoid cultural misunderstandings.4.2 Social NormsUnderstanding the social norms of English-speaking countries is crucial for effective communication and integration into their society. This includes understanding concepts such as personal space, politeness, and social hierarchy. By being aware of these norms, we can adapt our behavior and communication style to suit the cultural context.5. ConclusionUnit 7 has provided us with a comprehensive overview of language, literature, and cultural aspects of the English-speaking world. By mastering the knowledge points covered in this unit, we can improve our English proficiency, appreciate literary works, and navigate cultural interactions more effectively. It is important to continue practicing and applying these knowledge points in real-life situations to enhance our language skills and cultural competence.。
语言学概论：第七章__语言随着社会发展而发展
福建师范大学文学院
汉语被字句的产生到定型的过程
萌芽于战国末期，汉代慢慢使用开来：（未出现施事） 万乘之国，被围于赵。《战国策•齐策》 国一日被攻，虽欲事秦，不可得也。同上 信而见疑，忠而被谤。《史记• 屈原列传》 大约到了汉末，被字句才有了施事者，且施事者的位 置放在了被字和动词中间： 五月二十日，臣被尚书召问。 蔡邕《被收时表》 祢衡被魏武谪为鼓吏。 《世说新语•言语》 可见，汉语被字句的产生到定型的过程经历了三四百 年的时间。
福建师范大学文学院
语言学概论
古代汉语单音节词占优势，但是那时音位数量多 音位组合也多，词在语音形式上仍有区别。 机：居依切，平声，微韵，见母； 基：居之切，平声，之韵，见母； 交：古肴切，平声，肴韵，见母； 娇：举乔切，平声，宵韵，见母； 尖：子廉切，平声，盐韵，见母； 娘：古闲切，平声，山韵，见母。
语言学概论
福建师范大学文学院
各南方方言的产生时期
吴语的最早源头可到先周时代，以太伯和仲雍为 代表的北方移民，南徙到当时较落后的江南地区 （相当于今天苏南无锡、镇江一带）。吴语作为 一种独立的方言在以《世说新语》为代表的南北 朝时代的文献中已经有非常明确的记载。 由于北方移民带来的北方话的影响，较古老的吴 语特征在从北向南递减的，而最古老的吴语特征 则保留在今天的闽语里。或者说闽语的底子是古 吴语。
语言学概论
福建师范大学文学院
语言符号是音义结合，符号之间必须保持有效的 区别，如果这种区别性受到干扰、破坏，语言系 统将会发生变化： 1.藏语：浊音清化、前缀辅音脱落→声调产生。 2.汉语：单音节→音节结构复杂→音节结构简化→ 多音节→轻音、儿化、词缀。 古英语、古法语有复杂的变格、变位系统，现已 大大简化，这种语法面貌的改变是语音弱化和脱 落的结果。是由语音演变引起的连锁反应。
语言学概论 第七章语言演变与语言分化
Ø语言风格变体的存在增加了社会方言的丰富性 和多样性。
（二）地域方言
• 地域方言，通常指方言，是一种语言在不同地区的变体， 也是全民语言在不同地域的变体，是统一的全民语言的 分支。
• 地域方言的差异主要表现在语音、词汇、语法各个方面， 尤以语音差别最突出，汉语普通话和地域方言最大的差 别是在语音上。
Ø听得懂、听不懂不能作为划分方言的标准。
• 如斯拉夫语族的国家，操俄语、乌克兰语、白俄 罗斯语、波兰语、塞尔维亚语的人相互间可以通 话，但却是不同的语言。
• 汉语的北方方言与吴、湘、赣、客、粤、闽方言 之间的差别比较大，相互间很难通话，但却是同 一种语言的不同方言。
5. 确定是语言还是方言的标准：
• 6.商阜片：商丘市区、睢县、鹿邑等，f和sh不分，如“喝 水”称作“喝fei”。
• 7.信蚌片：信阳市区、淮滨、罗山、安徽蚌埠，“俺爸俺 妈”听起来像“阿爸阿妈”，且无翘舌音。
• 8.汾河片：三门峡市、渑池、灵宝等，如“脖子”叫“婆航”、 “膝盖”叫“哭气盖”。
3.方言岛
• 方言岛，是语言学的一个术语，由于历史上大规 模移民，使外来的方言势力占据了原来某方言区， 形成被原方言区包围着的独立的方言孤岛。 • 如美国的唐人街就是英语包围汉语的方言岛，四 川官话区域中的湖南话小区，就是方言岛。
Ø交际要求语言保持稳定的状态，不允许一下子 发生大的变化。所以语言的演变只能采取渐变的 方式，不允许突变。 如斯大林所说：“语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经 过爆发，不是经过消亡现存的语言和创造新的语 言，而是通过新质要素的逐渐积累，也就是经过 旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。”
英语语言学概论笔记
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲一、课程说明:《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。
《语言学概论》研究始于20世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。
现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。
语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。
对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。
本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第６学期和第７学期开设。
其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。
二、教学目的及要求:本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。
本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。
在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。
本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。
应鼓励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点:本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。
本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。
四、与其它课程的关系:本课程是一门主干性课程。
与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。
五、学时与学分:学时：７２学时学分：４学分六、教学内容：第一章绪论本章主要教学内容:1．语言学习的意义。
2．语言的定义。
3．语言的定义特征。
4．语言的起源。
5．语言的功能。
6．语言学的定义。
语言学概论第七章语言和社会自学笔记
语言学概论第七章语言和社会自学笔记第七章语言和社会一、名词解释1.地域方言2.次方言、土语3.语音对应关系4.亲属语言、语言间的亲属关系5.原始基础语、子语6.语言的谱系分类7.语系8.社会方言9.隐语、黑话10.通用语 11.共同语 12.基础方言 13.标准语 14.国语15.借词16.意译词17.仿译词18.双语现象19.双言现象20.语言转用 21.语言混合 22.洋泾浜语23.克里奥尔语 24.非克里奥尔话 25.语言规划 26.语言政策 27.语言规范化28.民族语言政策二、简答和论述1.研究语言起源的目的2.研究语言起源问题包含两个不同的问题:3.关于语言的起源,大致可以分为神授说和人创说两种.4.简述恩格斯关于语言起源于劳动的观点.5.语言起源的过程.6.与语言起源有关的现代科学研究.7.语言的起源具备的条件.8.语言发展演变的两大特点.9.语言发展演变在地域上的不平衡性是一种语言分化出不同的方言或亲属语言的重要原因.10.语言的发展演变主要体现在哪几个方面？11.语言发展演变的原因？12.为什么社会交际活动的需要是语言产生、存在、发展的基本条件？13.语言的发展演变为什么只能采取渐变的方式？14.为什么语音、语法、语汇的发展演变是不平衡的.15.举例说明语言分化的产物有哪些？16.地域方言之间既有差别,又有明显的共同点.17.“亲属语言”和语言间的“亲属关系”并非等同于生物学上的概念.18.亲属语言形成的原因19.语音对应关系是语言间存在亲属关系的重要标志.20.世界诸语言谱系分类的大致情况.21.一种语言或方言内部还存在着社会方言的分歧:(见次方言和土语)22.造成语言差异的因素有哪些？23.一种语言走向统一的社会条件.24.一种语言实现统一的方式.25.隐语和一较社会方言的区别是什么?26.通用语和共同语的区别.27.基础方言的选择和共同语的形成.28.现代汉民族为什么要以北方方言为基础方言？29.为什么说方言的产生是社会的不完全分化和语言的发展演变共同作用的结果？30. 为什么说语音差异是方言分区的主要依据?31．举例说明方言间在词汇和词义上的两点差异。
语言学概论第七章语言的起源与发展
一，语言的起源语言的起源的两层意思：⑴具体语言的形成⑵人类语言的产生㈠恩格斯关于语言起源的理论⒈著作：《劳动在从猿到人转变过程中的作用》⒉基本观点：劳动决定了产生语言的需要和可能，劳动创造了语言⒊劳动决定产生语言的可能的原因：⑴劳动促进人类发音器官的演化，使原始人能逐渐发出许多清晰的声音，为语言符号提供了必要的声音材料。
⑵劳动促进人类思维的发展，使语言所必需的意义要素得以形成。
㈡关于语言起源的另外几种学说⒈手势说（gesture theory）代表人物：苏联马尔⒉摹声说（onomatopoeic theory）又称：汪汪说或布谷说代表人物：德国保罗⒊感叹说（exclaimation theory）又称：呸呸说代表人物：古希腊伊壁鸠鲁中国刘师培黎锦熙（叹词起源论）⒋社会契约说（social charter theory）也叫：社会约定论代表人物：古希腊迭奥多尔·西齐列斯基《世界史》：认为互相商定每一个事物记号法国启蒙思想家卢梭⒌劳动呼声说（labour shout theory）又称：咳唷说代表人物：法国语言学家诺瓦雷㈢探索语言起源的新途径⒈人与猿类的比较⒉儿童学说话⒊失语症：美国语言学家雅可布逊（R·Jackobson）二，语言发展的一般情况㈠马克思关于语言发展的理论⒈语言的发展离不开社会的发展，语言作为一种社会现象在人们使用语言进行交际的过程中得到发展。
⑴语言是一种社会现象，它不可能脱离社会和作为社会动物的人而存在和发展⑵语言是在发挥它的交际只能，也就是被人们的实际使用的过程中得到发展⒉语言是不断发展的，但语言各要素的发展是不平衡的。
斯大林指出：①语言是随社会的产生和发展而产生发展的。
语言随着社会的死亡而死亡。
②语言中最主要的东西的它的语法构造和基本词汇。
⒊不同语言可能具有某些共同的规律，但构成语言发展的主要是差别。
⑴不同语言具有某些共同的规律和规定。
⑵各种语言之间存在差别。
语言学概论知识汇总(英文)
第一章Invitation to Linguistics1.Definition of language：Language is a system of vocal (and written) symbols with meaning attached that is used forhuman communication of thoughts and feelings.2.Design features of language(语言的普遍特征)：①.Arbitrariness 任意性：The forms of linguistic signs generally bear no natural relationship to the meanings they carry②.Duality 二重性：Human language has two levels of structures: the primary meaningful level of morphemes, words, phrases, sentences and the secondary meaningless level of sounds. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③.Creativity 创造性：Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.④.Displacement移位性：Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.3.Functions of language1)Informative function2)Interpersonal function人际功能3)Performative (行为) function4)Emotive function5)Phatic (寒暄) function6)Recreational function7)Metalingual function（元语言功能）指用语言去说明或解释语言的功能4.Main branches of linguistics：Main branches of linguistics (microlinguistics微观) and interdisciplinary（跨领域、跨学科）fields of linguistics (macrolinguistics宏观)1) Main branches of linguistics:(1) Phonetics发音学，语音学;(2) Phonology;（音位学、语音体系）(3) Morphology 词法/ Lexicology词汇学;(4) Syntax句法;(5) Semantics语义学(6) Pragmatics语用学：研究特定情境中的特定话语，在不同的语言交际环境中如何理解和运用语言支。
英语语言学概论第七章笔记.
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language研究语言变化的目的和意义The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change.研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。
历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。
历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。
语言学概论-第七章-第三节
➢ room—loom，all right—all light，make—makee， much—muchee
▪ 语法：
➢ 只用词干来造句，英语中数、格、人称、时、体、态等 变化都消失
➢ two peicee book（＝two books） ➢ top-side（＝ above），bottom-side（=below） ➢ what-tim ； nother tim （=again） ➢ he be-longey China-side now（=he is in China） ➢ you beloБайду номын сангаасg clever in-side（=you are intelligent）
再借回来的现象。例如，“封建”、“劳动”、 “经济”等一批古词语早期被日语借去，后又 借回汉语。
▪ 汉语和蒙语间：百姓（汉语）——土房子、店 铺（蒙语）——板生、板（指地名）（汉语）
▪ 3、历史层次 ▪ 借词可能在不同的历史时期、从不同的语言借入，
因而处于不同的历史层次。我们从借词的历史层 次可以考察不同民族间相互交往的历史，可以了 解伴随社会接触的语言接触的历程。汉语历史上 从西域借词、蒙古借词、现代从西方英语等的借 词
洋泾浜是外语在本族语的影响下产生的变种（一句话中夹杂 着不同语言的词汇）。如：让我look look/你的米西米西/ jokingde/小case /I服了You / You狠/有时间call我 洋泾浜的特点：词汇量少，采用迂回的说法指称事物
Beard/moustache（胡子）→grass belong face； 人山人海→ mountain people mountain sea
▪ 4、结构规则
▪ 借词虽然音义都借自外语，但在语音、语法上一般要顺应 借入语言的结构规则。
语言学概论第七章
第七章语言随社会发展三、辨析题1.语言的发展都具有渐变性。
正确。
语言作为人类社会最重要的交际工具，作为社会成员相互联系的桥梁和纽带，人们无时无刻不在使用它。
与人们生活关系如此密切的语言没有老是花样翻新的必要，同时作为社会成员共同的交际工具，它也需要保持相对稳定的状态，不允许它一下子发生大的变化。
另一方面，随着社会的发展，日益增长的交际需要又不断促使语言发生变化以满足社会成员新的交际需要。
这种稳固和变化的对立就导致了语言的发展变化只能是渐变的方式而不能是突变的方式，哪怕是社会发生了剧烈的变化，语言也不会马上产生巨变，如新词的产生，旧词的消亡都是逐渐实现的，语言中的旧词并不是一夜之间就消失掉了的。
2.语言里语音、词汇、语法的发展是齐头并进的。
不对。
语言系统内部各个组成部分发展变化的速度不一样，有的发展变化快，有的发展变化慢，即使是同一组成部分各要素之间发展也是不平衡的。
在语言的三个要素中，词汇发展变化最快，而语音和语法发展变化则相对较慢，具有较强的稳定性。
这是因为语言系统的各个组成部分与社会发展的联系是不一样的，这其中词汇与社会的联系最为紧密，最为直接，对社会的反应也最为灵敏。
新事物的产生、旧事物的消失，人们观念的改变，随时都在词汇中反映出来，表现为新词的产生、旧词的消亡和词义的发展变化等。
如随着计算机网络的出现，产生了诸如“网络、网友、网吧、网页、网恋、上网、网民、网管、网关、黑客”等大量新的词语。
3.同一言语社团的人总是固定地使用一种语言形式。
不对。
一个人可以属于两个言语社团，因此可以使用两种不同的言语方式。
属于一个言语社团的人可以在特定的环境下使用另一个言语社团的言语方式。
4.听得懂、听不懂是划分地域方言的标准。
不对。
语言系统尤其是语音系统的差异才是地域方言划分的标准。
5.何种方言能够成为某种共同语的基本方言的条件都是由文化的原因决定的。
不对。
因为有些共同语的形成是政治原因决定的，比如汉语普通话；有的则是经济原因决定的，比如标准英语。
语言学概论笔记
语言学概论笔记第二章语言是符号系统1.符号：一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。
它包括了形式和意义两个方面的要素，是一定的形式和一定的内容的统一体，二者缺一不可。
2.语言符号：语言是一种符号，因为它能代表或指称现象。
语言符号是由音、义的结合构成的。
“音”是语言符号的物质表现形式，“义”是语言符号的内容，只有音和义相结合才能指称现实现象，构成语言的符号。
3.语言符号的任意性：指语言符号的最大特点是它的音与义的结合是人义的，由社会约定俗成的。
它是就语言符号的音与义的相互关系来说。
这种音义的任意性关系又叫约定性。
4.语言符号依存性：符号的任意性特点是就语言起源时的情况来说的，语言符号的音义结合是任意的，至于符号的音义关系一经社会约定而进入交际之后，对人们就有强制性，音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。
5.语言符号的线条性：即语言符号的使用只能在时间的线条上绵延，一个符号跟着一个符号依次出现。
依次出现的符号要遵守一定的规则，不能随意编排。
符号的线条性是由规则支配的，对社会成员具有强制性。
6.语言结构的二层性：语言是一种分层装置。
语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。
语言的底层是一套音位，即音与义相结合而划分出来的音的结构成分。
音位经组合而与某种意义相结合就能构成语言的符号和符号的序列，这是语言的上层。
这一层又可以分若干级：第一级是语素，这是语言中音义结合的最小结构单位，是构词材料；第二级是由语素的组合构成的词，是造句材料，是交际的基本单位；第三级是由词构成的句子；词和句子都是符号的序列。
语言系统的层次结构可以图示为：音位语素à词à句子7.语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。
语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。
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Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学1. The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的和意义The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languagesand human linguistic competence.Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution oflanguage and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and providevaluable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such associal, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change.研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。
历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。
历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。
2. The nature of language change 语言变化的本质All living languages change with time. Unless a language is no longer spoken by the generalpublic of a society, such as Latin, its change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change isuniversal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. Language change isextensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar.Although language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, it is never anovernight occurrence.Language development may be regarded as linguistic evolution from one stage to another.所有尚在使用的语言都随着时间的变化而变化。
语言的变化是不可避免的。
语言变化是普遍的、连续的，在一定程度上也是规则的和系统的。
语言变化涉及语法系统的各大组成部分。
在语言演变过程中，词汇和语法规则有的消亡了，有的诞生了，有的是外借的，有的则转化了其意义或功能。
尽管语言变化是普遍的，必然的，有时甚至是显著的，但语言的变化是一个缓慢的渐变过程，其变化是同代人所不易察觉的。
语言的发展可以看作是语言从一个阶段到另一个阶段的演化过程。
3. Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段a) Old English (450-1100) 古英语阶段b) Middle English (1100-1500) 中古英语阶段c) Modern English (1500- 今) 现代英语阶段Most Modern English speakers find Middle English only partially comprehensible, and OldEnglish simply unintelligible, just like a foreign language hardly recognizable as the nativelanguage they speak.大多数现代英语的使用者发现，对于他们来说，中古英语只能部分地被理解，古英语则如外语一般，简直不可理解。
Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles fromnorthern Europe.Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England. Middle Englishhad been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar.Modern English is separated with Middle English with European renaissance movement.古英语源自欧洲大陆的盎格鲁撒克逊民族所操的语言。
中古英语深受诺曼底占领者所操的法语的影响。
词汇和语法等均受其影响。
现代英语是英语自身发展和欧洲文艺复兴运动渗透结合的产物，很多词汇是外来语。
As British influence reached other continen ts, the “British Empire ”e s t a b l i s h e-d s p E e n a g k l i n s g hcolonies in many parts of the world. English is now the native language in the United States,Canada, Australia and New Zealand. 英帝国的兴起及其移民化过程的成功使现代英语的使用遍布全球。
以现代英语为母语的国家包括英国、美国、加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰等。
4. Linguistic change in English英语语言系统的变化Language change is essentially a matter of change in the grammar. We refer to the change in thegrammar of a language as linguistic change. Linguistic change occurs in all components of thegrammar, including changes in the sound, morphological, syntactic, lexical and semantic systems.语言变化实质上是语法变化。
我们把一种语言的语法变化称为语言变化。
语言变化包括语音系统、形态系统、句法系统、词汇系统和语义系统等部分的变化。
a) sound change 语音变化Vowel sound change 元音变化The change occurred at the end of the Middle English period, approximately 1400-1600. Thesechanges led to one of the major discrepancies between the phonemic representations of words andmorphemes, that is, between the pronunciation and the spelling system of Modern English. Knownas the Great Vowel Shift in the history of English, these changes involve seven long, or tense,vowels. Refer to P132 of the test book for examples.元音变化出现在中古英语后期，大约在1400 到1600 年之间。
这些变化使一些单词的音位表达和词素之间出现了很大的不一致。
这些变化在英语史上被称为元音大变位，涉及七个长元音，或紧元音。
实例见书本132 页。
Sound loss 语音消失Not only did types of vowel sounds change, but some sounds simply disappeared from the generalpronunciation of English.不仅数种元音发生了变化，而且一些语音还从英语的整个发音体系中消失了。
实例：1》古英语中/x/ 在现代英语中已不存在。
如：古英语nicht (night) 读做/nixt/ ，而现代英语读做/nait/2》古英语和中古英语中有/kn/ ，都发音，在现代英语中/k/不发音了。
如：knight/knee 在古英语中字母k 是发音的，而在现代英语中不发音3》古英语中有一类名词的复数形式不是在词尾加/s/音，而是加/i/这个音，现在没有了。
如：goose 的复数形式在古英语中的发音是/go:si/4》现代英语中出现了位于词尾的元音音段的省略现象，称为词尾音脱落。
如：name/love 在古英语中发音为/na:ma:/和/lufu/ ，在中古英语中发音为/na:m ?/和/luv ?/，而在现代英语中的发音为/neim/和/lΛv/5》词尾音脱落还影响了某些词的拼写。
如：古英语单词helpe 随着词尾音的消失，在中古英语和现代英语中拼写成了help Sound addition 语音增加While some sounds were lost in the course of the historical development of English, other soundswere added. Sound addition includes the gain or insertion of a sound. A change that involves theinsertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis. Refer toP134 of the text book for examples.英语在发展过程中消失了一些语音，但也增加了一些语音。