英语新闻写作复习提纲

REVIEWCultural Assumptions behind English-language News(Cultural Differences in News Reporting Between Mainland Media & Foreign Media)•Is there any assumption behind English-language news? And Why?•What are the cultural assumptions behind English-language news in the US?(Ethnocentric—they tended to see the world from an American viewpoint; Democracy--- they strongly believed that capitalism and democracy provided the best structure for society; Individualism--- they assume an individualistic view of the world; Social harmony --- politicians were seen as guardians of social harmony. ) •What values English-language journalists share when they aspire to international professional standards?•What historical factors influence news reporting and writing? And how?The Assumptions:•Most news organizations assume that their first responsibility is to the people, the public.•Most news organizations believe that they should be independent of government and sometimes even critical of it.•They focus on the problems of the society. The job of the media is to show the problem so that others can take action to solve them. Society is strong enough to handle “bad news.”•English news has at its base the values of western society. These values include a strong belief in the individual and in personal freedom.Introduction to Media WritingMedia Writing As Mass CommunicationA reporter’s job is to look around and see what is happening, then communicate those happenings he or she deems important to the reading, listening or viewing public.Media writing is more than a matter of gathering facts and putting words together. Writers must work within the opportunities and limits provided by technology, society, the communications process, the demands of the business, and the needs of their audience.Introduction to Media TheoriesTheory of denotative and connotative meanings●Communication research recognizes denotative and connotative meanings of words and symbols which complicatethe communication process. People attach denotative label (standard, descriptive names) to things, concepts and ideas, but they also put their own connotations (interpretations of meaning or value) on those things, concepts and ideas based on their experiences, attitudes, opinions and beliefs.The theory of cognitive dissonance●The theory of cognitive dissonance says people can tolerate only so much emotional upset and, when information wereceive is different from that which we accept or are comfortable with, our mind seeks a balance by rejecting the dissonant information or modifying it.Individual Differences Theory●People are unique in the way they approach media messages. Individual demographics and experiences shapeaudience perceptions of communicators and their transmissions. Therefore, the credibility of sources and the way issues-oriented messages are viewed can change from person to person.Social Categories Theory●Social categories theory maintains that people who share similar demographic characteristics will respond similarlyto a message.Social Influence•The theory of social influence states that members of a group (esp. close-knit group) can construct an artificialSelective Processes•Selective processes theory contends that while exposure to some media messages may be accidental, for the most part audience members choose whether to pay attention to messages. The information we do retain, is subject to the distortion of selective recall. Events or facts are remembered or subconsciously altered in a way that reinforces our beliefs and attitudes or staves off cognitive dissonance.StereotypesA filtering process takes place as readers, listeners and viewers interpret facts, statements or events. Audiences rely on stereotypes, the mental images people use as a simplified representation of realityWants and Needs Gratification•The theory of wants and needs gratification maintains that an audience will not pay attention to a media message unless the message or the medium fulfills some perceived want or need…all media behavior is based on the expectation of reward.Opinion Leaders“The two-step flow of communication”, where media messages travel to influential community members known as opinion leaders, who then explain the significance of media messages to those who look to them for guidance. Narcotizing Dysfunction•According to narcotizing dysfunction theory, audience members perceive media messages as confusing and contradictory, so they do not make decisions, even though they are relatively well informed.CultivationMedia research has identified that many people’s values and world view are related to their media exposure.Spiral of Silence•Spiral-of-silence theory says that fear of isolation or separation from those around them causes people to keep their attitudes to themselves when they are in the minority. As more and more people with out-of-the-mainstream views withdraw from public debate, the majority appears stronger.GatekeepingCommunication theory recognizes persons called gatekeepers, those who open and shut the gates of communication, determining what an audience sees, hears and reads.Agenda SettingAgenda-setting theory holds that the mass media determine what is important by leading newscasts with that story or printing it on page one. Agenda-setting theory concedes the importance of media’s role, but only insofar as media tell audiences what to think about, not what to think.Status ConferralBecause of their influential nature, the mass media confer status and legitimacy upon persons, organizations and ideasImplications for Media Writers•The challenge to the media writer is to write and report stories in ways that avoid creating cognitive dissonance and that slip through the selective-process filters to be retained because these stories appeal to some want or need felt by members of the audience.InterviewingConducting the interview is the heart of journalism; it is an art that applies communications and human relations skills to achieve the delicate balance between eliciting information of interest to audience and helping the subject willing and able to talk freely.Art of the Interview●Approach or call a person they have never met before●Establish rapportCharacteristics of Good Interviewer●Sincere and heartfelt curiosity is the most valuable asset●Be gutsy enough to go ahead and ask questions●Clever enough to ask in a way that will get answers●Sensitive enough to listen effectively to the answers●Determined enough to ask even more questionsKinds of Interviews and SubjectsFactual interview; Positive interview; Negative interviewDifferent Types of QuestionsClosed-ended questions; Open-ended questions; Loaded questions (Biased or leading questions)Preparing for an Interview●Choosing sources and subjects●Brainstorming and making contacts●Persuading reluctant interview subjects●Asking for an interview●Conducting additional research●Asking Questions●Establishing ground rules for interview●Agreeing on off-the-record statusConducting an interview:●Planning questions beforehand●Warming up the subject●Personal conduct matters●Asking the tough ones●Interviewing in a professional manner●Establishing good communication●Nonverbal communication●Note taking●Ending the interviewSpeeches and News ConferencesHow to report speeches?●Who is the speaker?●What’s the topic?●What’s new?●Ask questions●ObservationNews Conferences:A news conference or press conference is a media event in which newsmakers invite journalists to hear them speak and, most often, ask questions. A joint press conference instead is held between two or more talking sides.Why do they hold news conferences?To make something public; Obligation to inform; To be read or viewed.Basics of Writing and EditingThe basic of effective writing●Standard usage (Use technically accurate language; avoid grammatical myths; avoid bulky sentences;subjects and verbs agree; nouns and pronouns; place words properly; be moderate with adjectives and adverbs; avoid empty phrase; keep elements parallel; keep punctuation simple; stick with the Stylebook)●Simple language (Think before you write; write naturally; eliminate unnecessary words and phrases; avoidredundancies; prefer simple words; use contractions carefully; avoid creating new words; avoid foreign constructions; avoid unwanted rhyme and alliteration; use short sentences; vary sentence structure; prefer active voice)●Meaningful language (Create word pictures; use analogies; use the right word; use precise descriptions; usestrong verbs; replace clichés with original words; avoid journalese; rewrite jargon; avoid loaded words; avoid pretentious words and euphemisms; write honestly; use inclusive language)Basics News StoriesNewsworthy (Determining What Is News)●Timeliness or currency●Proximity●Prominence●ImpactSuspense●Human Interest●Novelty●ProgressWrite a news story●Lead●Transitions (link; compare; contrast; create emphasis; show cause and effect; show a relationship in time;sum up)●Ethical Considerations●Avoiding LibelThree Basic Hard News Stories●Accidents●Fire●CrimeAvoid Common Errors●Punctuation●Choosing the Right Word●Tense●A, An and The●Run-on sentences●FragmentFeature WritingFeature writing provides information about an event, idea or situation. It also may interpret or add depth and color to the news，instruct or entertain.Straight News VS. FeaturesWhile the distinction between published features and news is often clear, when approached conceptually there are few hard boundaries between the two. It is quite possible to write a feature in the style of a news story, for instance. Nevertheless features do tend to take a more narrative approach, perhaps using opening paragraphs as scene-setting narrative hook instead of the delivery of the most important facts.(Narrative hook---The narrative hook is a useful device in storytelling. Narrative hook is a literary technique in the opening of a story that "hooks" the reader's attention so that he or she will keep on reading. The "opening" may consist of several paragraphs for a short story, or several pages for a novel, but ideally it is the opening sentence.)Categories of Features•Personality Profile•Human Interest Story•Trend Story•In-depth Story•Backgrounder (analysis piece)Pulitzer awards for feature writing“for a distinguished example of feature writing giving prime consideration to high literary quality and originality.” (Since 1979)A Feature Story•Theme (Love and hatred. Peace and war. Birth and death. These are the big themes of life, and they lead to human emotions and dramas, all around us, all of the time…Life.)•Techniques (Figures of speech; Transitions; Dialogue; Repetition; Quotation)•Headlines•Beginnings•Middle part•End partThe News Feature Form•Delayed lead (Classification of Feature Leads: Question; A shocking statement or statistic; quote;narrative; descriptive;)•Strong Quote•Nut Graf- Explains 5Ws 1H --- often “why” is important•Follow general to specific pattern --- additional sources, quotes, and color throughout•Kicker --- end of story should leave strongLead WritingDialogueScene with a character engaged in an activityA startling argumentA contrastA generalizationA questionAn intriguing detailAn anecdoteA …what-if” or “might have-been”The effect (of a cause)(Special Topic: Libya War & Media War)Business and Financial NewsThe services you receive and the services you provide. Getting and spending.That is the story of businessThey focus on interesting people and their lives; they involve conflict, tension, or drama.First task is to translate the language of business and finance into a language your readers understand.Numbers●Numbers tell a story, if only you will listen to them.●They are the first to whisper of some impending tragedy, doom, or disaster.●They are the first to shout triumph or success●They capture, and give voice, to change.●They tell us where we have been and where we are going●They are the language of business and financeOne number is a picture; two numbers are a motion picture.Business and Financial stories:●Stories on economic indicators●Stories on company earnings●Stories on marketsThese stories provide different indications of the economies health.Each type of story subdivides into numerous different stories, each providing slightly different perspectives on economic performance.Covering Economic Indicators●Statistical measures of an economy:●Unemployment rate●Retail sales figures●The number of houses sold●How much a country imports and exports●The rate that prices are increasingMain purpose of these statistics is to answer: What is happening the economy?No single statistic can give you a full perspective on an economy. A business reporter must rely on a wide variety of economic indicators to convey what is going on.Six Elements of Business and Financial Stories (CCE/CCF)●The change in the indicator (typically expressed as a percentage) compared to an earlier period●The cause or reason for the change (what was driving the number to move?)●The expectations that people had for the indicator (was this a surprise?)●Some context, so the reader understands the broader circumstances in which the change took place●Some comment from independent observers (typically economists or financial analysts, although the story would alsooften include comment from the government)●Some indication of what the future holds (does the indicator suggest things will get better or worse?)Covering Company Earnings●The Earnings Statement (also known as the Profit and Loss Statement or the Income Statement)●The Balance Sheet●The Cash Flow StatementCovering Markets●In the world of business and financial journalism, markets are the ultimate grade givers. They reward good behaviorand punish bad behavior.●They do this through a process called valuation.●The market is made up of thousands of investors and institutions representing investors from all over. It is afundamental part of b&f journalism.● A staple of every newspaper’s business section is the stock market comment and the foreign exchange comment.Sports News●Sports are symbols of our value systems●Sport is rich with symbolism and meaning●Sports journalist is like any other beat reporter●You will find corruption, bribery, drug scandals, politics, business, economics and more in sports journalismA Sports Story● A business story about the economic impact the game or event is likely to have on the host city● A political story about the influence local or national governments have over the way the game is run.(Example,Olympics)● A profile about a single athlete, coach, or team.● A story about a scandal, such as doping scandal involving an athlete, or a scandal involving officials.Arts and Entertainment CoverageIt focus on what society is interested in, including music, movies/films, books, television, theater, and art and design. It also concerns itself with the people involved in all of these elements of culture, typically called artists, public figures, or celebritiesEntertainment Journalism•Entertainment journalism is an umbrella term used to describe all forms of journalism that focus on the entertainment business and its products.•Entertainment journalism covers industry-specific news while targeting general audiences beyond those working in the industry itself. Common forms include television and film criticism, music journalism, video game journalism and celebrity coverage.(Special Topic: China’s National Image in U.S. Major Media)Digital WritingDigital writing is the art and practice of preparing documents primarily by computer and often for online delivery. Digital writing often requires attention to the theories and practices of designing, planning, constructing, and maintaining dynamic and interactive texts--texts that may wind up fragmented and published within and across databases. Texts that may, and often do, include multiple media elements, such as images, video, and audio.Phases：1)global village2)opinion leaders3)national image4)pillar industry5)inclusive language6)emotional response7)marginal analysis8)human interest9)track and field10)fiscal year11)foreign exchange12)high culture13)unemployment rate14)economic indicators15)stock market16)economic recession17)purchasing power18) a level playing field19)popular culture20)narrative hook21)favorable balance22)adverse balance23)Gross Nation Product24)beat reporter25)Gross Domestic Product26)net profit27)The Balance Sheet28)exports and imports29)The Earnings Statement30)figures of speech31)The Cash Flow Statement32)world-record holder33)Consumer Price Index34)entertainment industry35)run-on sentence。