应用语言学复习资料全
语言学专业课山东省考研应用语言学复习指南
语言学专业课山东省考研应用语言学复习指南一、引言语言学是研究人类语言的性质、结构和使用的学科，作为语言学专业的学生，掌握应用语言学理论和实践对于我们的学业和将来的职业发展具有重要意义。
本文将为山东省考研应用语言学专业的同学提供一份复习指南，帮助大家系统地复习和掌握应用语言学的核心知识。
二、绪论1. 语言学的基础概念1.1 语言和方言的定义和区别1.2 语音、语法、语义和语用的关系1.3 语言的历史和分类2. 语言学的研究方法2.1 语料库语言学2.2 实验语言学2.3 田野语言学2.4 计算语言学三、语音学1. 语音学基本概念1.1 音素、音位和音素的分类1.2 音节的构成和音节结构规则1.3 声调和音调语言2. 语音规律和音变现象2.1 语音规律和音变规律的介绍2.2 声母、韵母、音调的音位变体2.3 语音变调和共振3. 语音变体和方言3.1 方言的分类和特点3.2 方音的调查和研究方法3.3 地理因素和社会因素对方言的影响四、词汇语义学1. 词汇语义学基本概念1.1 词义和词汇义的关系1.2 词汇义的分类和特点1.3 同义词、反义词和歧义词的解析2. 词汇语义的构成和变化2.1 合成、派生和转化等词汇构成方式2.2 词义的变化和扩展2.3 语义场和词汇关联网络的分析3. 语义的语用功能和文化差异3.1 语言行为和言语行为3.2 语义的语用展示和歧视3.3 文化差异对词汇语义的影响五、句法学1. 句法学基本概念1.1 句子和短语的定义和分类1.2 句子成分和语序的规则1.3 语言单位的结构和功能关系2. 句法规则和句法变体2.1 句法规则的种类和应用2.2 语法变体和方言话语2.3 句法分析和句法树表示法3. 句法关系和依存句法学3.1 依存句法学的介绍和理论基础3.2 句法关系的类型和定位方法3.3 案例分析和依存句法树的构建六、语用学1. 语用学基本概念1.1 言语行为和直观意义的关系1.2 话语和会话的基本要素1.3 语用推论和言外之意的解读2. 语用规则和语用违反2.1 礼貌原则和合作原则2.2 语用规则和违反的种类2.3 语用违反的成因和效果3. 语用策略和话语行为3.1 修辞手法和话语理解3.2 语用策略和交际目的3.3 语罩作为社会行为的语用研究七、总结通过本文的复习指南，同学们可以对应用语言学的核心知识有一个全面而系统的复习，为山东省考研应用语言学专业的考试打下坚实的基础。
应用语言学期末复习各章知识点百题汇总
应用语言学期末复习补充问题一．名词解释个别语言学属于本体语言学，是探讨一种语言的结构和发展规律。
如：汉语语言学，英语语言学；普通语言学是研究人类语言一般的性质和普遍的性质及普遍的结构规律的学科。
由于讨论的是对各种具体语言有普遍指导意义的理论，又被称为理论语言学；共时语言学又称“描写语言学”，是指选取语言的某一个历史阶段，描写这个阶段的语言的状态。
如：现代汉语、先秦汉语；历时语言学又称“历史语言学”，它研究语言的发展变化。
如：汉语史；自然语言处理是运用计算机技术来研究、处理自然语言的交叉性学科。
主要目标是让计算机懂得和理解人的自然语言，实现人机对话；中文信息处理是自然语言信息处理的下位概念，是指用计算机对中文进行存储、转换、分析、传输等加工，以形成各种信息处理系统的科学；语言能力传统上指运用语言进行听说读写的能力或指用书面或口语进行交际的能力。
（如：语音能力、词汇能力、语法能力。
）从而规范地、正确地使用语言；语言交际能力说话者适应交际主体、主旨、语境，有效地进行言语交际的能力。
即更加得体、有效地使用语言的能力；对比分析就是把两种或两种以上的语言或方言进行共时对比，描述他们之间的异同。
目的是由此找出目标语学习者的学习难点，以便于最有效的方法来组织教学；偏误分析指对学生在第二语言学习中所产生的偏误进行分析，进而研究第二语言的学习过程。
它是研究学习过程的捷径，也是研究学习过程的第一步；应用语言学应用语言学分为狭义、广义两种。
狭义的应用语言学特指第二语言教学，中国一般取广义的，我们也取广义的，包括语言应用的各个方面，范围是开放的。
简单地说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同有关方面发生关系的学科。
进一步说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同应用各部分结合部、接触面，包括结合、接触的动态变化的规律性学科。
《马氏文通》（1）这是中国形成独立的语言学学科的标志。
（2）马建忠认为必须缩短学习本国语文的过程，才能学习西方先进科学技术，才能使国家富强。
应用语言学考试复习资料
一、单选题1.习得顺序研究对哪个问题达成了统一的认识？A、母语迁移是影响习得顺序的非主要因素B、第一语言和第二语言的习得顺序不同C、母语、个体差异的因素都会导致习得顺序的不同D、测量学习者使用语言项目的正确率可以判断习得的先后答案： C2.语言具有能产性是因为A、双层性与递归性B、线条性与递归性C、双层性与任意性D、渐变性与递归性答案： B3.（）是汉语二语教学研究不可或缺的重要基础背景理论。
A、文化学B、语言学C、心理学D、教育学答案： A4.最小的语音单位叫做（）A、音节B、音素C、音段D、语句答案： B5.以下哪项不属于对外汉语教学的特点？A、汉语课程在国民基础教育体系中展开B、学习者主要是成年人C、教学对象多半来自不同文化D、在汉语环境下展开答案： A6.一个中国孩子在上海出生，后移居到德国，他的母语是：A、汉语B、德语C、上海话D、汉语和德语答案： A7.研究语言亲属关系的语言学是A、转换生成语言学B、结构主义语言学C、社会语言学D、历史比较语言学答案： D8.活动理论具有层级性，以下哪一项处于最高的层级？A、操作B、方案C、活动D、行为答案： C9.第一语言和第二语言的区分标准是以下哪一项？A、语言获得的方式B、学习者所属种族C、语言习得的顺序D、语言习得的环境答案： C10.使用字符最少的文字是（）A、音位文字B、音节文字C、语素文字D、意音文字答案： A11.语言中发展演变速度最快的是（）A、语法规则B、音位系统C、一般语汇D、基本语汇答案： C12.下列哪个不属于行为主义的学习过程？A、强化B、模仿C、重复D、拓展答案： D13.人类语言和动物的交际方式A、有着根本区别B、在本质是一致的C、有不大的差别D、基本一样答案： A14.维果茨基认为人类不是直接作用于客观世界，而是通过以下哪一项间接地改造客观世界？A、思想意识B、双手C、社会互动D、调节工具答案： D15.根据早期中介语的理论，以下哪一项不是中介语的特征A、中介语具有非系统性B、中介语是可观察到的语言系统C、中介语具有动态发展的特征D、中介语具有独立性答案： A16.关于母语迁移，以下哪一观点是错误的？A、语言偏误由多种原因引起，母语的干扰，即母语负迁移只是其中的原因之一B、母语的负迁移在第二语言习得时可以完全避免C、母语的迁移并非简单的行为过程，而是带有人主动参与的心理过程D、母语的迁移在两种语言比较相近的情况下更易发生答案： B17.功能语言学强调关注语言的功能，在（）成为占主流地位的理论。
【免费下载】应用语言学复习整理
1. Leech’s 7 types of meanings(1). conceptual meaning (logical meaning, cognitive meaning, or denotative meaning, 外延意义)It is denotative in that it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. Denotative meaning is the objective reflection of world.(2). Connotative meaning（内涵意义）Connotative meaning is what is communicated by virtual of what language refers to. It refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind.The characteristics:A.in cannot stand by itself and is always dependent on denotativemeaningB.connotations may be different according to different person, age,society, country or time.C.In different languages, some words may have the same connotativemeaning.D.Connotation is unstable.(3) social or stylistic meaningSocial meaning is the meaning that a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.(4) affective meaningAffective meaning is connected with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer.(5) reflected meaningWhat is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression is called reflected meaning, like euphemistic expression.(6) collocative meaning（组合意义，like handsome woman:仪态端庄）Collocative meaning is what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.(7) thematic meaning (主题意义，强调句子的组织和语序)Thematic meaning is what communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.2. Referential meaningThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.Semantic triangle: word (concept) thing4 ways to explain a word, like deskA. by pointing to a desk and saying this is the deskB. by describing its shape and feature or functionC. paraphraseD. translationSense(涵义)----reference（指称）connotation(内涵)----denotation(外延)（but not every word has a reference, like god, ghost）3. (1)synonymy (strict synonymy and loose synonymy)Strict synonymy refers to the situation in which two synonymous words can be interchangeable in all possible contexts of use.Loose synonymy or near synonymy may be substitutable in particular contexts, but not substitutable across a range of contexts.(2) antonymyG: gradable CV: converse CP: conplementary(3) hyponymy(上下位关系)4. (1) A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.Logic connectives and symbolsOne-place connective: negation～two-place connective: conjunction∧disjunction ∨implication →equivalence ←→argument(主目) and predicate(谓词) in Socrates in a man are Socrates and man.(2) universal quantifiers(全称量词) existential quantifier(存在量词)5. Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against the dominant generative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language. Cognitive linguistics is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world.Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc.Construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. (phycologically)Image schema is a recurring , dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. (a center-periphery schema, a containment schema, a cycle schema, a force schema, a link schema, a part-whole schema, a path schema, a scale schema, a verticality schema)Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of the other.Target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor.A source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.Ontological metaphor means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc.Structural metaphor plays the most important role because it allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.Orientational metaphor gives a concept a spatial orientation.6. It is self-evident that language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language. The input may come in written or spoken form. Ideally, materials at all levels should provede frequent exposure to authentic input which is rich and varied.According to Krashen’s input hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. (i+1 principle)7. The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage. Interlanguage is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.8. Based on this distinction, we assume that syllabus design is more of a pedagogical nature, whereas curriculum development is an educational planning issue.(1) Structural syllabus is a grammar oriented syllabus based on a selection of language items and structures.(2) Situaltional syllabus dose not have a strong linguistic basis, yet it can be assumed that the situationalists accept the viem that language is used for communication.(3) Communicative syllabus aims at the learner’s communicative competence.(4) Task-based syllabus are more concerned with the classroom processed which stimulate learning than with the language knowledge or skills that students are supposed to master.Current trends in syllabus design:The co-existence of the old and the new; the emphasis on the learning process; the inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus; the emergence of the multi-syllabus.9. The study of the roles that the native language plays in known as the research of language transfer.Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what dose not need to be learned in a second language learning situation.Gradually CA was replaced by the error analysis movement, a majorclaim of which is that many errors made by L2 learners were caused by factors other than L1 interference.5 errors (omissions, additions, double markings, misformations, misorderings)10. A corpus is a collection of texts input into a computer. Language corpora make it possible for materials developers to select authentic, natural and typical language.(1) general corpora: a general reference corpus is not a collection of material from different specialist areas technical, dialectal, juvenile, etc. it is a collection of material which is broadly homogeneous, but which is gathered from a variety of sources so that the individuality of a source is obscured, unless the researcher isolates a particular text.(2) specialized corpora: this kind of corpus is useful for language for specific purposes.(3) sample corpora: this is a kind of genre-based corpus. It is a collection of a large number of short extracts randomly selected from all kinds of genres.(4) monitor corpora: this kind of corpus in gigantic, ever moving store of text.11. validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is meant to measure, or can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended. (content validity refers to the degree to which a test adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills or behavior it sets out toa measure. Construct validity assumes the existence of certain learning theories or constructs which underlie the acquisition of abilities and skills. Thus it refers to the degree to which the items in a test feflect the essential aspects of the theory on which the test is based.)Reliability means stability or consistency of test scores.Test distinguished by use: (achievement tests or attainment tests, aims to measure how much of a language the learner has learned with reference to a particular couse of study or program of instruction. proficiency tests,aims to measure how much of a language the learner knows with reference to a particular task which he will be required to perform. aptitude tests, is designed to measure the learner’s probable performance in a second language which he has not started to learn. diagnostic tests, is designed to show what skills or knowledge learners do not know, to diagnose their areas of difficulty, and to enable the teacher to identify their specific areas of weaknesses and problems so that he is able to plan the most appropriate remedial program. placement tests, is designed to place learners at an appropriate level in program or course. It aims to sort new students into teaching groups so that they can start a course or a program at approximately the same level.)Tests distinguished by the standard for measuring( criterion-referenced tests, norm-referenced tests)Tests distinguished by linguistic levels and skillsTests distinguished by the system of scoring ( subjective tests and objective tests)Tests distinguished by the nature of the test ( discrete-point tests integrative tests)Standard deviation is the most common measure of the dispersion of a series of scores and the most stable index of variability.Percentile ranks of any given score if a value indicating the percent of cases falling ar or below that score.12. Types of research categorized by the duration of the study (in longitudinal study, an individual or group is studied over a period of time. Cross-sectional study refers to the study of a group of different individuals or subjects at s single point in time, in order to measure or study a particular topic or aspect of language development.)Types of research categorized by the design and methodology (quantitative research is also called positivistic research. Qualitative research is also called naturalistic, ethnographic or postpositivistic research.)。
应用语言学导论考点全梳理
第一章绪论1.应用语言学的性质。
狭义:专指语言教学,特指外语教学与第二语言教学。
定义为研究语言理论在语言教学或外语教学中的种种应用问题。
广义:应用于各实际领域的语言学,指语言学知识与研究成果所应用的一切领域与方面,应用语言学所关心的就是如何应用语言学理论、方法与成果来阐释其她应用领域所遇到的跟语言有关的问题。
应用语言学就是语言学跟其她学科相互交叉渗透所产生的一门边缘学科。
2.应用语言学具有学科的相对独立性:表现在:1、有明确的研究任务,研究语言学在一切领域的实际应用问题;2、有明确的研究对象,形成了像语言教学、语言规划、社会语言学、心理语言学、儿童语言学、语言信息处理、神经语言学、词典学等几个较为成熟的下位领域;3、有自己独特的学科基础,如有大量的专业研究人员、创建了大量专门的研究机构;4、形成了专门的应用语言学专业与课程。
3.应用语言学的特点:a、相对独立性;b实用性,实用性就是应用语言学存在与发展的基本条件。
c、实验性,调查与实验就是应用语言学研究的重要方法。
调查包括访谈调查、观察调查、问卷调查等,比较的方法与统计的手段在应用语言学中较为常用。
d、综合性,由应用语言学学科性质决定。
4.语言学三大分支:本体语言学、理论语言学(普通语言学或一般语言学)、应用语言学。
5.应用语言学与本体语言学、理论语言学的关系:应用语言学首先必须就是语言学,应用语言学不就是语言本体的研究。
但必须从本体研究的成功出发进行相关研究;应用语言学不就是进行语言学理论研究,但必须遵循语言学的基本理论,应用语言学的不同分支对语言本体研究与理论研究成果的利用有不同的侧重点。
6.语言教学、语言规划、社会语言学、计算语言学四个领域构成了我国应用语言学的研究主体。
主要研究领域:语言教学、语言规划与语言调查、对外汉语教学、社会语言学、计算语言学、儿童语言发展等。
7.1870,波兰语言学家杜恩。
德。
库尔特内提出区分纯粹语言学与应用语言学,首次提出“应用语言学”。
应用语言学 知识点总结
中南民族大学 外语学院 2011级 鹦鹉 应用语言学 复习知识点总结Chapter 4 first language acquisitionDifferences between Saussure and ChomskySaussure’s objective is to describe the language system(langue ),but parole is an individual act. Saussure is more concerned with its sociological aspect .Chomsky’s objective is to characterize the native speaker ’s knowledge of the system of his language (competence ). Chomsky is more concerned with its psychological aspect .How is the first language acquired?Traditional assumption: imitation and practice Chomsky’s creative hypothesis-testin g---language acquisition is based on the child ’s discovery of a deep and abstract theory----a generative grammar of his language (child hear all kinds of utterance, but he choose only what fits his needs. His own utterances (performance)are original and novel.)The deepest structure of all language may be the same-----Universal Grammar(UG) in Chomsky ’s theory.Major L1 acquisition theories-----the process of L1 acquisition1,Behaviorist theories :These theories follow the empiricist approach, emphasizing that the only way of knowing anything is by experiencing it physically.Basic tenet 原则 : since one cannot observe his internal states, which is regarded as a “black box ”, hence one can not know anything about them, any statements about the internal states or process are meaningless. The only meaningful statements about the organism concern whatgoes into it(stimulus)and what comes out of it(response). Objective : is to discover and create predictable Basic idea: verbal behavior, like other human behaviors, is controlled by its consequences. In the process of first language acquisition, if a certain correct response is repeatedly reinforced, it is conditioned and becomes a habit, then finally the child acquires his native language. 2) mediation theories-------------------------to fill the “blackbox ”Basic ideal : two thing connecting with a third thing tend to be in associating with each other. One the associationis established, an internal link is built up even when the third thing is not present.Mowrer ’s theory: a word is a conditioned stimulus while the thing to which the word refers is the unconditioned stimulus.Osgood ’s theory : three-stage meditational model: sensory, representational and integrational.2. Cognitive theoriesThese theories follow the rationalist approach, being more concern with the actual linguistic-processing abilities of the individual.Objective: to the discovery of new kinds of mental events. 1) Nativist theories( the innateness hypothesis)This is lied by Chomsky.Basic idea : the child is born with the biological basic for the acquisition of language, which enables them to develop a grammar that will incorporate all thecommon feature of human language.Chomsky call this as Universal Grammar(UG) and claim the existence of “ black English ” which he calls as Language Acquisition Device(LAD).McNeil constructed the hypothetical grammar of child language(pivot grammer).This theory account for aspects of meaning, the abstractness of language, and the creativity of child language.2) Cognitive theories 认知学派Chapter 5 second language learning The nature of second language learning1)Native-like proficiency —the goal of second language learningThree components of L2 proficiency :1) Grammatical competence: (i.e linguisticcompetence )—vocabulary, pronunciation, grammatical structure and word form.2) Sociolinguistic competence: (i.ecommunicative competence )--- sociocultural rules for using language appropriately, discourse rules for thinking parts of a language text coherently and cohesively.3) Strategic competence: (i.e L2 leaner ’sability to compensate for problem in communication)verbal and non-verbal communication strategies.Major2 learning theories-----the nature and process of L2 learning1.The interlanguage theoryDefinition:(Ronald Carte)is a transitional stage in learning a second or foreign language. language system bordering on the first language and the target language.Larry Selinker first used this term to refer to “ the attempted meaningful performance”Corder explained: “^^is the collective name of second language learners’versions of target languages and call it transitional competence. Premises: 1) the learner constructs a grammar, a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production.2the learner’s grammar is permeable.3)The leaner’s competence is transitional.4)The learner’s performance is variable.5)Interlanguage development reflects cognitivelearning strategies and communication strategies.6)The interlanguage system may fossilize.The principle characteristics:1)Interlanguage system is “reduced”or“simplified”system and have “restricted functions”.2)Interlanguage system is dynamic.2.Monitor theory ---the laws governingL2acquisitionDeveloped by S. Krashen and contain five hypothesis1)The acquisition—learning hypothesis (the most fundamental of all the five ……)Basic idea: adult have two independent ways of developing competence in a second language-----language acquisition and language learning. The former is subconscious process and latter is conscious process.2)The monitor hypothesisBasic idea: acquisition and learning are used in very specific ways. Normally, acquisition “initiates”our utterances and be responsible for our fluency. Learning act as a Monitor and Editor in L2 language learning.Three conditions for monitoring: Thus, conscious learning play a limited role in L2 performance and only three conditions are met may be it used.---- 1)having time 2)Focusing on form 3)Knowing the rule3)The natural order hypothesisBasic idea : there is a predictable, natural order for the acquisition of grammatical structures in a second language.Average order(English as a second language)：ING(progressive)/PLURAL/COPULA(“to be”)---- AULILIARY(progressive, as in “he is going”)/ARTICLE(a,the)---- Irregular past-----regular past/iii singular/possessiveThree requirement for presenting rules: Learnable/portable/not yet acquired4)The input hypothesis---how we acquire languageBasic idea : learner’s acquire language as sa result of comprehending input addressed to them. we acquire L2 by understanding language that contain structure a bit beyond our current level of competence. (i+1) Once our communication is successful and the input is understood, the production emerges.分类：premodified input: is material that is finely tuned in advance to the learner’s current level.Interactively modified input: is material (usually spoken discourse)that is modified when the teacher and the learner interact.---结论：课堂有其重要性，因为能大量提供INPIT 5)The affective filter hypothesis-----the relationship between affective filter and the second language acquisitionBasic idea : L2 acquirers vary with respect to the strength or level of their affective filters. While he claims that the input plays the primary role in L2 acquisition and the filter affective variables act to impede or facilitate the delivery of input to the language acquisition device.Summary of Monitor Theories--1)Acquisition is more important that learning2)two conditions to acquire a second languageComprehensible input(^a bit beyond the^)A low or weak affective filter5)The creative construction modelDeveloped by M. Burt and H. Dulay and based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory of “creative aspect of language use”Basic idea : refers to a process in which the learners gradually reconstruct rules for speech theyhear, guided by their innate mechanisms which cause them to formulate certain types of hypothesis about the language system being acquired, utile the mismatch between what they are exposed to and what they produced is resolved. It propose the internal creativity mechanism 图：the language environment provides the input for mental processing and the leaner ’s verbal performance is the output. Three processing mechanism is involved. Affective filter Language learners do not take in everything they hear. The affective filters, like motivation, self-confidence and anxiety, controls the entry of input. Cognitive organizer It responsible for the leaner ’s gradual organization of the new language system. Linguistic monitor It responsible for a kind of self-editing process by which learners are concerned about linguistic forms, using conscious rules to produce sentences.Chapter 9 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis Contrastive AnalysisBasic idea: by the comparison and contrast of two or more language to determine the differences and similarities of two language, and the ultimate goal is to identify the difficulties of L2learning. (or to predicate what area will be easy and what will be difficult.) Theoretical bases -----behaviorism and structuralismBasic assumption :1)L2 learning involves overcoming difficulties in the linguistic systems of the target language.(Grass and Selinker) 2)the main difficulties in L2 learning are caused byinterference from the L1.3)CA can predict or account for difficulties in L2 learning.4)CA can reduce the difficulties and facilitate L2 learning.Major object : providing insight into similarities and difficulties.Predicating problems in L2 learning.Developing course materials for language taching.Error AnalysisBasic idea: Corder claimed EA is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learner ’s interlanguage and the target language system. It is a methodology of describing L2 learner ’s language system. Two justification: to understanding thenature of errors and to eradicate them. / is necessary to an understanding of the process of second language acquisition. 对比：CA aimed to predicate errors resulting fromL1, which failed to account for other types of errors. While EA compare the learner ’s interlanguage and the target language. Tow Source of errors: Interlingual errors(transfer errors): it occurswhen learner misuse an item because it shares some features with an item in the native language. Intralingual errors(developmental errors):errors within the target language itself. OVERGENERALIZATIONTypes of errors :Process of EA:Recognition-----Description----ExplanationExplanation: the source of errors: interlingual transfer(the interference of the first language) / Intralingual transfer(overgeneration of the rules of the target languge)Two issues:Fossilization : the relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into a person ’s second language competence.Pidginization : refers to the process by which a pidgin develops. The learner instinctively attempts to bring two languages together, which results in aspects of both.Chapter 11 Language Testing TestE. Ingran —“ a test is a measuring device which we use when we want to compare an individuals who belong to the same group ”Brown --- “ a test is a method of measuring a person ’s ability or knowledge in a given area.”Requirements for a good test —validity,reliability, discrimination and practicality.1 , Validity : the most important requirement. It refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is meant to measure, or can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended.Face validity, content validity, construct validity, empirical vality.Face validity : 外行人 it refers to the degree to which a test appears to measure the abilities or knowledge it claims to measure, based on theto which a test adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills or behavior it sets out : 能力的测试 It assumes the which underlie the acquisition of abilities and skills. Thus it refers to the degree to which the items in a test reflect the essential aspects of the theory( the construct) on which the test is based. Eg: 英语语言能力的测试√（听说读写译）Bachman : it is concerned with the extent to whichperformance on tests is consistent with prediction that we make on the basis of a theory of abilities or constructs.Empirical ValidityBasic idea : measure the validity of a test by comparing the test with one or more criterion measures. It contains two ways: concurrent validity(comparing the test with other valid tests at the same time) and predictive validity(comparing the test with other valid tests or other performance criteria obtained at a later time). The only difference is time.2 , Reliability ----- stability and consistency of test scoresValidity ensures the meaningfulness of a test, reliability ensures its consistency. It is a measure of the degree to which a test gives consistent results. A test is reliable, if it meets the above four conditions :1)a test is given to a group of students on different occasions2)two parallel forms of the test are given tom the same group on different occasions3)the test is scored by the same scorer on different occasions4)the test is scored by two or more competent scorers.Four factors affect the reliability:1) the extent of the sample material selected for testing---the bigger, the more reliable2) the administration of the test:同一考试在不同的时间，不同对象下结果相同。
应用语言学复习(之三)
应用语言学复习资料（之三）1．心理语言学的定义：心理语言学是研究人类个体如何获得、理解和生成语言的心理学分支。
它从心理过程和心理机制的角度来研究人类的语言活动特点。
2．为什么说心理语言学研究是跨学科的？首先，它以语言的结构和功能为线索来探讨人类言语活动的心理过程和机制，而语言的结构和功能是语言学的研究对象。
其次，在对言语活动的心理过程和机制进行研究的过程中，必然要涉及人脑的结构和特殊的机能，有时还要借助于对由脑损伤和发育障碍导致的病历分析。
最后，人类言语活动是在社会环境中发生和发展的，复杂的社会因素直接决定了语言系统的变化，并对言语活动产生重要影响。
因此，对于人类言语活动心理机制的研究不仅依赖于心理学的理论和方法，而且吸收和采纳了语言学、社会学、生理学、临床医学、计算机科学、数学等许多领域的理论和方法。
3．什么是元语言学意识？它包括哪些内容？元语言学意识是指儿童对语言、文字一般结构特征的认识和操作。
它包含：句法意识：对句子内部句法和语义结构的认识；语音意识：对字母与音位之间对应关系的认识；构词法意识：对字词的内部结构与整词词义的关系的认识；随着语言、文字的学习，儿童会发展各种元语言学意识，其特点表现为概括化和规则化的学习。
4．什么是词频？词频是指某个单词在书面语言中的使用次数。
词频的确定通常是对一个单词在报刊、杂志、教材等语言材料中被使用的次数进行统计而得到的。
由于词频来自于对真实语言材料的统计，所以它是一个客观变量。
但每个人对同一单词又有不同的经验，因而熟悉程度也不尽相同，它又是一个主观变量。
词频是影响单词识别速度的一个最重要的因素。
5．什么叫字词识别的词频效应？人们对高频词的识别快于对低频词的识别，这一现象叫做词频效应。
6．词频效应与语境有什么关系？语境与词频效应的作用是相加性的。
语境和词频效应作用在字词识别的同一阶段，是交互作用的。
语境对高频词的影响较小，而对低频词的影响较大。
7．什么是公共关系？它是指一个社会组织与相关的社会公众之间依靠传播沟通建立起来的关系。
应用语言学重点知识汇总..汇编
Chapter one:The Nature of Applied Linguistics (特点)1) It has an independent discipline (独立性)a) it has its own object of study;b) it has its own scientific system of theories and methodology;c) it has its own researchers.2) It is an interdisciplinary science(跨学科)3) It is an applied science(应用性)应用语言学包含着具有内在联系的三个方面：语言理论，语言描写和语言教学。
语言理论的作用是为语言教师提供关于一般语言系统的结构和功能运用得知识；语言描写的作用是使语言教师了解英语的结构特点、获得语言洞察力。
这两部分是语言教学的基础。
4) It is an empirical science(试验性)Like natural science, applied linguistics uses experiments as its basic way of research, emphasizing objectivity, systematicness, explicitness and economy. (客观性，系统性，明确性，经济性) The Task of Applied Linguistics （任务）1) a comprehensive and up-to-date grasp of the theoretical foundations of language learning and teaching；(更好理解掌握最新的语言教学和语言学习的理论基础)2) an integrated understanding of the various factors affecting language learning and teaching；(全面了解影响语言学习和语言教学的各种因素)3) a basic knowledge about different language teaching approaches, methods and techniques.(一个语言教学理念、方法和技巧)英语教学法主要是立足于心理学和教育学的理论和成果。
应用语言学复习
一、刺激—反应论（后天环境论）创始人是美国心理学家华生，代表人物是美国心理学家斯金纳，只是一种行为主义的理论。
（1）理论内容1）华生的主要观点：a.心理学家必须用科学的方法研究个体的行为，而不是意识。
b.研究动物行为的结果，可以用解释人的行为。
C.人类一切行为的构成要素都只是反应，或多种反应的组合。
反应多数是在环境中由刺激—反应联合形成。
2）斯金纳指出：人类语言行为只是刺激和反应。
看见、听见和感到的东西是刺激，说出的话是反应。
3）刺激—反应的哲学基础是洛克的白板论，强调后天经验的重要性。
（2）“刺激—反应论”虽然收到很多人批评，但是并非一无是处，有很多合理的成分。
总的来说，刺激—反应论可以解释儿童语言习得过程中的某些现象。
但是这种理论不能全部解释儿童母语的习得过程。
二、先天论（先天性决定论）（1）理论内容1）代表人物是语言学家乔姆斯基、卡茨，心理学家米勒与马克奈尔2）先天论受到不少批评：①儿童头脑中是否存在语言习得机制及普通语法的存在性受到质疑。
很多人接受先天学习语言能力，但不同意有普遍语法。
②语言能力可以先于智力发展，只一点也受到质疑③先天论过于低估后天环境的作用。
3）语言能力的体现机制是“语言习得机制”（LAD）特点：①人类独有。
②可以离开人类的其他功能而存在。
4）包括两部分：①普通语法。
②先天的判断、评价语言信息的能力儿童能对他所接触的语言参数定值。
语法规则不是由输入的材料归纳而来的，是由语言习得机制中的普通语言转换而来的。
（2）对先天论的评价1）先天论注重儿童或的语言的先天因素和儿童的主动性、创造性，改变行为主义儿童被动模仿的观点，能解释为什么任何一个发育正常的儿童，不需要任何系统的教育都能在3-5年的时间内掌握第一语言复杂的规则体系的主要方面，能听懂他从未听过的话、说出他从未听过的句子，能解释儿童为什么产生“过渡概括”的错误。
2）认为语言是一种规则体系，是一种以规则为基础的复杂系统而并非习惯的总和，儿童之所以能掌握，是因为人类有天生的、具有受遗传因素决定的掌握语言规则的能力，即“语言能力”三、认知论（先天与后天相互作用）（1）理论基础1）认知论以瑞士著名的儿童心理学家皮亚杰的“认知论”为理论基础，认为儿童的语言发展是天生能力与客观的经验相互作用的结果。
应用语言学复习资料
应用语言学复习资料注意：1. 另一个TERM 是silent way2. 对比关系是听说法和直接法3. 关系是应用语言学与语言学的关系ACT----active control of thoughtAILA/IAAL----international association of applied linguisticsAL----applied linguisticsALAA----applied linguistics association of AustraliaALANA----applied linguistics association of New ZealandALM----the audio-lingual methodASTP----the army specialized training programBAAL----British association of applied linguisticsBICS----basic interpersonal communicative skillsCA----contrastive analysisCAAL/ACLA----Canadian association of applied linguisticsCAGR----compound annual growth rateCAH----the contrastive analysis hypothesisCAL----critical applied linguisticsCALL----computer aided language learningCALP----cognitive/academic language proficiencyCDA----critical discourse analysisCDS----child-directed speakerCLL----community language learningCLT----communicative language teachingCP----co-operative principleCUP----Cambridge University PressESF----the European science foundationEUROSLA----European second language associationFLT----foreign language teachingFLA----first language acquisitionFSI----the Foreign Service institute‟sFUO-finite utterance organizationGCSE----general certificate of second educationGB----government and bindingGUFS----Guangdong University of foreign studiesICT----information and communication technologyIDC----international data corporationInJAL----international Journal of Applied LinguisticsIP----input processingIRAL----international review of applied linguistics in language teaching ISBU----interlanguage studies bulletinIUO----infinite utterance organizationLAD----language acquisition deviceMME----the micro-momentary expression testMLAT----modern language aptitude testNS----native speakerNNS----non-native speakerNUO----nominal utterance organizationOPI----oral proficiency interviewOUP----Oxford University PressPDP----parallel distributed processingPDAQ----the professed difference in attitude questionnaireSLA----second language acquisitionSLI-----special language impairmentSLL----second language learningSLR----second language researchS-R----stimulus-responseSSLA----studies in second language acquisitionTESOL-----teachers of English to speakers of other languageTG----transformational grammar/ transformational-generative grammarTL----theoretical languageTLU----target-like useTOEFL----theTest of English as a Foreign LanguageTRR----total physical responseU of C----University of CalgaryUCLA----university of California Los AngelesUG----universal grammarWCAL----world congress of applied linguisticsZPD----zone of proximal developmentMayes Briggs character types: E/I----extroversion-introversionS/N----sensing-intuitionT/F----thinking-feelingJ/P----judging-perceivingNP----noun-phrase VP----verb-phrase DP----determiner-phraseCP----complementizer phrase IP----infection phrase TP----tense phraseAgrP----agreement phrase PP----prepositional phraseTerms:Language----language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. / A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture. / A language is “a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements”. / Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols”.Language is an emotional subject: it belongs to everyone, so most people feel they have a right to hold an opinion about it. Languages are equal on having developed to express the needs of their users, all languages meet the social and psychological needs of their speakers. Language is magical, a mystery which, esp. in its written form, is thought to contain special powers, which only theinitiated are allowed to understand or control.Linguistics----it is the scientific study of human language in all its aspects, providing a methodology for exploring the structure of particular languages and investigates what is universal to all human languages; how languages are different, how language varies over time and between different societies, how language is learnt, and how language is used for human communication.Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language. This definition is well accepted because it succinctly pinpoints the objects and methods of linguistics as a discipline.Applied linguistics----it can be defined in a broad sense or in a narrow sense. Broadly speaking, applied linguistics covers more than the teaching and learning of languages. It includes speech pathology and therapy, translation, machine translation and language policy, etc.. In one word, it includes anything to which linguistics could be applied. Foreign and second language learning and teaching research is a central part of applied linguistics. So narrowly speaking, applied linguistics means the application of linguistics findings to language teaching and learning. It is concerned with approaches to language teachers, with language learning, with syllabus design, with materials development and with the assessment and testing of language learning, with the educational policy in general and language learning and teaching policy in particular of a country.Psycholinguistics----it is a sub-discipline of applied linguistics in abroad sense, but psycholinguistics has become an independent discipline through recent developments. Generally speaking, psycholinguistics studies language in relation to the properties of the human mind. As such it studies the relationship between linguistics behavior and psychological processes that are hypothesized to underlie such behavior. In other words, psycholinguistics studies the mental process that a person uses in producing and understanding language, and how humans learn language. There have beenQuestions:1. Why does the examination of social relationships play a crucial role in applied linguistics?1) The first reason is that in the partial move from linguistics applied to applied linguistics, it has been accepted that the social aspect is essential to all understanding of language in use, that in the specific case of language teaching all formal language learning must take account of the context in which that learning takes place and further-more that the context determines and affects that learning.2) The second reason is that there is noticeable now a loss of confidence in the techniques offered by Cordor and widely used in the 1960s and 1970s as general statements of how to proceed. When talking about the change of applied linguistics practice, Davies (1999) argues that it is a move from the linguistics applied to the applied linguistics models.2. The relation between applied linguistics and second language acquisition.Applied linguistics draws on multidisciplinary theoretical and empirical perspectives o address real world issues and problems in which language is central. SLA draws on multidisciplinary theoretical and empirical perspectives to address the specific issue of how people acquire a second language and eh specific problem of why everyone dose not do so successfully.3. The relationship between psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.Psycholinguistics can or should play a role in applied linguistics. The acquisition and use of a second language seem to be the appropriate chunk of applied linguistics in this context. Thepsycholinguistics interest would be in the processing mechanisms involved in using more than one language and the acquisition of additional languages. The applied linguistics interest would be in understanding why language learners behave the way they do. This interpretation means that multilingual processing can be defined as the intersection or shared by interest across psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.4. The relationship between applied linguistics and linguistics.Linguistics and applied linguistics is inherently a multidisciplinary study, drawing on methodologies and theories from many fields, including archaeology, psychology, anthropology, history, literature, philosophy, sociology, social theory, education, the mathematical sciences and computer science. Thus it has contributions to make to a range of study and professional practice areas. Applied linguistics is doing with the Internalized language, and linguistics is doing with the Externalized language. Applied linguistics is really still linguistics happening to be involved in application, which they may label as applied linguistics. Applied linguistics is just another area, part of linguistics. Linguistics differs from applied linguistics, for linguistics focuses on language, while applied linguistics focuses on language practice. Applied linguistics contains linguistics, applied linguistics and linguistics are automated entities, applied linguistics is part of linguistics.5. The relationship between language and applied linguistics.Applied linguistics maintains a close relationship to language. Language is part of applied linguistics. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, while applied linguistics is an approach to understanding language issues in the real world, and therefore applied linguistics is the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems.6. The sub-field of applied linguisticsApplied linguistics can cover a very large area, such as: language acquisition, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, ethno linguistics, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, text linguistics, etc.. All the sub-branches of linguistics could be called applied linguistics except the theoretical linguistics.Assessments:Assessment of grammar-translation or traditional methodIn spite of the virulent attacks that reformers made, the grammar translation or traditional method has maintained itself remarkably well. As we have already noted in our study of language learning, the first language as a reference system is indeed very important for the second language learner. Therefore, translation in one form or another, or other cross lingual techniques can play a certain part in language learning. Moreover, some learners endeavor to understand the grammatical system of the second language. Hence grammar teaching, too, may have some importance for them. Furthermore, thinking about formal features of the second language and translation as a practice technique put the learner into an active problem-solving situation. In the terms of the basic strategies already set out it forms part of the “academic”(explicit) learning strategy. Finally, grammar- translation appears didactically relatively easy to apply. The major defect of grammar-translation lies in the overemphasis on the language as a mass of rules (and exceptions) and in the limitations of practice techniques which never emancipate the learner from the dominance of the first language. In addition, the sheer size of the task of memorization and the lack of coherence with which the language facts have been presented to the learner invalidate the claim, made in the nineteenth century, that this method provides a safe, easy, and practical entry into a second language.Assessment of the direct methodThe direct method was the first of the methods in which the impetus came both from the inventiveness of a few practitioners and from the critical and theoretical thought about the nature of language learning situation one of language use and to train the learner to abandon the first language as the frame of reference. It demanded inventiveness on the part of teachers and led to the development of new non-translational techniques of language instruction. The use of a text as a basis of language learning, demonstrations of pictures and objects, the emphasis on question and answer, spoken narratives, dictation, imitation, and a host of new types of grammatical exercises have resulted from the direct method. Language pedagogy in the present century, for example, Palmer in the twenties and the audio-lingual and audiovisual methods in the fifties and sixties, adopted many of the techniques first developed by direct method teachers. On the L1-L2 issue, the direct method constitutes a radical attempt to exclude L1 in L2 learning.Two major problems have persistently troubled direct method teaching. One has been how to convey meaning without translating, and how to safeguard against misunderstanding without reference to the first language. Another has been how to apply the direct method beyond elementary stages of language learning. The direct method—has extended the repertoire of language instruction in the early stages of teaching, but has added relatively little to the teaching of advanced learners. In a way, particularly because of the insistence on the use of the second language in classroom communication, the direct method can legitimately be looked upon as a predecessor of present-day …immersion‟ techniques.Assessment of the audio-lingual methodIn the early sixties audiolingualism had raised hopes of ushering in a golden age of language learning. By the end of the decade it became the whipping boy for all that was wrong with language teaching. Its theoretical basis was found to be weak. But also in practical terms its hopes had not been fulfilled. Empirical research did not conclusively establish its superiority, and teachers, using audio-lingual materials and applying the audio-lingual method conscientiously, complained about the lack of effectiveness of the techniques in the long run and the boredom they engendered among students.In view of these criticisms, it is necessary to remind oneself of the major contributions of audiolingualism to language teaching. First, it was among the first theories to recommend the development of a language teaching theory on declared linguistic and psychological principles. Second, it attempted to make language learning accessible to large groups of ordinary learners. In other words, this theory proposed that language teaching should be organized in such a way as not to demand great intellectual feats of abstract reasoning to learn a language. Third, it stressed syntactical progression, while previously methods had tended to be preoccupied with vocabulary and morphology. Fourth, it led to the development of simple techniques, without translation, of varied, graded, and intensive practice of specific features of the language. Last, it developed the separation of the language skills into a pedagogical device. The audio-lingual method introduced specifically designed techniques of auditory and oral practice, while previously oral practice had been simply textbook exercises read aloud, and the sequencing of different language skills had not been treated consistently as pedagogically relevant.1. The oral approach and situational language teaching----Harild Palmer & A.S. Hornby, teacher‟s role is ________________2. The audio-lingual method----Bloomfield, teacher‟s role is the dominator of the whole process.3. Communicative language teaching----Noam Chomsky, the role is the facilitator, participator, needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager.4. Total physical response----James Asher, the role is the instructor of the whole process.5. The silent way----Caleb Gattegno, the role is dramatist.6. Community language learning----Charles A., the role is the counselor.7. The natural way----Tracy Terrell, the role is the provider of the target language, the classroom atmosphere and the rich activities.8. Suggestopedia----Georgi Lozanov, the role is to create situations.Comparing TPR & CLL:Differences:1) At the level of design, TPR typically has a written syllabus with paced introduction of structures and vocabulary; CLL has no syllabus and operates out of what learners feel they need to know.2) At the level of teacher‟s role, in TPR the teachers‟role is one of drill master, director, and motivator; in CLL the teacher/knower is counselor, supporter, and facilitator.3) About the learners, in TPR learners are physically active and mobile; CLL learners are sedentary and in a fixed configuration4) About the relationship, TPR assumes no particular relationship among learners and emphasizes the importance of individuals acting alone; CLL is rooted in a communal relationship between learners and teachers acting supportively and in concert.5) At the level of procedure, TPR language practice is largely mechanical, with much emphasis on listening; CLL language practice if innovative, with emphasis on production.Similarities:1)In approach, both TPR and CLL see stress, defensiveness, and embarrassment as the majorblocks to successful language learning.2)They both see the learners‟commitment, attention, and group participating as central toovercoming these barriers.3)They both view the stages of adult language learning as recapitulations of the stages ofchildhood learning.4)Both CLL and TPR consider mediation, memory, and recall of linguistic elements to be centralissues.5)They both hold that learning is multimodal.6)At the level of design, both of them assumed that materials can be locally produced as needed.。
(完整word版)应用语言学期末考试重点(背了不后悔)(word文档良心出品)
应用语言学重点【概况】●什么是应用语言学？应用语言学：研究语言应用的种种问题的学问。
语言学语言本体研究理论语言学（普通语言学）●1870年波兰语言学家博杜恩·德·库尔特内提出“应用语言学”术语。
●广义应用语言学：应用于各实际领域的语言学。
●狭义应用语言学：专指语言教学，特指外语教学和第二语言教学。
●※应用语言学的研究方法：调查和比较（收集材料方法：访谈法、观察法、问卷法）、定量和定性方法、实验法。
【语言教学】论述简答●什么是语言教学？（上位学科+定义+理解）P351是应用语言学的重要内容。
2是指运用特定方法，将语言知识和相关的理论通过教育者有目的、有计划地传授给学习者，以达到使学习者掌握一门具体语言并用于交际的教学活动，她是教育工作的重要组成部分。
3包括第一语言教学和第二语言教学。
●语言教学基本过程（7个）P39：制定语言教学政策、进行语言教学的总体设计、编写语言教学的教材、师资选拔和培训、课堂教学、语言测试、语言教学研究。
●第一语言：一个人出生后最先接触并获得的语言，一个人的第一语言通常是他的母语。
●母语：1母语就是指父母乃至多代以前一直沿用下来的语言。
母语有继承性，它体现了人们世代的语言关系。
2比如一个汉族儿童自幼所习得的语言就是他祖祖辈辈沿用下来的汉语，汉语就是他的母语，也是他的第一语言。
●第一语言与母语关系：二者是不同概念，第一语言不等于母语，第一语言可能是母语，也可能不是母语。
在内涵上，第一语言的立足点是获得语言的顺序，而母语不完全是获得语言的顺序问题；在外延上，二者所指称的对象是交叉关系。
第一语言是语言学概念，而母语则更多地牵涉到民族学问题。
比如美国华侨，其子女先学英语，他们的第一语言是英语，而不是母语汉语。
●本族语：指语言习得者自己的民族所使用的语言，也称民族语。
●本族语与母语关系：一个人的母语可以是他的本族语，也可以是非本族语，本族语与母语不能完全划等号，母语的专用和本族语的死亡就是很好的证明。
应用语言学概论重点知识整理
应用语言学概论重点知识整理应用语言学概论重点知识整理1．应用语言学的性质即定义：（1）简单的说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同有关方面发生关系的学科。
（2）进一步说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同应用各部分结合部、接触面、包括结合、接触的动态变化的规律性的学科（3）打个比方说，好像一个轴承，一面是语言本体和本体语言学，一面是发生关系的各个方面，两者之间的一个个滚珠是应用语言学的一个个分支学科，他们相互接触、推动还嵌在一里一外的槽里，都跟槽互相接触、推动。
2．为什么有了本体语言学还要有应用语言学？（1）语言是社会现象而非自然现象，语言的发展和使用受到多种因素的影响，语言的有其自身的规律。
（2）我国语言研究主要受到索绪尔的影响，索绪尔的观点是为语言，就语言而研究语言。
但是仅仅从语言本身来研究语言是不够的，没有语言的应用就没有语言，因此还要把语言放在交际中看。
3.为什么说应用语言学有理论？（1）没有人事先提供了完善的语言学理论供应用。
（2）任何应用都包含了下位层次的理论，实践—理论—实践。
（3）语言学之外也有理论，动词的价和化学，无罪推断和法学；规范就是服务和管理学。
（4）梳理了一些理论，交际，动态，层次，中介，潜显，人文性。
4.语言学的新分类：（1）本体语言学（2）应用语言学（3）语言学理论是本体语言学与应用语言的融合提升5.应用语言学的范围：一、从学科范围上看（1）广义的社会语言学，是研究语言本体和本体语言学同社会关系的学科（2）语言规划（3）语言教学（4）计算语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同现代科技的关系的学科二、从队伍建设方面看包括研究机构的建设，刊物的建设，活动的开展，文风和学风的建设，课题和课程设置成果的推广。
6．从标准和地位两个方面说说什么是普通话？标准：即以北方话为基础方言、以北京语音为标准音，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的中华民族共同的通用语言和交际工具。
7.为什么说推广普通话不是消灭方言？（1）推广普通话不是禁绝和消灭方言。
应用语言学复习重点.
一,填空1. 应用语言学是语言学的组成部分,语言学大体可分为本体语言学,理论语言学和应用语言学2. 新词新语的概念定义:指新近出现的词语3. 60年代末,世界上第一个计算机网络——阿帕网4. 对外汉语教学的测试项目有教学过程测试汉语水平测试, 其中 1989年《汉语水平测试》 (HSK 正式开始。
5. 问卷调查方法:表格调查,问卷调查,访问调查,电话调查,文案调查,实地调查等6. 张颂主编的《中国播音学》的问世,宣告了一个新学科的诞生标志着中国播音学的正式诞生。
7. 《新华字典》是我国现代汉语规范的最重要成果。
8. 语言的人文性是语言在发展变化中所表现的文化特性。
二,简答题一, 问卷调查法的三个基本原则:一个问题在什么程度上会影响回答人尽量表现自己? 一个问题在什么程度上会影响回答人通过预测研究者想听什么, 想发现什么而进行不必要的帮忙?一个问题在什么程度上会问一些回答人自己并不确切知道的信息, 或者是自己不大可能了解的信息?问卷调查的效果取决于上述三种考虑。
二, 语言人文性理论三个基本方面:第一, 语言在文化中的反映, 主要指可以通过文化背景或者文化现象来考察语言的一些特点或者变化规律。
它可以分为两个方面一是作为文化的直接产物, 二是作为文化内部的有机组成部分, 与其他因素一起共同促成历史上的文化分化整合及变化。
第二,文化在语言中的反映,指语言作为文化载体,文化总是不断给语言施加影响并且不时地留下痕迹, 是我们能够通过语言的发展历程看到文化的变化轨迹。
第三,在语言与文化互相作用的关系中反映,及语言的一些文化特性同时也是文化的一些语言特性, 二者在现象或者表现形式上有差异,但实质上反映的是相同或者相近的本质或者规律。
三, 简要说明不同时期对普通话的不同称谓:春秋时候孔夫子时代管共同语叫雅言。
雅言以洛阳雅言为标准。
在汉代,共同语有了进一步的发展,当时管共同语叫做通语。
各地讲不同方言的人可以用通语进行交际。
应用语言学考试整理
一、名词解释1、（中文）自动分词：①自动分词是中文信息处理的基础技术之一，是中文词处理阶段的主要任务之一。
②分词就是将连续的字序列按照一定的规范重新组合成词序列的过程。
④在把汉语输入计算机时，计算机接受和存储的是一个个字串，要让计算机自动分出词，就是要把一个个字串变成一个个词串，具体的做法是在每一个词的前后加上空格。
“从小学电脑……”→→“从小学电脑……”⑤中文自动分词大体分为基于字符串匹配的分词方法，基于理解的分词方法，基于统计的分词方法等。
2、汉语语音识别输入：①汉字语音识别输入就是通过“说”和“听”来和计算机交换信息，即利用声音识别技术，抽取汉字的语音特征，实现对汉语语音的自动识别。
②其目的是让计算机“听懂”用汉语语音所表示的汉字信息，以便通过口授将包含有汉字的程序、数据、命令、文稿等送入计算机。
③语音识别输入的优点主要有输入速度快，工作强度低，使用最方便。
3、语言学习：所谓语言学习（Language Learning）就是在儿童习得母语之后，在正式的场合（如课堂）里进行的获得第二语言或外语的过程，这个过程有成有败，和语言习得不同。
4、语言习得：心理语言学家认为，每个人的母语都是在他1岁半至6岁之间，随着发育成长而在周围环境的作用下自然获得的，这就是语言习得（Language Acquisition）。
5、语言能力：语言能力，即“语言”，指的是在人的大脑中形成的一种能够按照本族语的语言规则把声音和意思联系起来的能力，是一套使用语言的规则。
6、语言文字的地位规划：语言文字的地位规划和本体规划是语言规划的两方面内容。
语言文字的地位规划指的是某一国家或地区中，某种语言或文字与其他的语言或文字在地位上的关系，就是决定某种语言或文字在社会交际中的地位。
这种规划，一般要借助于政治的力量来进行，因此，它相当于语言学家诺依斯图蒲里的“政治法”。
语言文字的地位规划主要包括两方面的内容：1）决定某种语言在社会交际中的地位2）决定某种文字在社会交际中的地位。
应用语言学期末知识点整合
应用语言学知识点整合学习选一期谈话类节目，结合该节目分析回答下面问题1、（1）分析访谈节目中主持人语境构成要素。
（2）说明语境构成要素对节目主持人话题选择的制约和影响。
2、分析节目中嘉宾是否遵守合作原则中的四准则。
3、主持人如何遵守和运用礼貌原则的。
※合作原则：“合作原则”是由美国著名语言哲学家格赖斯于1967年在哈佛大学的演讲中提出的。
格赖斯认为，在人们交际过程中，对话双方似乎在有意无意地遵循着某一原则，以求有效地配合从而完成交际任务。
然而，人们在实际言语交际中，并非总是遵守“合作原则”，出于需要，人们会故意违反合作原则。
格赖斯把这种通过表面上故意违反“合作原则”而产生的言外之意称为“特殊会话含义”。
“特殊会话含义”解释了听话人是如何透过说话人话语的表面含义而理解其言外之意的，由此来表达另外一种意思，幽默也就时常在这时产生。
※合作原则又具体体现为四准则A).数量的准则：不要提供交际以外的额外信息或少提供信息、即提供的信息应不多也不少。
B）质量的准则：不要说自知是虚假的话或者提供虚假信息C) 关系准则：a）说与谈话目的相关联的话b）前后话语要关联D)方式准则：a) 说话要清楚、明了，避免晦涩歧义b) 简炼井井有条※礼貌原则：言语交际应遵守的规范，礼貌准则是得体原则的一个重要准则。
20世纪80年代，语言学家利奇比较详细地论述了礼貌原则。
利奇认为礼貌原则下面包括六条准则：1）策略准则：尽量减少对别人的损失、尽量增加对别人的利益；2）宽宏准则：尽量减少对自己的利益、尽量增加对自己的损失；3）赞扬准则：尽量减少对别人的贬低、尽量增加对别人的赞誉；4）谦虚准则：尽量减少对自己赞誉、尽量增大对自己的贬低；5）赞同准则：尽量减少和别人之间的分歧、尽量增大和别人之间的共同点；6）同情准则：尽量减少对别人的反感、尽量增大对别人的同情。
※主持人合作原则的遵守利用主持人遵守合作原则，有助于其提高说话质量，维护现场谈话参与者之间的协作关系，灵活处理各种突发事件，使谈话按照既定目标发展，获得最佳的传播效果。
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第一章应用语言学的含义：研究语言学应用的种种问题的学问。
对应用语言学理解有广义和狭义两种。
狭义应用语言学：专指语言教学，特指外语教学和第二语言教学。
广义应用语言学：是指应用于各种实际领域的语言学，即指语言学知识和研究成果所应用的一切领域和方面，应用语言学所关心的是如何应用语言学的理论、方法和成果来阐释其他应用的领域所遇到的跟语言有关的问题。
应用语言学的特点：1.具有学科的相对独立性；2.具有实用性的特点；3.具有实验性的特点；4.具有综合性特点。
应用语言学学科归属：是语言学的组成部分。
语言学大学科三大分支：一是对语言本体的研究，即专门的语言学或本体语言学。
二是普通语言学或理论语言学、一般语言学，总结各种语言本体研究所形成的对语言问题的一般性认识和基本理论。
三是应用语言学解决语言学在各个实际中的问题。
我国应用语言学研究对象包括语言教学、语言文字规划、词典学、人名学和地名学等传统的研究领域。
1870年波兰语言学家博杜恩·德·库尔特提出要区分纯粹语言学和应用语言学。
首次提出术语“应用语言学”。
20世纪40年代，由于外语教学的发展，人们才开始重视应用语言学的研究。
1946年《语言学习》副标题为“应用语言学杂志”，其一开始主要研究对象就是语言教学，尤其指第二语言教学。
标志应用语言学正式形成学科是1964年第一届国际应用语言学大会（法国）召开和国际应用语言学协会成立。
我国应用语言学萌芽在语言规划上，朝书同文提出词典编篡《说文解字》到《康熙字典》中国应用语言学主要在19世纪晚期之后子和现代语文运动而蓬勃发展的。
以白话文运动、国语统一运动、文字改革、拼音化为标志的现代语文运动开始产生。
20世纪前五十年应用语言学主要是围绕白话文运动和国语统一运动开展的。
1955年10月召开“全国文字改革会议”和”现代汉语规化问题学术会议“尤其重要，标志着我国应用语言学研究进入了一个新的历史阶段，以简化汉字、制订和推行汉语拼音方案、推广普通话三项主要任务为代表的现代语文运动进入了一个新的高潮。
1964年中国文字改革委员会编印了《简化字总表》1965年文化部和文改会发不了《印刷通用汉字字形表》1955年文化部和文改会公布了《第一批异体字整理表》。
这些研究成果奠定了现代汉子的基础，也为汉子规化、标准化、现代化打下了良好的基础。
推广普通话成为50年代文字改革工作或国家语言文字规划的三大任务之一。
1978《现代汉语词典》中国应用语言学形成标志：1984年语言文字应用研究所的成立。
1988年桂诗春《应用语言学》语用所主要任务是研究语言文字应用的实际问题和理论问题，研究文字的规化和标准化。
中国应用语言学另一个里程碑标志1992年应用语言学杂志——《语言文字应用》的创刊。
应用语言学研究方法，收集材料的三种方法：访谈法，观察法，问卷法。
应用语言学的比较分析：事实比较，理论性比较（宏观微观双方面）定量方法也就是计量方法。
定性方法是综合，定量方法是分析，分析是为综合服务的。
定量方法和定性方法都是科学的研究方法。
从事社会科学和人文科学的人比较熟悉性方法，但在社会科学和人文科学中引进数学的方法更体现了当前科学发展中的文理渗透、学科渗透的特点。
抽样统计：就是从一个总体中选取一部分作为样本进行观察。
处理好以下几个方面1.取样围；2.样本的典型性；3.选取合适的抽样方法；4.样本应有足够的数量。
抽样最基本是随机抽样。
试验方法是建立在可计算性原则基础上的，是把计算的理论、模型和人的行为加以比较的重要手段。
试验方法特点：系统性，逻辑性，经验性，简约性，重复性和传递性。
实验的设计：选择课题、提出假设、评论文献、决定变量、操控和控制变量、观察和测量等过程。
实验的实施方案包括：目的与意义；时间与地点；对象；容与指标；试验队伍的确定与培训；实验报告和总结。
第二章语言教学：是指运用特定的方法，将语言知识和相关理论通过教育者有目的的教学活动，它是教育工作的重要组成部分。
另一个重要组成部分就是外族语教学，即第二语言教学。
语言教学目标：就是语言教学的方向，是为了让一个人掌握一门语言，是为了让学习者能够从听说读写诸方面掌握一种语言的知识容，并且具备得体而有效的使用该语言的能力。
语言教学类型：容（第一语言教学和第二语言教学）；性质（常规教学和业余教学）；时限（长期教学短期教学）；组织形式（班级教学和个别教学）；年龄（儿童教学和成人教学）；程度（初级、中级、和高级阶段教学）语言教学基本过程：制订语言教学政策；进行语言教学的总体设计；编写语言教学的教材；师资选拔和培训；课堂教学；语言测试；语言教学研究。
（团体学习法，默教法）第一语言：第一语言是指一个人出生之后最先接触并获得的语言。
比如一个儿童出生之后最先接触并获得了英语，英语就成为了他的第一语言。
一个人的第一语言通常是他的母语。
母语：就是指父母乃至多代之前一直沿用下来的语言。
母语具有继承性，体现人们世代的语言关系。
一个人从小接触并获得的第一语言一般都是从父母一辈习得的，他继承了前辈的语言，即“母语”。
二者概念不同，第一语言可能是母语，也可能不是母语，就多数人而言母语是人们的第一语言。
二者关系十分密切，但第一语言不等同于母语。
本族语：是指语言习得者自己民族所使用的语言，也称民族语。
一般来说，每个民族都有自己独立的语言，如汉族汉语，维吾尔族维吾尔语，俄罗斯族俄语。
一个人儿时从父母那里习得本民族语言的时候，其第一语言和本族语是一致的；但一个人儿时从父母或者当地社团那里习得外族语言，这时第一语言非本族语，于是出现了第一语言与本族语分离的现象。
本族语与母语的关系，其实一个人的母语可以是他的本族语，也可以是非本族语，本族与母语之间也不能完全画等号，母语的专用和本族语的死亡就是很好的证明。
第一语言教学通常是本族语教学或母语教学，它主要是指儿童习得第一语言之后有意识地继续学习第一语言而进行的正规的学校课堂教学活动。
第一语言的获得：大致分为两个阶段，第一阶段是早期的潜意识的语言习得；第二个阶段是入学后在课堂上的有意识地语言学习。
习得：没有非常明确的语言学习意识获得，通常称为“习得”。
学习：在课堂教学环境中有专门老师指导，严格按照教学大纲和教材，通过讲练等环节有计划、有系统、有意识地去获得，通常称为“学习”或“学得”。
第一语言教学主要特点：学习者有一定语言基础，已经具备基本运用该语言进行交际的能力；时间充裕，有很好的语言环境，练习实践机会多；学生与教师之间不存在语言障碍；教学更注重语言形式；掌握文化主要靠习得，在这里学习语文教学有很大作用，学生通过学习语文，既能掌握语言知识，提高语言运用能力，又能够学习文化，并从中受到道德教育。
第二语言：是指一个人掌握了第一语言之后所学的另一种或多种其他语言。
第一语言和第二语言是按照语言学习的先后顺序来划分的，先习得并掌握的是第一语言，后习得或学得的语言不管多少种都统称为第二语言。
目的语：是指人们正在学习并希望通过学习获得的任何语言。
第二语言的学习通常是目的语的学习，但第二语言不等同于目的语。
在语言教学过程中无论是外语还是非本族语，甚至是母语，只要是学习者希望掌握的语言，都可以称之为目的语。
外语：是指外国的语言。
外语属于第二语言，但第二语言却不一定都是外语，二者所指围不同。
第二语言与外语之间是包容关系，第二语言所指围要比外语广，既包括外语，又包括本国其他民族语言等。
人们获得第一语言以自然习得为主，获得第二语言以学习为主。
获得第二语言一般比第一语言难度大。
在第二语言学习过程中学习动机十分重要，可以说动机是学习过程中的决定性因素和催化剂。
第二语言教学：是与第一语言教学相对应的概念，通常是指人们在习得掌握第一语言后，在学校环境里进行的正规学习其他语言的教学活动。
第二语言教学包括“教”和“学”两个方面。
第二语言教学研究，既要研究“教”又要研究“学”。
“教”包括课堂组织、课堂教学技巧、教材的编写、成绩测试等；“学”包括学习者的心理和学习的规律等。
第二语言教学特点：1）第二语言教学主要是以培养学习者运用目的语的交际能力为目标2）以技能训练为中心，通过大量练习和反复实践将语言知识转化为技能3）以集中进行强化训练为主要教学形式。
其学习者多为成人，要较短时间掌握目的语，需要课程集中，容密集，进度较快，班级规模较小相对。
4）重视基础阶段教学，为进一步学习目的语打下坚实基础。
5）注重语言教学对比，通过目的语与母语的对比，确定教学的重难点。
6）重视母语对目的语的迁移7）更加注重文化教学。
第二语言教学特点会影响到第二语言教学容、方法和教学原则等的确定。
第二语言教学与第一语言教学的“教”与“学”存在某些共性，共同点主要表现在两大方面：1.从教的方面来看都要讲述基本语言规律，都要培养学生听说读写的能力和对语言规律的概括能力；教学容都包括语音、词汇、语法三个语言要素和语用规则、言语技能以及相关的文化知识；教学步骤都有预习、讲解、答疑、练习和巩固等几个环节；教学过程都是由易到难、由浅到深、循序渐进；教学方式上都会有实物展示、课堂提问、课堂讨论等；课堂上都要注意趣味性和情感性，提高学生的学习兴趣，增强学生的自信心。
2.从学的方面来看都是为了获得语言的交际能力；存在某些相同的学习策略；学生都要掌握基本语言规律；学习大体上都要经过感知理解模仿、记忆、巩固和应用阶段；二者都是有意义的学习，而不应是脱离意义的机械性的操练。
第二语言教学与第一语言教学的差异不同点有以下几个方面：1.教学起点不同。
第二语言是真正意义上的零起点教学，培养学生从最基础的语言知识开始。
第一语言教学则是学习者入学时已经基本具备运用该语言进行交际的能力，不需要从从最基本的开始教，则是主要培养学生的读写能力，进一步提高学生的表达能力以及运用语言交际能力。
2.学习者学习动机不同。
第二语言学习者都有自己学习第二语言的某种动机，学习者动机不同，对其掌握语言运用的技能水平要求也不一样。
而第一语言习得则是为了应付生活环境的需要，正常儿童都能学会的语言。
3.教学环境氛围不同。
第一语言教学是在母语的自然环境氛围中进行的，不存在语言交流障碍。
第二语言教学缺乏自然语言环境，教师与学生、学生与学生之间往往存在着语言交流障碍。
4.受其他语言的影响不同。
第一语言教学中，学习者不受其他语言的影响，不存在语言迁移问题。
而第二语言是要受到第一语言或其他第二语言迁移作用的影响，在第二语言教学中，学习者的第一语言习惯会对第二语言的学习产生迁移作用。
两种语言结构特征相似容易产生正迁移，两种差异容易产生负迁移。
5.文化对语言教学的影响不同。
语言本身是一种文化现象，又是文化和信息的重要载体。
6.教学对象不同。
第一语言的教育对象为本国的儿童，年龄不大善于模仿，有着共同的文化背景；而第二语言的教学对象围广，已成年人为主，认知能力和抽象能力都已经大大发展，有较强的理解能力，自我控制能力强，注意力容易集中，但记忆和模仿能力相对较差。