Semantics_语义学

Semantics
1. What is Semantics?
Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科
2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:
①Conceptual meaning概念意义
②Connotative meaning内涵意义
③Social meaning社会意义
④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）
⑤Reflected meaning反射意义
⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义
⑦Thematic meaning主位意义
3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义)is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系
Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.
4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the word
Associative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.
5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的
6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）：
① The Referential Theory
② The Semantic Triangle
③ Sense and Reference
7.The referential theory指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论
8. The semantic triangle语意三角 is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的
9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.
10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.
11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it represents
Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.
12. Sense Relations涵义关系
①Synonymy（同义关系）
②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）
③Hyponymy（上下义关系）
13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.
14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) 、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)
15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.
16. Sentence Meaning
17. Sense relations between sentences
①Synonymity (同义)
a. He was a bachelor all his life.
b. He never married all his boy.
Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence
②Inconsistency(矛盾)
a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.
b. Elizabeth II is a man.
Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.
③Entailment (蕴涵)
a. He married a blonde heiress.
b. He married a blonde.
Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.
④Presupposition(前提预设)
It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.
⑤Contradiction(矛盾)
⑥Semantic anomaly(语义反常)
18. An integrated theory
﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.
﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics
﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules
﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words
﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.
19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）
﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.
﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.
﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.。