心理英语整理笔记3-4

CHAPTER 3 Cognitive Psychology1 . PerceptionA . Visual perceptual organizationa.Perception is the process of interpreting and organising the environmental information received by the senses.b.Visual perceptual organizationFor visual perception, this involves taking the constantly fluctuating patterns of light which arrive from all over the environment, upside-down, onto our two-dimensional retinas and detecting the shape of objects in the environment; Establishing location in three-dimensional space; Recognizing an object in terms of its shape, size, brightness and colour.c.Perceptual Organization: Gestalt(1)Visual Capture:tendency for vision to dominate the other senses.(2)Gestalt -- an organized whole tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.(3)Grouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.Grouping Principles:Proximity -- group nearby figures togetherSimilarity -- group figures that are similarContinuity -- perceive continuous patternsClosure -- fill in gapsConnectedness -- spots, lines, and areas are seen as unit when connectedd.Top-down theories of perception(1)Sometimes referred to as constructivist theories, these theories stress the factors in the construction of reality that go beyond the information received from the senses.(2)Gregory’s theory and perceptual set theory regard perception as a very active process, whereby the individual’s past knowledge, expectations and stereotypes seek out sensory data to ‘complete the picture’.(3)Perceptual Constancyperceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal image change.(color,shape ,size)(4) Illusions(5) Perceptual Set: Schemase.Bottom-up theories of percption(1)These theories emphasise the richness of the information entering theeye and the way that perception can occur from using all the information available.(2)Gibson believes perception occurs directly from sensation, feature detection theories examine the processes involved in assembling perception from sensations.f.The development of perceptionDepth Perception: ability to see objects in three dimensions; allows us to judge distance.Binocular cues:retinal disparity,images from the two eyes differ; closer the object, the larger the disparity.Convergence: neuromuscular cue; two eyes move inward for near objects. Monocular Cuesrelative size: smaller image is more distantInterposition: closer object blocks distant objectrelative clarity: hazy object seen as more distantTexture: coarse --> close; fine --> distantrelative motion: closer objects seem to move fasterlinear perspective: parallel lines converge with distancerelative brightness: closer objects appear brighter2 . AttentionA. Definition: The focusing and concentration of mental effort thatusually results in conscious awareness of certain aspects of external sensory stimuli or mental experiences(although most study has focused on the former).B. Some studies have looked at focused or selective attention – how certain stimuli are selected over others through allocating attention.Other studies have looked at divided attention – how, within a limited capacity, attention can be allocated to more than one task at a time(Research has shown that if tasks are practised enough, they become automatic, need less attention, and can be successfully performed with other tasks).3 . MemoryA.Memory:persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information.B.Flashbulb Memory:a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or eventC.Memory as Information Processinga. Encoding:the processing of information into the memory system. i.e.,extracting meaning.b.Storage:the retention of encoded information over time.c.Retrieval:process of getting information out of memory.D.Sensory Memory:the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system.E.Working Memory:focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information.G.Short-Term Memory:activated memory that holds a few items briefly, look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten.H.Long-Term Memory:the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory systemI.A Simplified Memory ModelEncoding EncodingLong-termmemoryShort-termmemorySensorymemorySensorymemorySensory input attention to important Retrievingor novel informationa. Encoding:Automatic Processing and Effortful Processing(1)Automatic Processing:unconscious encoding of incidental information(Space, time, frequency);well-learned information(word meanings);we can learn automatic processing(reading backwards)(2)Effortful Processing:requires attention and conscious effort.(3)Rehearsal:conscious repetition of information.(to maintain it in consciousness ;to encode it for storage)(4)Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables:the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2.(5)Spacing Effect:distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice.b.What Do We Encode?(1) Semantic Encoding:encoding of meaning, including meaning of words.(2) Acoustic Encoding:encoding of sound, especially sound of words(3)Visual Encoding:encoding of picture images.(4)Imagery:mental pictures, a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.(5)Mnemonics:memory aids ,especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices .(6)Chunking:organizing items into familiar, manageable units,like horizontal organization--1776149218121941(often occurs automatically);use of acronyms;Organized information is more easily recalled;(7)Hierarchies:complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.Encoding(automaticor effortful)OrganizationMeaning(semanticEncoding)Imagery(visualEncoding)ChunksHierarchiesb. Storage: Retaining Information(1) Iconic Memory:a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli;a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second.(2)Echoic Memory:momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.(3)Short-Term Memory :limited in duration and capacity;“magical”number 7+/-2(4)Long-Term MemoryⅠ.Synaptic changes:increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.Ⅱ.Strong emotions make for stronger memories:some stress hormones boost learning and retention.Ⅲ.Explicit Memory:memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare;also called declarative memory;hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.Ⅳ.Implicit Memory :retention independent of conscious recollection;also called procedural memory.c. Retrieval(1)retrievalⅠ.Recall:measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier,as on a fill-in-the-blank test.Ⅱ.Recognition:Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned ,as on a multiple-choice test.Ⅲ .Relearning:memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time.Ⅳ. Priming:activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.(2) Retrieval CuesⅠ.Deja Vu (French)--already seen:cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.Ⅱ.Mood-congruent Memory:tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood ;memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues.State-dependent Memory-----what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same stateⅢ .After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context.d. Forgetting(1) Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.(2)As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it.(3)Amnesia--the loss of memory(4)Forgetting as encoding failure:Information never enters the long-term memory. Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time.(5)Forgetting as retrival failure:Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory.(6)Interference:Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information.Ⅰ.Proactive (forward acting) Interference:disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information.Ⅱ.Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference:disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information.Ⅲ .Motivated Forgettingpeople unknowingly revise memoriesⅣ.Repressiondefense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety - arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.(7)Memory ConstructionⅠ.We filter information and fill in missing pieces.Misinformation Effect and Source AmnesiaⅡ.Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questionedJ . Improve Your Memory(1)Study repeatedly to boost recall.(2)Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material.(3)Make material personally meaningful.(4)Use mnemonic devices: associate with peg （标记性） words--something already stored;make up story;chunk--acronyms.(5)Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood(6)Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation(7)Minimize interference(8)Test your own knowledge:rehearse;determine what you do not yet know.CHAPTER 3 Developmental Psychology1 . Prenatal Development and the NewbornA . Rooting Reflextendency to open mouth, and search for nipple when touched on the cheek B. Preferencesa. human voices and facesb.smell and sound of motherC. Habituationdecreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulationD. Having habituated to the old stimulus, newborns preferred gazing at a new one.2. Infancy and Childhood:A. Physical Developmenta.Maturation(1)biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior.(2)relatively uninfluenced by experience.b.Babies only 3 months old can learn that kicking moves a mobile--and can retain that learning for a monthB . Cognitive Developmenta. Schemaa concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.b. Assimilationinterpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas.c. Accommodationadapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.d. CognitionAll the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.e.Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentTypical Age Range Description of Stage Developmental PhenomenaBirth to nearly 2 years SensorimotorExperiencing the world throughsenses and actions (looking,Object permanence Stranger anxietytouching, mouthing)About 2 to 6 years PreoperationalRepresenting thingswith words and imagesbut lacking logical reasoning Pretend play Egocentrism Language developmentAbout 7 to 11 years Concrete operationalThinking logically about concreteevents; grasping concrete analogiesand performing arithmeticaloperations Conservation Mathematical transformationsAbout 12 through adulthood Formal operationalAbstract reasoningAbstract logicPotential for moral reasoning(1)Object Permanencethe awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.(2)Baby MathematicsShown a numerically impossible outcome, infants stare longer(3)Conservationthe principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.(4)Egocentrismthe inability of the preoperational child to take another’s point of view. (5)Theory of Mindpeople’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict. (6) AutismMarked by deficient communication, social interaction and understanding of others’ states of mind.C . Social Developmenta. Stranger Anxiety(1)fear of strangers that infants commonly display.(2)beginning by about 8 months of age.b. Attachment(1)an emotional tie with another person.(2)shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and displaying distress on separation.c. Harlow’s Surrogate Mother ExperimentsMonkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even whilefeeding from the nourishing wire mother.d. Critical Periodan optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.e. Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were terror-stricken when placed in strange situations without their surrogate mothers.f. Imprintingthe process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life.h. Basic Trust (Erik Erikson)(1)a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy(2)said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregiversi. Self-Concepta sense of one’s identity and personal worthAddition: Child-Rearing Practices①Authoritarian: parents impose rules and expect obedience②Permissive:submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use little punishment③Authoritative:both demanding and responsive;set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open discussion3. AdolescenceTips: Adolescence-----the transition period from childhood to adulthood.extending from puberty（青春期）to independencePuberty-----the period of sexual maturation.when a person becomes capable of reproduction.Throughout childhood, boys and girls are similar in height. At puberty, girls surge ahead briefly, but then boys overtake them at about age 14. A. Kohlberg’s Moral LadderPostconventional level Morality of abstract principles: to affirm agreed-upon rightsand personal ethical principles.Conventional level Morality of law and social rules: to gain approval or avoiddisapproval.Preconventional level Morality of self-interest: to avoid punishment or gainconcrete rewards.B . Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial DevelopmentApproximate age Stage Description of Task Infancy(1st year) Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infantsdevelop a sense of basic trust.Toddler(2nd year)Autonomy vs. Shame anddoubt Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities.Preschooler(3-5 years)Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasksand carry out plans, or they feel guiltyabout efforts to be independent.Elementary(6 years-puberty)Competencevs. inferiorityChildren learn the pleasure ofapplying themselves to tasks, or theyfeel inferior.Adolescence(teens into 20’s)Identity vs. RoleconfusionTeenagers work at refining a sense ofself by testing roles and thenintegrating them to form a singleidentity, or they become confusedabout who they are.Young Adult(20’s to early 40’s)Intimacyvs. isolationYoung adults struggle to form closerelation-ships and to gain the capacityfor intimate love, or they feel sociallyisolated.Middle Adult (40’s to 60’s)Generativityvs. stagnationThe middle-aged discover a sense ofcontri-buting to the world, usuallythrough family and work, or they mayfeel a lack of purpose.Late Adult (late 60’s and up)Integrity vs.despair When reflecting on his or her life, theolder adult may feel a sense ofsatisfaction or failure.C . Social Developmenta. Identity: one’s sense of self. the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.b .Intimacy: the ability to form close, loving relationships. a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.c. The changing parent-child relationship: dwindle per years.4. AdulthoodA. Physical Developmenta. The Aging Senses: vision ,smell ,and identifying spoken words aredecreasing per years .b. Slowing reactions contribute to increased accident risks among those 75 and older.c. Incidence of Dementia by AgeRisk of dementia increases in later years .B. Cognitive Developmenta. Recalling new names introduced once, twice, or three times is easier foryounger adults than for older ones .b. the ability to recall new information declined during early and middle adulthood, but the ability to recognize new information did not.c. Cross-Sectional Study:a study in which people of different ages are compared with one anotherd. Longitudinal Study: a study in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.e. Verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age, while nonverbal intelligence scores decline .f. Crystallized Intelligence:one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills .Tends to increase with age .Fluid Intelligence: ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly .Tends to decrease during late adulthood .C. Social Developmenta. Social Clock: the culturally preferred timing of social events ,such asmarriage ,parenthood ,retirementb .Multinational surveys show that age differences in life satisfaction are trivial .。