An annotated corpus in Japanese using Tesnière’s structural syntax

合集下载

Reading-skill---TOPICS-AND-MAIN-IDEAS解读

The author has a reason for writing the passage: the author want to present an argument, to convey an attitude, to express an idea, or to give information.
The Topics:
Love to us human is what water to fish. Love shines the most beautiful light of humanity, we born in it, we live by it. Too often we take it as granted, but we should know love is a priceless gift we should cherish. But how to cherish the love? I have heard a saying :the quickest way to receive love is to give it; the fastest way to lose love is to hold it too tightly the best way to keep love is to give it wings.
我们都知道这木桩的位置，所以可以踩着桩子过去。你怎么不问一声呢”？学历代表过去，只有学习力才能代表将来。敬重阅历的人，才能少走弯路。
Reading skill: Distinguishing Topic from Main idea
Please turn to page 141 Read and answer the questions.
Often writers express the main idea of a paragraph in a topic sentence. If a topic sentence has been included in a paragraph, it is usually the most general statement. The rest of the sentences are usually more specific, supporting the general statement or main idea expressed in the topic sentence by giving detail and explanation. Usually the writer places the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph, but it can come in the middle or the end.

有关日本名字的英语作文

Japanese names, or namae, are an integral part of Japanese culture and carry significant historical and social implications. Unlike Western names, where the given name typically precedes the surname, Japanese names are structured with the family name surname followed by the given name. This order is not just a linguistic preference but also a reflection of the importance placed on family lineage in Japanese society.The Structure of Japanese Names1. Family Name Surname 姓 seishi: This is the first part of a Japanese name and represents the family lineage. It is shared by all members of a family and is passed down from generation to generation.2. Given Name 名 mei: This is the second part of the name and is given to individuals within the family. Given names often carry specific meanings or wishes for the individuals future.Naming ConventionsKanji Usage: Japanese names are often written using kanji characters, which can have multiple pronunciations. The choice of kanji can influence the names meaning and the impression it gives.Gender Distinctions: While not a strict rule, certain kanji are more commonly used for male names otokonamae and others for female names onnanamae.Name Giving: Names are typically given at birth, with considerations for auspicious meanings, ease of pronunciation, and the balance of the kanjis yin and yang elements.Cultural SignificanceRespect and Formality: In Japan, addressing someone by their full name can be a sign of respect, especially when using the family name first. This is common in formal settings and professional environments.Name Days: Some Japanese names are associated with specific days of the year, known as name days or nama no hi, which are celebrated as personal holidays.Name Changes: Traditionally, upon marriage, a woman would adopt her husbands family name. However, societal norms are evolving, and couples now have the option tochoose whether to hyphenate or keep their separate names.Examples of Japanese NamesMakoto 真琴: A unisex name meaning sincerity or truth.Akira 明: A male name meaning bright or intelligent.Yuki 雪: A name for both genders meaning snow.Sakura 桜: A female name meaning cherry blossom.ConclusionUnderstanding Japanese names provides insight into the cultural values and traditions of Japan. The structure, conventions, and meanings behind these names reveal the importance of family, respect, and individual identity within Japanese society. As globalization continues to blend cultures, the appreciation and understanding of naming practices like those in Japan enrich our global community.。

语料库

Background Information语料库的概念语料库是指按照一定的语言学规则，利用随机抽样的方法收集的有代表性的语言材料的总汇，它是语言材料的样本。

语料库通常指为语言研究机构收集的，具有一定容量的大型电子文本语料库。

它是由口语语料和书面语的样本汇集而成，用来代表特定的语言或语言变体，或经过加工后带有语言学信息标注的文本的集合。

语料库的分类按照语料库所涉及的语言种类，语料库课分为单语语料库，双语平行语料库(parallel corpus)和多语语料库(multilingual corpus)；按照语言涉及的题材，语料库可分为普通语料库(general corpus)和专门用途语料库(specialized corpus)；按语料的来源，又可分为口语语料库和书面语语料库；按语料库是否被标注，语料库可分为生语料库或原始语料库(raw corpus)和熟语料库或标注语料库(annotated corpus)In linguistics, a corpus (plural corpora) or text corpus is a large and structured set of texts (now usually electronically stored and processed). They are used to do statistical analysis and hypothesis testing, checking occurrences or validating linguistic rules on a specific universe.A corpus may contain texts in a single language (monolingual corpus) or text data in multiple languages (multilingual corpus). Multilingual corpora that have been specially formatted for side-by-side comparison are called aligned parallel corpora. In order to make the corpora more useful for doing linguistic research, they are often subjected to a process known as annotation. An example of annotating a corpus ispart-of-speech tagging, or POS-tagging, in which information about each word's part of speech (verb, noun, adjective, etc.) is added to the corpusin the form of tags. Another example is indicating the lemma (base) form of each word. When the language of the corpus is not a working language of the researchers who use it, interlinear glossing is used to make the annotation bilingual.Terminology:双语或多语语料库Bilingual or multilingual corpus机器翻译技术machine translation technology双语词典编纂技术bilingual lexicography technique跟踪研究工作follow-up study设计、采集、编码和管理design, collection, coding and managementTranslation Version：关于双语或多语语料库的研究目前大致可分为三类：The research on bilingual or multilingual corpus can be divided into three categories currently:一是研究双语语料的对齐技术（Alignment），国内外学者就此提出多种策略和方法，现在已经出现了许多对齐双语或多语语料的程序或工具；First is the study of bilingual corpus alignment technology .The scholars at home and abroad propose various strategies and methods about it. There have been a lot of procedures or tools of bilingual or multilingual corpus alignment at present.二是研究双语语料的各种应用，如在基于统计的机器翻译技术、基于实例的机器翻译技术，双语词典编纂技术中，双语语料库都发挥着十分重要的作用；Second is the all kinds of applications on the research of bilingual corpus . For example, bilingual corpus play an important role in the statistics-based machine translation technology, example-based machine translationtechnology and bilingual lexicography technique.三是双语语料库的设计、采集、编码和管理问题。

Annotating_a_Corpus

(Nelson, 1996:51)

TEI: Text Encoding Initiative
– Core tagsets (a series of tags, such as those associated
with file headers or paragraph divisions, available for insertion in any document) – Base tagsets (a series of tags associated with particular kinds of texts, such as verse, drama, or transcribed speech) – Additional tagsets (any tags the user wishes to add to the core and base tagsets already in a document
Corpora using TEI: BNC /bin/tei-tocsp3?div=DIV1&id=SG

XML: Extensible Markup Language
– Corpora using XML: ANC (American National
料库的各个组成部分如词语、语音单位、从句等进行分类，并以这些类型为基础进行搜索和统计处理）(Hunston,
2002:79)
There are three types of annotation:
External Markup 外部标注
Corpus Annotation 语料库标注
Internal Markup 内部标注 Textual Annotation 文本标注

日本审美 Japanese Aesthetics

Suggestion
Haiku is a traditional Japanese verse form, notable for its compression and suggestiveness. In three lines totaling seventeen syllables measuring 5-7-5, a great haiku presents, through imagery drawn from intensely careful observation, a web of associated ideas (renso) requiring an active mind on the part of the listener. The form emerged during the 16th century and was developed by the poet Basho (1644-1694) into a refined medium of Buddhist and Taoist symbolism. Look beyond the hyperbole of either observation, and there is a powerful element of truth. Traditionally and ideally, a haiku presents a pair of contrasting images, one suggestive of time and place, the other a vivid but fleeting observation. Working together, they evoke mood and emotion. The poet does not comment on the connection but leaves the synthesis of the two images for the reader to perceive.

The Proposition Bank An Annotated Corpus of Semantic Roles

The Proposition Bank:An AnnotatedCorpus of Semantic RolesMartha Palmer∗Daniel GildeaUniversity of Pennsylvania University of RochesterPaul KingsburyUniversity of PennsylvaniaThe Proposition Bank project takes a practical approach to semantic representation,adding a layer of predicate-argument information,or semantic role labels,to the syntactic structures of the Penn Treebank.The resulting resource can be thought of as shallow,in that it does not represent coreference,quantiﬁcation,and many other higher-order phenomena,but also broad, in that it covers every instance of every verb in the corpus and allows representative statistics to be calculated.We discuss the criteria used to deﬁne the sets of semantic roles used in the annotation pro-cess,and analyze the frequency of syntactic/semantic alternations in the corpus.We describe an automatic system for semantic role tagging trained on the corpus,and discuss the effect on its performance of various types of information,including a comparison of full syntactic parsing with aﬂat representation,and the contribution of the empty“trace”categories of the Treebank.1.IntroductionRobust syntactic parsers,made possible by new statistical techniques(Ratnaparkhi, 1997;Collins,1999;Collins,2000;Bangalore and Joshi,1999;Charniak,2000)and by the availability of large,hand-annotated training corpora(Marcus,Santorini,and Marcin-kiewicz,1993;Abeill´e,2003),have had a major impact on theﬁeld of natural language processing in recent years.However,the syntactic analyses produced by these parsers are a long way from representing the full meaning of the sentence.As a simple example, in the sentences:(1)John broke the window.(2)The window broke.a syntactic analysis will represent the window as the verb’s direct object in theﬁrst sen-tence and its subject in the second,but does not indicate that it plays the same under-lying semantic role in both cases.Note that both sentences are in the active voice,and that this alternation between transitive and intransitive uses of the verb does not always occur,for example,in the sentences:(3)The sergeant played taps.(4)The sergeant played.the subject has the same semantic role in both uses.The same verb can also undergo syntactic alternation,as in:∗Department of Computer and Information Science,University of Pennsylvania,3330Walnut Street, Philadelphia,PA19104.Email:mpalmer@c Association for Computational LinguisticsComputational Linguistics Volume XX,Number X(5)Taps played quietly in the background.and even in transitive uses,the role of the verb’s direct object can differ:(6)The sergeant played taps.(7)The sergeant played a beat-up old bugle.Alternation in the syntactic realization of semantic arguments is widespread,affect-ing most English verbs in some way,and the patterns exhibited by speciﬁc verbs vary widely(Levin,1993).The syntactic annotation of the Penn Treebank makes it possible to identify the subjects and objects of verbs in sentences such as the above examples. While the Treebank provides semantic function tags such as temporal and locative for certain constituents(generally syntactic adjuncts),it does not distinguish the different roles played by a verb’s grammatical subject or object in the above examples.Because the same verb used with the same syntactic subcategorization can assign different se-mantic roles,roles cannot be deterministically added to the Treebank by an automatic conversion process with100%accuracy.Our semantic role annotation process begins with a rule-based automatic tagger,the output of which is then hand-corrected(see Section4for details).The Proposition Bank aims to provide a broad-coverage hand annotated corpus of such phenomena,enabling the development of better domain-independent language understanding systems,and the quantitative study of how and why these syntactic al-ternations take place.We deﬁne a set of underlying semantic roles for each verb,and annotate each occurrence in the text of the original Penn Treebank.Each verb’s roles are numbered,as in the following occurrences of the verb offer from our data: (8)...[Arg0the company]to...offer[Arg1a15%to20%stake][Arg2to the public].(wsj0345)1(9)...[Arg0Sotheby’s]...offered[Arg2the Dorrance heirs][Arg1a money-backguarantee](wsj1928)(10)...[Arg1an amendment]offered[Arg0by Rep.Peter DeFazio]...(wsj0107)(11)...[Arg2Subcontractors]will be offered[Arg1a settlement]...(wsj0187)We believe that providing this level of semantic representation is important for ap-plications including information extraction,question answering,and machine transla-tion.Over the past decade,most work in theﬁeld of information extraction has shifted from complex rule-based systems designed to handle a wide variety of semantic phe-nomena including quantiﬁcation,anaphora,aspect and modality(e.g.Alshawi(1992)), to more robustﬁnite-state or statistical systems(Hobbs et al.,1997;Miller et al.,1998). These newer systems rely on a shallower level of semantic representation,similar to the level we adopt for the Proposition Bank,but have also tended to be very domain speciﬁc.The systems are trained and evaluated on corpora annotated for semantic rela-tions pertaining to,for example,corporate acquisitions or terrorist events.The Proposi-tion Bank(PropBank)takes a similar approach in that we annotate predicates’semantic roles,while steering clear of the issues involved in quantiﬁcation and discourse-level structure.By annotating semantic roles for every verb in our corpus,we provide a more domain-independent resource,which we hope will lead to more robust and broad-coverage natural language understanding systems.1Example sentences drawn from the Treebank corpus are identiﬁed by theﬁle in which they occur. Made-up examples usually feature“John.”2The Proposition Bank Palmer et al.The Proposition Bank focuses on the argument structure of verbs,and provides a complete corpus annotated with semantic roles,including roles traditionally viewed as arguments and as adjuncts.The Proposition Bank allows us for theﬁrst time to determine the frequency of syntactic variations in practice,the problems they pose for natural language understanding,and the strategies to which they may be susceptible.We begin the paper by giving examples of the variation in the syntactic realization of semantic arguments and drawing connections to previous research into verb alternation behavior.In Section3we describe our approach to semantic role annotation,including the types of roles chosen and the guidelines for the annotators.Section4compares our PropBank methodology and choice of semantic role labels to those of another semantic annotation project,FrameNet.We conclude the paper with a discussion of several pre-liminary experiments we have performed using the PropBank annotations,and discuss the implications for natural language research.2.Semantic Roles and Syntactic AlternationOur work in examining verb alternation behavior is inspired by previous research into the linking between semantic roles and syntactic realization,in particular the com-prehensive study of Levin(1993).Levin argues that the syntactic frames are a direct reﬂection of the underlying semantics;the sets of syntactic frames associated with a particular Levin class reﬂect underlying semantic components that constrain allowable arguments.On this principle,Levin deﬁnes verb classes based on the ability of the verb to occur or not occur in pairs of syntactic frames that are in some sense meaning-preserving(diathesis alternations).The classes also tend to share some semantic compo-nent.For example,the previous break examples are related by a transitive/intransitive alternation called the causative/inchoative alternation.Break,and verbs such as shatter and smash,are also characterized by their ability to appear in the middle construction, as in Glass breaks/shatters/smashes easily.Cut,a similar change-of-state verb,seems to share in this syntactic behavior,and can also appear in the transitive(causative)as well as the middle construction,John cut the bread,This loaf cuts easily.However,it cannot also occur in the simple intransitive:The window broke/*The bread cut.In contrast,cut verbs can occur in the conative:John valiantly cut/hacked at the frozen loaf,but his knife was too dull to make a dent in it,whereas break verbs cannot:*John broke at the window.The explanation given is that cut describes a series of actions directed at achieving the goal of separating some object into pieces.These actions consist of grasping an instrument with a sharp edge such as a knife,and applying it in a cutting fashion to the object.It is possible for these actions to be performed without the end result being achieved,but where the cutting manner can still be recognized,i.e.,John cut at the loaf.Where break is concerned,the only thing speciﬁed is the resulting change of state where the object becomes separated into pieces.VerbNet(Kipper,Dang,and Palmer,2000;Kipper,Palmer,and Rambow,2002)ex-tends Levin’s classes by adding an abstract representation of the syntactic frames for each class with explicit correspondences between syntactic positions and the semantic roles they express,as in Agent REL Patient,or Patient REL into pieces for break.2(For other extensions of Levin see also(Dorr and Jones,2000;Korhonen,Krymolowsky,and Marx,2003)).The original Levin classes constitute theﬁrst few levels in the hierarchy, with each class subsequently reﬁned to account for further semantic and syntactic dif-ferences within a class.The argument list consists of thematic labels from a set of20 2These can be thought of as a notational variant of Tree Adjoining Grammar elementary trees or Tree Adjoining Grammar partial derivations(Kipper,Dang,and Palmer,2000).3Computational Linguistics Volume XX,Number X possible such labels(Agent,Patient,Theme,Experiencer,etc.).The syntactic frames rep-resent a mapping of the list of thematic labels to deep-syntactic arguments.Additional semantic information for the verbs is expressed as a set(i.e.,conjunction)of semantic predicates,such as motion,contact,transfer info.Currently,all Levin verb classes have been assigned thematic labels and syntactic frames and over half the classes are com-pletely described,including their semantic predicates.In many cases,the additional information that VerbNet provides for each class has caused it to subdivide,or use in-tersections of,Levin’s original classes,adding an additional level to the hierarchy(Dang et al.,1998).We are also extending the coverage by adding new classes(Korhonen and Briscoe,2004).Our objective with the Proposition Bank is not a theoretical account of how and why syntactic alternation takes place,but rather to provide a useful level of representation and a corpus of annotated data to enable empirical study of these issues.We have referred to Levin’s classes wherever possible to ensure that verbs in the same classes are given consistent role labels.However,there is only a50%overlap between verbs in VerbNet and those in the Penn TreeBank II,and PropBank itself does not deﬁne a set of classes,nor does it attempt to formalize the semantics of the roles it deﬁnes.While lexical resources such as Levin’s classes and VerbNet provide information about alternation patterns and their semantics,the frequency of these alternations and their effect on language understanding systems has never been carefully quantiﬁed. While learning syntactic subcategorization frames from corpora has been shown to be possible with reasonable accuracy(Manning,1993;Brent,1993;Briscoe and Carroll, 1997),this work does not address the semantic roles associated with the syntactic ar-guments.More recent work has attempted to group verbs into classes based on alter-nations,usually taking Levin’s classes as a gold standard(McCarthy,2000;Merlo and Stevenson,2001;Schulte im Walde,2000;Schulte im Walde and Brew,2002).But with-out an annotated corpus of semantic roles,this line of research has not been able to measure the frequency of alternations directly,or,more generally,to ascertain how well the classes deﬁned by Levin correspond to real world data.We believe that a shallow labeled dependency structure provides a feasible level of annotation which,coupled with minimal co-reference links,could provide the founda-tion for a major advance in our ability to extract salient relationships from text.This will in turn improve the performance of basic parsing and generation components,as well as facilitate advances in text understanding,machine translation,and fact retrieval. 3.Annotation Scheme:Choosing the Set of Semantic RolesBecause of the difﬁculty of deﬁning a universal set of semantic or thematic roles cov-ering all types of predicates,PropBank deﬁnes semantic roles on a verb by verb basis. An individual verb’s semantic arguments are numbered,beginning with0.For a par-ticular verb,Arg0is generally the argument exhibiting features of a prototypical Agent (Dowty,1991)while Arg1is a prototypical Patient or Theme.No consistent generaliza-tions can be made across verbs for the higher numbered arguments,though an effort was made to consistently deﬁne roles across members of VerbNet classes.In addition to verb-speciﬁc numbered roles,PropBank deﬁnes several more general roles that can apply to any verb.The remainder of this section describes in detail the criteria used in assigning both types of roles.As examples of verb-speciﬁc numbered roles,we give entries for the verbs accept and kick below.These examples are taken from the guidelines presented to the anno-tators,and are also available on the web at /˜cotton/cgi-bin/pblex fmt.cgi.4The Proposition Bank Palmer et al.(12)Frameset accept.01“take willingly”Arg0:AcceptorArg1:Thing acceptedArg2:Accepted-fromArg3:AttributeEx:[Arg0He][ArgM-MOD would][ArgM-NEG n’t]accept[Arg1anything of value][Arg2from those he was writing about].(wsj0186)(13)Frameset kick.01“drive or impel with the foot”Arg0:KickerArg1:Thing kickedArg2:Instrument(defaults to foot)Ex1:[ArgM-DIS But][Arg0two big New York banks i]seem[Arg0*trace*i]to havekicked[Arg1those chances][ArgM-DIR away],[ArgM-TMP for the moment],[Arg2with the embarrassing failure of Citicorp and Chase Manhattan Corp.to deliver$7.2billion in bankﬁnancing for a leveraged buy-out of United Airlines parent UAL Corp].(wsj1619)Ex2:[Arg0John i]tried[Arg0*trace*i]to kick[Arg1the football],but Mary pulled it away at the last moment.A set of roles corresponding to a distinct usage of a verb is called a roleset,and can be associated with a set of syntactic frames indicating allowable syntactic variations in the expression of that set of roles.The roleset with its associated frames is called a Frameset.A polysemous verb may have more than one Frameset,when the differences in mean-ing are distinct enough to require a different sets of roles,one for each Frameset.The tagging guidelines include a“descriptor”ﬁeld for each role,such as“kicker”or“instru-ment”,which is intended for use during annotation and as documentation,but which does not have any theoretical standing.In addition,each Frameset is complemented by a set of examples,which attempt to cover the range of syntactic alternations afforded by that usage.The collection of Frameset entries for a verb is referred to as the verb’s Frame File.The use of numbered arguments and their mnemonic names was instituted for a number of reasons.First and foremost,the numbered arguments plot a middle course among many different theoretical viewpoints.3The numbered arguments can then be mapped easily and consistently onto any theory of argument structure,such as tra-ditional Theta-Role(Kipper,Palmer,and Rambow,2002),Lexical-Conceptual Structure (Rambow et al.,2003),or Prague Tectogrammatics(Hajiˇc ova and Kuˇc erov´a,2002).While most rolesets have two to four numbered roles,as many as six can appear,in particular for certain verbs of motion4(14)Frameset edge.01“move slightly”Arg0:causer of motion Arg3:start pointArg1:thing in motion Arg4:end pointArg2:distance moved Arg5:directionEx:[Arg0Revenue]edged[Arg5up][Arg2-EXT3.4%][Arg4to$904million][Arg3from $874million][ArgM-TMP in last year’s third quarter].(wsj1210) 3By following the TreeBank,however,we are following a very loose Government-Binding framework.4We make no attempt to adhere to any linguistic distinction between arguments and adjuncts.While many linguists would consider any argument higher than Arg2or Arg3to be an adjunct,they occur frequently enough with their respective verbs,or classes of verbs,that they are assigned a numbered argument in order to ensure consistent annotation.5Computational Linguistics Volume XX,Number X Table1Subtypes of the ArgM modiﬁer tagLOC:location CAU:causeEXT:extent TMP:timeDIS:discourse connectives PNC:purposeADV:general-purpose MNR:mannerNEG:negation marker DIR:directionMOD:modal verbBecause of the use of Arg0for Agency,there arose a small set of verbs where an external force could cause the Agent to execute the action in question.For example,in the sentence...Mr.Dinkins would march his staff out of board meetings and into his private ofﬁce...(wsj0765)the staff is unmistakably the marcher,the agentive role.Yet Mr.Dink-ins also has some degree of Agency,since he is causing the staff to do the marching.To capture this,a special tag of ArgA is used for the agent of an induced action.This ArgA tag is only used for verbs of volitional motion such as march and walk,modern uses of volunteer(eg,Mary volunteered John to clean the garage or more likely the passive of that, John was volunteered to clean the garage and,with some hesitation,graduate based on us-ages such as Penn only graduates35%of its students.(This usage does not occur as such in the Penn Treebank corpus,although it is evoked in the sentence No student should be permitted to be graduated from elementary school without having mastered the3R’s at the level that prevailed20years ago.(wsj1286)In addition to the semantic roles described in the rolesets,verbs can take any of a set of general,adjunct-like arguments(ArgMs),distinguished by one of the function tags shown in Table1.Although they are not considered adjuncts,NEG for verb-level negation(eg’John did n’t eat his peas’)and MOD for modal verbs(eg’John would eat everything else’)are also included in this list to allow every constituent surrounding the verb to be anno-tated.DIS is also not an adjunct,but was included to ease future discourse connective annotation.3.1Distinguishing FramesetsThe criteria to distinguish framesets is based on both semantics and syntax.Two verb meanings are distinguished as different framesets if they take different numbers of ar-guments.For example,the verb decline has two framesets:(15)Frameset:decline.01“go down incrementally”Arg1:entity going downArg2:amount gone down by,EXTArg3:start pointArg4:end pointEx:...[Arg1its net income]declining[Arg2-EXT42%][Arg4to$121million][ArgM-TMP in theﬁrst9months of1989].(wsj0067)(16)Frameset:decline.02“demure,reject”Arg0:agentArg1:rejected thingEx:[Arg0A spokesman i]declined[Arg1*trace*i to elaborate](wsj0038)6The Proposition Bank Palmer et al.However,alternations which preserve verb meanings,such as causative/inchoative or object deletion are considered to be one frameset only,as shown in the example for open.01.Both the transitive and intransitive uses of the verb open correspond to the same frameset,with some of the arguments left unspeciﬁed.(17)Frameset open.01“cause to open”Arg0:agentArg1:thing openedArg2:instrumentEx1:[Arg0John]opened[Arg1the door]Ex2:[Arg1The door]openedEx3:[Arg0John]opened[Arg1the door][Arg2with his foot]Moreover,differences in the syntactic type of the arguments do not constitute cri-teria for distinguishing between framesets,for example,see.01allows for both an NP object or a clause object,as illustrated below.(18)Frameset see.01“view”Arg0:viewerArg1:thing viewedEx1:[Arg0John]saw[Arg1the President]Ex2:[Arg0John]saw[Arg1the President collapse]Furthermore,verb-particle constructions are treated as separate from the corre-sponding simplex verb,whether the meanings are approximately the same or not.For example,three of the framesets for cut can be seen below:(19)Frameset cut.01“slice”Arg0:cutterArg1:thing cutArg2:medium,sourceArg3:instrumentEx:[Arg0Longer production runs][ArgM-MOD would]cut[Arg1inefﬁciencies from adjusting machinery between production cycles].(wsj0317)(20)Frameset cut.04“cut off=slice”Arg0:cutterArg1:thing cut(off)Arg2:medium,sourceArg3:instrumentEx:[Arg0The seed companies]cut off[Arg1the tassels of each plant].(wsj0209) (21)Frameset cut.05“cut back=reduce”Arg0:cutterArg1:thing reducedArg2:amount reduced byArg3:start pointArg4:end pointEx:“Whoa,”thought John,“[Arg0I i]’ve got[Arg0*trace*i]to start[Arg0*trace*i]cutting back[Arg1my intake of chocolate].Note that the verb and particle do not need to be contiguous;the second sentence above could just as well be said“The seed companies cut the tassels of each plant off.”7Computational Linguistics Volume XX,Number X Currently,there are frames for over3,300verbs,with a total of just over4,500frame-sets described,implying an average polysemy of1.36.Of these verb frames,only21.5% (721/3342)have more than one frameset,while less than100verbs have4or more.Each instance of a polysemous verb is marked as to which frameset it belongs to,with inter-annotator agreement of94%.The framesets can be viewed as extremely coarse-grained sense distinctions,with each frameset corresponding to one or more of the Senseval2 WordNet1.7verb groupings.Each grouping in turn corresponds to several WordNet 1.7senses(Palmer,Babko-Malaya,and Dang,2004).3.2Secondary PredicationsThere are two other functional tags which,unlike those listed above,can also be as-sociated with numbered arguments in the Frames Files.Theﬁrst one,EXT,’extent,’indicates that a constituent is a numerical argument on its verb,as in’climbed15%’or’walked3miles’.The second,PRD for’secondary predication’,marks a more subtle relationship.If one thinks of the arguments of a verb as existing in a dependency tree, all arguments depend directly from the verb.Each argument is basically independent of the others.There are those verbs,however,which predict that there is a predicative relationship between their arguments.A canonical example of this is call in the sense of’attach a label to,’as in Mary called John an idiot.In this case there is a relationship between John and an idiot(at least in Mary’s mind).The PRD tag is associated with the Arg2label in the Frames File for this frameset,since it is predictable that the Arg2pred-icates on the Arg1John.This helps to disambiguate the crucial difference between the following two sentences:predicative reading ditransitive readingMary called John a doctor.Mary called John a doctor.5(LABEL)(SUMMON)Arg0:Mary Arg0:MaryRel:called Rel:calledArg1:John(item being labeled)Arg2:John(benefactive)Arg2-PRD:a doctor(attribute)Arg1:a doctor(thing summoned) It is also possible for ArgM’s to predicate on another argument.Since this must be decided on a case by case basis,the PRD function tag is added to the ArgM by the annotator,as in Example28below.3.3Subsumed ArgumentsBecause verbs which share a VerbNet class are rarely synonyms,their shared argument structure occasionally takes on odd characteristics.Of primary interest among these are the cases where an argument predicted by one member of a class cannot be attested by another member of the same class.For a relatively simple example,consider the verb hit,in classes18.1and18.4.This takes three very obvious arguments:(22)Frameset hit“strike”Arg0:hitterArg1:thing hit,targetArg2:instrument of hittingEx1:Agentive subject:“[Arg0He i]digs in the sand instead of[Arg0*trace*i]hitting[Arg1the ball],like a farmer,”said Mr.Yoneyama.(wsj1303) 5This sense could also be stated in the dative:Mary called a doctor for John.8The Proposition Bank Palmer et al.Ex2:Instrumental subject:Dealers said[Arg1the shares]were hit[Arg2by fearsof a slowdown in the U.S.economy].(wsj1015)Ex3:All arguments:[Arg0John]hit[Arg1the tree][Arg2with a stick].6 Classes18.1and18.4areﬁlled with verbs of hitting,such as beat,hammer,kick,knock, strike,tap,whack and so forth.For some of these the instrument of hitting is necessarily included in the semantics of the verb itself.For example,kick is essentially’hit with the foot’and hammer is exactly’hit with a hammer’.For these verbs,then,the Arg2might not be available,depending on how strongly the instrument is incorporated into the verb.Kick,for example,shows28instances in the Treebank but only one instance of a (somewhat marginal)instrument:(23)[ArgM-DIS But][Arg0two big New York banks]seem to have kicked[Arg1thosechances][ArgM-DIR away],[ArgM-TMP for the moment],[Arg2with theembarrassing failure of Citicorp and Chase Manhattan Corp.to deliver$7.2billion in bankﬁnancing for a leveraged buy-out of United Airlines parentUAL Corp].(wsj1619)Hammer shows several examples of Arg2’s,but these are all metaphorical hammers: (24)Despite the relatively strong economy,[Arg1junk bond prices i]did nothingexcept go down,[Arg1*trace*i]hammered[Arg2by a seemingly endless trail ofbad news](wsj2428)Another,perhaps more interesting case is where two arguments can be merged into one in certain syntactic situations.Consider the case of meet,which canonically takes two arguments:(25)Frameset meet“come together”Arg0:one partyArg1:the other partyEx:[Arg0Argentine negotiator Carlos Carballo][ArgM-MOD will]meet[Arg1withbanks this week].(wsj0021)It is perfectly possible,of course,to mention both meeting parties in the same con-stituent:(26)[Arg0The economic and foreign ministers of12Asian and Paciﬁc nations][ArgM-MOD will]meet[ArgM-LOC in Australia][ArgM-TMP next week][ArgM-PRP todiscuss global trade as well as regional matters such as transportation andtelecommunications].(wsj0043)In these cases there is an assumed or default Arg1along the lines of’each other’: (27)[Arg0The economic and foreign ministers of12Asian and Paciﬁc nations][ArgM-MOD will]meet[Arg1-REC(with)each other]...Similarly,verbs of attachment(attach,tape,tie,etc)can express the’things being attached’as either one constituent or two:(28)Frameset connect.01“attach”Arg0:agent,entity causing two objects to be attachedArg1:patientArg2:attached-toArg3:instrument6The Wall Street Journal corpus contains no examples with both an agent and an instrument.9Computational Linguistics Volume XX,Number X Ex1:The subsidiary also increased reserves by$140million,however,and setaside an additional$25million for[Arg1claims]connected[Arg2with HurricaneHugo].(wsj1109)Ex2:Machines using the486are expected to challenge higher-priced workstations and minicomputers in applications such as[Arg0so-called servers i],[Arg0which i][Arg0*trace*i]connect[Arg1groups of computers][ArgM-PRDtogether,and in computer-aided design.(wsj0781)3.4Role Labels and Syntactic TreesThe Proposition Bank assigns semantic roles to nodes in the syntactic trees of the Penn Treebank.Annotators are presented with the roleset descriptions and the syntactic tree, and mark the appropriate nodes in the tree with role labels.The lexical heads of con-stituents are not explicitly marked either in the Treebank trees or in the semantic labeling layered on top of them.Annotators cannot change the syntactic parse,but they are not otherwise restricted in assigning the labels.In certain cases,more than one node may be assigned the same role.The annotation software does not require that the nodes being assigned labels be in any syntactic relation to the verb.We discuss the ways in which we handle the speciﬁcs of the Treebank syntactic annotation style in this section. Prepositional Phrases The treatment of prepositional phrases is complicated by several factors.On one hand,if a given argument is deﬁned as a“Destination”then in a sen-tence such as John poured the water into the bottle the destination of the water is clearly the bottle,not“into the bottle”.The fact that the water is going in to the bottle is inherent in the description“destination”;the preposition merely adds the speciﬁc information that the water will end up inside the bottle.Thus arguments should properly be associated with the NP heads of prepositional phrases.On the other hand,however,ArgM’s which are prepositional phrases are annotated at the PP level,not the NP level.For the sake of consistency,then,numbered arguments are also tagged at the PP level.This also fa-cilitates the treatment of multi-word prepositions such as“out of”,“according to”and “up to but not including”.7(29)[Arg1Its net income]declining[Arg2-EXT42%]to[Arg4$121million][ArgM-TMP intheﬁrst9months of1989].(wsj0067)Traces and Control Verbs The Penn Treebank contains empty categories known as traces,which are often co-indexed with other constituents in the tree.When a trace is assigned a role label by an annotator,the co-indexed constituent is automatically added to the annotation,as in:(30)[Arg0John i]tried[Arg0*trace*i]to kick[Arg1the football],but Mary pulled itaway at the last momentVerbs such as cause,force,and persuade,known as object control verbs,pose a prob-lem for the analysis and annotation of semantic structure.Consider a sentence such as Commonwealth Edison said the ruling could force it to slash its1989earnings by$1.55a share. (wsj-0015)The Penn Treebank’s analysis assigns a single sentential(S)constituent to the entire string it to slash....a share,making it a single syntactic argument to the verb force. In the PropBank annotation,we split the sentential complement into two semantic roles for the verb force,assigning roles to the noun phrase and verb phrase but not to the S node which subsumes them:7Note that“out of”is exactly parallel to“into”,but one is spelled with a space in the middle and the other isn’t.10。

编辑反馈的内容

编辑反馈的内容编辑反馈的内容Anatomical entity recognition with a hierarchical framework augmented by external resources PLOS ONEThank you for submitting your manuscript to PLOS ONE. After careful consideration, we feel that it has merit, but is not suitable for publication as it currently stands. Therefore, my decision is "Major Revision."We invite you to submit a revised version of the manuscript that addresses all of the concerns raised by the two reviewers. It is critical that you specifically address the following issues: 1) Provide more details on your methodology and data sources (possibly with examples), so that the reviewers can better evaluate the summary results provided in the tables; 2) Describe precisely what will be publicly available; 3) Thoroughly edit your revised manuscript before submission. Please note that PLoS ONE does not provide copy editing.We encourage you to submit your revision within forty-five days of the date of this decision.When your files are ready, please submit your revision by logging on to and following the Submissions Needing Revision link. Do not submit a revised manuscript as a new submission. Before uploading, you should proofread your manuscript very closely for mistakes and grammatical errors. Should your manuscript be accepted for publication, you may not have another chance to make corrections as we do not offer pre-publication proofs.If you would like to make changes to your financial disclosure, please include your updated statement in your cover letter.In addition, when submitting your revision please include the following items:A rebuttal letter that responds to each point brought up by the academic editor and reviewer(s). This letter should be uploaded as a 'Response to Reviewers' file.∙ A clean revised manuscript as your 'Manuscript' file.∙ A marked-up copy of the changes made from the previous article fileas a 'Revised Manuscript with Track Changes' file. This can be done using 'track changes' in programs such as MS Word and/orhighlighting any changes in the new document. ∙For more information on how to upload your revised submission, see our video:/everyone/2021/05/10/how-to-submit-your-revised-manuscript/If you choose not to submit a revision, please notify us.Yours sincerely,Ramin Homayouni, Ph.D.Academic EditorPLOS ONEJournal requirements:When submitting your revision, we need you to address these additional requirements:1. We note that you have stated that you will provide repository information for your data at acceptance. Should your manuscript be accepted for publication, we will hold your manuscript until you get in touch with us with the accession numbers or DOIs necessary to access your data. If you wish to make changes to your data availability statement, please describe these changes in your cover letter and we will make them on your behalf.Reviewers' comments:Reviewer's Responses to QuestionsComments to the Author1. Is the manuscript technically sound, and do the data support the conclusions?The manuscript must describe a technically sound piece of scientific research with data that supports the conclusions. Experiments must have beenconducted rigorously, with appropriate controls, replication, and sample sizes. The conclusions must be drawn appropriately based on the data presented.Reviewer #1: PartlyReviewer #2: Yes2. Has the statistical analysis been performed appropriately and rigorously?Reviewer #1: NoReviewer #2: Yes3. Does the manuscript adhere to the PLOS Data Policy?Authors must follow the , which requires authors to make all dataunderlying the findings described in their manuscript fully available without restriction. Please refer to the author’s Data Availability Statement in the manuscript. All data and related metadata must be deposited in an appropriate public repository, unless already provided as part of the submitted article or supporting information. If there are restrictions on the ability of authors to publicly share data —e.g. privacy or use of data from a third party— these reasons must be specified.Reviewer #1: YesReviewer #2: No4. Is the manuscript presented in an intelligible fashion and written in standard English?PLOS ONE does not copyedit accepted manuscripts, so the language in submitted articles must be clear, correct, and unambiguous. Any typographicalor grammatical errors should be corrected at revision, so please note any specific errors here.Reviewer #1: NoReviewer #2: Yes5. Review Comments to the AuthorPlease use the space provided to explain your answers to the questions above. You may also include additional comments for the author, includingconcerns about dual publication, research ethics, or publication ethics. (Please upload your review as an attachment if it exceeds 20,000 characters)Reviewer #1: This paper presents an interesting hierarchical framework to recognize anatomical entities, which is important in healthcare domain. Authors also bring the importance and the challenges of this task. To the best of my knowledge, I summarize my comments and suggestions as follows:1) Features for the sequence labeling problems under CRF are comprehensive and acceptable. Authors include baseline natural language features, semantic features from external knowledge about Wikipedia and WordNet, co-reference, and dictionary matching.2) Authors conducted relatively comprehensive experiments to show the contribution of each individual features and combination of features to the overall precision and recall.3) Problem introduction and annotation are good too.However, some major points need to be fixed:1) The writing of this paper is really poor. All table references are not correct, grammar errors can be seen almost every paragraph. It is very very difficult to read. It took me hundreds of hours to understand what authors try to deliver. Let me just show examples based on the abstract: a) The first sentence is not a complete sentence. "To develop....in medical records."b) "They infer relevant anatomical...in the record but also by other diverse..." ==> "They infer relevant anatomical entities based on bothexplicit anatomical expressions in the record and other diverse... "c) "The hierarchical framework was demonstrated..." ==> "The hierarchical framework was demonstrated...in F1 comparing to ???"many others in the paper!!!!!2) For the annotation, authors used A3 to check (A1, A2), then obtain the coefficient. Why not A3->(A1, A2), A1->(A2, A3), and A2->(A1, A3), then obtain the average coefficient? What if there is a annotation conflict, meaning that all 3 annotators do not agree? In addition, authors claim that their golden standard is not perfect, then why you still use them to do evaluations?3) From the experimental results, CF seems to be the smallest contribution to the precision in table 5 and table 8, then why adding CF gets a lotincrease in table 6 and 9? I don't believe this result. Can you give some explanations.In addition, some suggestions,It would be great if the paper gives some formal definition of eachconcept and shows some real or toy examples in figure. They can help readersto catch the point.Reviewer #2: The manuscript by Yan Xu et al. describes the construction of an anatomical entity recognition framework based on a machine learning algorithm. This framework can recognize not only explicit expressions of anatomical entities, but also implicit expressions such as diseases, clinical treatments, and clinical tests. The authors insisted that the recognition ofthe implicit expressions was important because the implicit expressions are abundant in clinical records and it is from these implicit expressions that medical experts can infer the anatomical entities described in the documents.The framework consists of three layers of entity recognizers, all of which are based on conditional random field (CRF) models. The first layer is themulti-class CRF recognizer developed for the 2021 and 2021 I2B2 challenge;this layer recognizes entities of three semantic classes: diseases, clinical treatments, and clinical tests. The other two recognizer layers are developedin this study. One (the second layer) is for explicit anatomical expressionand the other (the third layer) is for implicit expression.For use in the training and testing of the CRF models, the authorscarefully made an annotated corpus of 300 clinical records (i.e., thedischarge summaries in this study). The resulting annotations include 16690 explicit anatomical entity tokens and 5564 implicit anatomical entity tokens.The authors used the following features for the construction of the CRF models and considered the relative impact on the recognition performance using precision, recall, and F-score: baseline features (a standard set of useful features for general named entity recognition tasks), ontological features DF1 and DF2 (based on some of the representative anatomical ontologies: UMLS, MeSH, RadLex, and BodyParts3D), coreference features, and world knowledge features WF1, WF2, WF3, and HF, which is based on the dictionary constructed from the terms in Wikipedia and WordNet,whose definition sentences contain explicit anatomical entities, for the purpose of extracting implicit anatomical entities; HF is referred to as a hierarchical feature.This study is original and addresses an important task in processing medical documents in general. Their analytical approach seems to be sound in the sense of ordinal research on natural language processing. Therefore, this manuscript seems to warrant publication in PLOS ONE.The main criticism I have is the lack of consideration of concrete instances of anatomical dictionaries, clinical record corpuses, annotations, and experiment results. The authors only provided several numerical tables of the precision, recall, and F-score. All the main conclusions were drawn from observation of these numerical tables. Although I know that this style is common in NLP research papers, I believe that without an investigation of concrete instances, readers cannot evaluate the relative impact of the many factors that will affect the final performance.With only a little thought, one can list up many factors that affect the final results: data sources selection for the construction of the anatomical dictionaries, relative contribution of the (four) data sources on the performance, whether there exists some particular anatomical term in the four dictionaries that has a significant effect on the performance, the total size of anatomical dictionaries, semantic type of terms included in the anatomical dictionaries, type of clinical records, total number of clinical records and sentences which are annotated by the experts, target semantic types, the choices of machine learning algorithms, and the selection of the features for the CRF models, as well as many other factors. However, observation of the series of numerical tables yields only limited information about the impact of the factors and what entities can/cannot be recognized under the proposed framework.Therefore, at very least, the authors should provide a part of the list of 16690 ―explicit anatomical entity tokens‖ and 5564 ―implicit an atomical entity tokens‖ with their numbers of occurrences in the corpus, because these define the problem that this manuscript is addressing.In addition, the authors should discuss what terms in the anatomical dictionary match the annotated tokens and/or the results of theBegin/Inside/Outside (BIO) calling by the CRF model. Then some explanation ofthe relative impact of the framework components should be provided based onthe concrete instances of matching results.A second criticism concerns the reproducibility of this study. Althoughthe authors wrote at the end of the abstract section, ―The resources constructed for this research will be made publicly available.‖ since the resources needed for the reproduction of this study are not provided at this time, I could not evaluate whether the results can be reproduced using the resources that the authors say will be eventually provided. I know that the authors have made a great contribution to the NLP research field, not only by introducing novel concepts, but also by providing many useful resources, including software and annotated corpuses, and so I believe that the resources that will be available to the public will be quite useful for NLP researchers, but I believe that it is quite important to meet the reproducibility criteria stated in the publication criteria of PLOS ONE(―described in sufficient detail for another researcher to reproduce the experiments described‖), and in order to meet these criteria, I expect thatthe authors will need to write additional paragraphs describing in sufficient detail how to reproduce the result tables. I believe that the results havebeen largely affected by the content of the dictionaries and annotatedcorpuses constructed by the authors, and therefore, without these resources,it will be quite difficult for other researchers to reproduce exactly the results described in the tables.Minor pointsPage 8, lines 7–10I do not understand the meaning of the numbers described in Table 4.What is the denominator of ―Coverage of explicit named entity‖? Total number of annotated tokens in the corpus? Or number of unique tokens annotated? In typical cases, rather simple anatomical terms such as ―brain‖, ―liver‖, and ―blood‖ frequently appear in the corpus, and of course these are matched readily to the anatomical dictionaries.Page 12, lines 7–13.The table numbering in the main text is not consistent with the actualtable numbers. (Table 4, ..., Table 9 in the main text should be Table 5, …, Table 10.)Page 14, lines 3–5Near the top of the DISCUSSION section, the author wrote: ―While the features based on the dictionary of anatomical entity expressions greatly improved the performance on explicit anatomical entities, they do not enhance th e performance on explicit anatomical entities.‖ But the second occurrence of the word ―explicit‖ should be ―implicit‖.6. If you would like your identity to be revealed to the authors, please include your name here (optional).Your name and review will not be published with the manuscript.Reviewer #1: (No Response)Reviewer #2: (No Response)[NOTE: If reviewer comments were submitted as an attachment file, theywill be attached to this email and accessible via the submission site. Please log into your account, locate the manuscript record, and check for the action link "View Attachments". If this link does not appear, there are no attachment files to be viewed.]。

2020智慧树,知到《跨文化商务沟通》章节测试[完整答案]

2020智慧树,知到《跨文化商务沟通》章节测试[完整答案]智慧树知到《跨文化商务沟通》章节测试答案见面课：冰山之下--商业广告中的文化价值观1、问题:Culture is like an iceberg. Only a small part of culture is visible. For instance, food, dress, paintings are all apparent to eyes. But a great part of culture is hidden under the water, such as _, , and so on.选项：A:viewsB:attitudesC:architectureD:customs答案: 【views;attitudes;customs】2、问题:Originally Geert Hofsted developed a model that identifies four primary cultural dimensions: _, , Individualism versus Collectivism, ___.选项：A:Power DistanceB:Long- versus Short-Term OrientationC:Uncertainty AvoidanceD:Masculinity versus Femininity答案: 【Power Distance;Uncertainty Avoidance;Masculinity versus Femininity】3、问题:Chinese consumers can be ascribed to the values of conformity and“face”.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】4、问题:It”s better for advertisers to realize and take note of the different cultural values and make corresponding adjustments to their advertising appeals.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】5、问题:The Americans have the spirit of innovation and risk-taking. They are not willing to cope with uncertainties inherent in life and can tolerate and accept new ideas and strangers.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】见面课：商业宣讲实践1、问题:In the presentation of GTech, the first part is to introduce some basic information about GTech.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】2、问题:PPT with paragraphs of text significantly decreases the attention of the audience.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】3、问题:Keeping your hands in your pockets during the presentation shows your confidence.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】4、问题:Images in PPT can distract people”s attention andmake the message less powerful.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】5、问题:A subtle nod, smile or placement of your hands can drastically change the meaning of your words.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】6、问题:What is the most obvious difference among informative presentation, persuasive presentation, and goodwill presentation? ( )选项：A:the audienceB:the informationC:the purposeD:the language答案: 【the purpose】7、问题:GTech is a __ company ( )选项：A:foodB:technicalC:mediaD:consultative答案: 【food】8、问题:Which is NOT the need of Japanese hospitals on robot nurses? ( )选项：A:error-orientedB:integratedC:autonomousD:error-free答案: 【error-oriented】9、问题:Which can NOT help you identify your audience in preparing a business presentation? ( )选项：A: AgeB:AppearanceC:OccupationD:Interest答案: 【Appearance】10、问题:Which can NOT attract audience”s attention? ( )选项：A:Use a rising intonationB:Stress important wordsC:Use short sentences at the start of a pointD:Keep on talking答案: 【Keep on talking】见面课：跨文化商务谈判模拟1、问题:In some Asian cultures, such as in China and Japan, they will adapt the indirect approach.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】2、问题:To the successful negotiations, the two sides must first understand the cultural differences.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】3、问题:High-context cultures are relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】4、问题:Germans make it very clear about the prices, conditions and ways of acting.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】5、问题:According to the negotiating objectives, goals for negotiations can be included:desired goal, acceptable goal and bottom goal.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】6、问题:It is appropriate to use your right hand to exchange business cards in Indian cultures.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】7、问题:Saudis do require as much personal space as most Western cultures.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】8、问题:There should be no more than three colors in business formal attire for men.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】9、问题:In Finland, a gift is not expected on the first visit, but would be expected on a subsequent visit.选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】见面课：障碍与沟通--跨文化商务案例分析1、问题:What are the reasons for the Toyota Recall Crisis?选项：A:The failure of the public relationsB:A culture of deferenceC:Employee”s LoyaltyD:Communication across cultures答案: 【The failure of the public relations;A culture of deference;Employee”s Loyalty;Communication across cultures】2、问题:When responding to consumer safety issues, the typical Japanese corporation”s response is __.选项：A:Minimization of the problemB:Reluctance to recall the productC:Criticize the team membersD:too little compassion and concern for customers 答案: 【Minimization of the problem;Reluctance to recall the product;too little compassion and concern for customers】3、问题:There are many ways of examining cultural differences and their impact on international management. Culture can affect ____.选项：A:technology transferB:managerial attitudesC:managerial ideologyD:business-government relations答案: 【technology transfer;managerial attitudes;managerial ideology;business-government relations】4、问题:How can the culture of a society directly affect management approaches?选项：A:centralized versus decentralized decision makingB:safety versus riskC:stability versus innovationD:individual versus organization loyalty答案: 【centralized versus decentralized decision making; safety versus risk;stability versus innovation】5、问题:Which statement in the following French culture is not right?选项：A:Social class is important and social interactions are affected by class stereotypes.B:The French may admire or be fascinated with people who disagree with them.C:The French are very status conscious, and they like to provide signs of their status.D:The French focus on good connections, which can result in lower costs for doing business.答案: 【The French focus on good connections, which can result in lower costs for doing business.】6、问题:Which factor needs to be considered when pursuing business in Brazil?选项：A:Physical contact is acceptable as a form of communication.B:Brazilians tend to trust others, so be sure to form a strong relationship before bringing up business issues.C:Appearance is very important, as it will reflect both you and your company.D:Patience is not important.答案: 【Physical contact is acceptable as a form of communication.;Appearance is very important, as it will reflect both you and your company.】第一章1、The belief that your own cultural background, including ways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal communication, is superior.culturecommunicationethnocentrismsender答案: ethnocentrism2、The total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.intercultural communicationculturebusiness communicationfeedback答案: culture3、A process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior, or the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behavior.ethnocentrismnoisecommunicationhorizontal communication答案: noise4、The communication is within business and administration, aiming at a common objective and profits for both the individuals and organizations.lateral communicationethnocentrismbusiness communicationintercultural communication答案: business communication5、The communication at the same level in an organization. horizontal communicationethnocentrismbusiness communicationlateral communication答案: horizontal communication6、When culture is contrasted with nature, it can be defined as“ life way of a population” in its broad sense, meaning whatcharacterizes the particular way of life of a population.对错答案: 错7、Culture is all men”s medium; there is no aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture.对错答案: 对8、The culture shown in an onion consists of two levels;a level of norms and values, or an invisible level of resultant behavior or artifacts of some form.对错答案: 错9、Culture cannot be known without a study of communication, and communication can only be understood with an understanding of the culture it supports.对错答案: 对10、In the global village, neighbors communicate free oftroubles and difficulties.对错答案: 错11、With the integration of language into the fabric of culture, confusion and dysfunction would reign and the culture would fail.对错答案: 错第二章1、A good mastery of grammar of one language can guaranteea successful communication.对错答案: 错2、Long before writing was developed,we learned to speak first.对错答案: 对3、There should always be an attachment at the end of abusiness memo.对错答案: 错4、A recommendation report is to recommend something to others.对错答案: 错5、Which is not verbal communication?Chat with your leaders and colleaguesDiscuss an issue in a groupGreeting with a smileLeave a message答案: Greeting with a smile6、____ refers to anything that distorts the message the source encodes.NoiseMessageSourceContext答案: Noise7、It is a universal truth that language is by culture and in turn it __ culture.influenced, reflectsdisplayed, influencesdetermined, reflectsshaped, influences答案: influenced, reflects8、Why should we take notes during a business call?Listen attentivelyServes as a record to take follow-up actionReport on the call to someone elseReflect on the call答案: Listen attentively,Serves as a record to take follow-up action,Report on the call to someone else9、How can you identify your audience in preparing a business presentation?AgeAppearanceInterestOccupation答案: Age,Interest,Occupation10、Before making a business call, what kind of questionscan you reflect?Do you need to report to your boss?Do you need to get information?Do you want to sell something, or convince the person of an idea?Do you need to ask for the person”s help or support?答案: Do you need to get information?,Do you want to sell something, or convince the person of an idea?,Do you need to ask for the person”s help or support?第三章1、Nonverbal behavior reflects the speaker”s subconciousness.对错答案:A2、Depending on the culture,a smile can indicate joy and amusement, it can also indicate embarrassment.对错答案:A3、Posture is the position in which you hold your body when standing or sitting.对错答案:对4、Intimate distance is most common when friends, old classmates, acquaintances and relativestalk.对错答案:错5、People in __ cultures usually view silence as lack of communication and are generally ____ with it.low context uncomfortablehigh context uncomfortablelow context comfortablehigh context comfortable答案:low context uncomfortable6、Which of the following countries uses high-context language?CanadaGermanyJapanUnited States答案:Japan7、The function of nonverbal signs is sometimes indispensible. For example, placing your index finger to your lips as an alternative to saying“Please calm down so that I can speak” is a case of ____.complementingrepeatingcontradictingsubstituting答案:substituting8、Which statements are correct about nonverbalcommunication?Nonverbal behavior is easily controlledA smile sometimes doesn”t mean a sincere smileNonverbal behavior accounts for much of the meaning we derive from conversation.Nonverbal communication is more than the complement of verbal communication.答案:9、How does nonverbal behavior control the pace or flow of communication?Be silentGesture of stoppingClap handsRaise voice答案:Be silent Gesture of stopping Clap hands Raise voice 10、Which of the countries belong to individualistic culture?ItalyAmericaFranceGreece答案:Italy America France第四章1、Power distance is a conceptual was developed by Hofstede to describethe extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequallythe power of multinational organizationsthe power differential between developed and less developed countriesthe power difference between men and women答案:2、Hofstede”s _ index measures the extent to which the lesspowerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. value orientationcultural dimensionscultural valuespower distance答案:power distance3、These are the most significant studies of cultural values except ___.Hall's High- and Low- Context TheoryKluckhohn and Strodtbeck's five Value Orientations Fons Trompenars”s model of culture with seven dimensions Geert Hofstede's six Cultural Dimensions答案:Fons Trompenars”s model of culture with seven dimensions4、The opinion that everyone has a position and clearly defined privileges is____.a view of hierarchical structure of social relationship a view of group orientation of social relationshipa view of individual orientation structure of social relationshipnone of the above答案:a view of hierarchical structure of social relationship5、Low-context communication is characterized by explicit speaking.对错答案:对6、Chinese culture is high-context in comparison to western culture.对错答案:对7、Cultures with a large power distance are hierarchical cultures.对错答案:对8、At the core of uncertainty avoidance is the idea that the future is predictable.对错答案:错9、Power distance in Hofstede's cultural dimensions is roughly similar to the value Kluckhohn calls hierarchy.对错答案:错10、In a culture emphasizing masculinity, it is more possible for men to play a nurturing role.对错答案:错第五章1、Etiquette is simply showing respect for others.对错答案:错2、Etiquette refers to the guideline for knowing how to behave appropriately in all situations.对错答案:A3、Kiss greeting usually happen between two men in the United States.错答案:错4、It”s OK to write on someone”s business card.对错答案:B5、A handshake should be friendly or respectful gesture, not a show of physical strength. So we should not squeeze other”s hand too hard.对错答案:A6、Before a dish is served, napkins can be placed either on the plate or on the left of forks.对错答案:A7、You”re invited to a business dinner. When do you take your napkin from the table and place it on your lap?Open it immediately.Wait for the host to take his or her napkin before takingWait for the oldest person at the table to take his or hers. Wait for all the ladies to take theirs before taking yours if you are a gentle man.答案:Wait for the host to take his or her napkin before taking yours.8、Which of the following behavior is appropriate in a business dinner?Use the napkin to wipe your nose.Cut all the food in your plate into small pieces.Sip from the side of the spoon when eating soup.Use the knife with your right hand.答案:CD9、What are the benefits of humor in the workplace?Humor can reduce stress.Humor can block negative emotions.Humor can help people develop rapport with each other. Humor can help solve problems.答案:ABCD10、In many Asian countries, the way you treat someone”s business card is a reflection of:How serious you are about the outcome of the meeting.How much you respect them as a person.What you think of their country.company and title.答案:ABCD第六章1、In some high-context cultures, public display of emotions is a sign of immaturity and a potential cause of shame to the group.对错答案:A2、Whether an international business negotiation succeeds or not is not only determined by the strategies and skills used in formal negotiation, but also closely related to whether enough careful preparation has been made.对错答案:A3、In the opening phase, the atmosphere is the only factor we should consider.对错答案:错4、Bargaining strength refers to the degree of movement that is possible for each party with respect to individual issues on the agenda.对错答案:错5、In some Asian cultures, they will use communication to encourage harmony, preserve face, and develop ____ relationships.Short-termLong-termMiddle-termShort run答案:Long-term6、The purpose of bargaining is to settle the differences that stand in the way of an agreement. Settling the differences involves____.high-context and low-contextconcession andreappraisaladjustment and compromiseaims and objectives答案:adjustment and compromise7、The proposal should be based on a sound analysis of the buyer”s current situation, taking into account of ____ and ____ within which the transaction takes place.the commercial circumstances, the overall contextthe corporate credit, the bank accounting bookthe manager”s stability, the site selectionthe commercial invoice, the chief negotiator”s ability 答案:the commercial circumstances, the overall context 8、Differences in____, ____, and____ have a profound impact on how successfully the parties are able to negotiate or conduct business transactions.BehavingWays of thinkingManaging conflictHuman resources答案:9、The political system,____, and the counterpart may in some way determine the success or failure of the negotiation. The legal systemThe business systemThe financial systemInfrastructure and logistics system答案:ABCD10、The specific tasks of the opening phase are concluded: To explain the concrete issueTo create suitable atmosphereTo state proposal in opening phaseTodeclare for our intention答案:ABCD。

The nexus of finance and GDP growth in Japan Do real interest rates matter

The nexus ofﬁnance and GDP growth in Japan:Do real interest rates matter? Shu-Hwa Chang a,*,Liang-Chou Huang ba Department of Finance,Shih-Hsin University,111Mu-Cha Road,Sec.1,Taipei,Taiwan,ROCb Department of Economics,Aletheia University,32Chen-Li Street,Tamsui,Taipei,Taiwan,ROC1.IntroductionThe last decade saw an explosion in research interest on economic growth and its determinants.There is a large body of literature that uses panel data to examine differences in growth rates among countries over long periods of time.One of the outstandingﬁndings in the literature is a robust empirical relationship betweenﬁnancial sector development and economic growth.Levine(1997)and Wachtel(2001)offer an excellent survey.There are many reasons thatﬁnancial sector development promotes economic growth.To summarize,more intense use of ﬁnancial intermediaries and increased amounts of intermediation encourage saving and investment and improve the allocation of saving to investment projects,in turn encouraging a higher level of capital formation and greater efﬁciency in capital allocation.Recent research has examined whether there are economic conditions associated with a stronger or weakerﬁnance–growth relationship.Odedokun(1996),for example,employed annual data for71LDC economies over varying periods from the1960s to the 1980s,and found that the growth-promoting effects ofﬁnancial intermediation predominate at lower-income rather than higher-income LDCs.Rousseau and Wachtel(2002),using a series of rolling panel regressions,provided cross-sectional evidence that there is a 13–25percents inﬂation threshold forﬁnance–growth relation-ships.When inﬂation exceeds that threshold,ﬁnance ceases to promote economic growth.Rioja and Valev(2004)found that the relationship betweenﬁnance and growth may vary according to the level ofﬁnancial development.In the low region(countries with a very low level ofﬁnancial development),additional improvements inﬁnancial markets have an uncertain effect on growth.In the intermediate region,ﬁnancial development has a large,positive effect on growth.In the high region,the effect is positive,but smaller. The above literature suggests a nonlinear relationship between ﬁnancial development and economic growth.This paper’s objective is to investigate the effects of real interest rates on theﬁnance–growth nexus.Why are real interest rates chosen as the objective of this study?It is motivated by the historical movement of Japan’s real interest rates since the early 1980s.Fig.1plots the Japan’s quarterly real interest rates1from the third quarter of1981to the third quarter of2008.The real interest rates can be separated into two regimes:a higher interest rate regime and a lower interest rate regime.Costas and Smith(1998)showed theoretically that real interest rate levels affecting relationships betweenﬁnance and real activity.2They showed that Wallasian allocations are consistentJapan and the World Economy22(2010)235–242A R T I C L E I N F OJEL classiﬁcation:E44O16O53Keywords:Finance and growth Interest rates Structural change Threshold model A B S T R A C TThis study empirically investigates whether real interest rates are associated with a stronger or weaker ﬁnance–growth relationship in the Japanese economy,where the relationships between banks and ﬁrms are characterized by main bank relationships and keirestu as well as a government implemented low interest rate policies since the early1990s.Several econometric models are used to obtain empirical robustness.This study conﬁrms the substantial effects of real interest rates onﬁnance–growth relationships in Japan.In the regime with higher(lower)real interest rates,the banking system has signiﬁcantly positive(adverse)effects on output growth.Empirical evidence exists that a low interest rate policy is an important hindrance to the ability of the banking system to impact economic growth in Japan.ß2010Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.*Corresponding author.Tel.:+886222368225x63432;fax:+88622362265. E-mail address:shuhwa@.tw(S.-H.Chang).1The deﬁnition of the real interest rate is the nominal interest rate minus the expected inﬂation rate.The expected inﬂation rate is constructed as a GARCH(1,1) process of inﬂation rate.The nominal interest rate is the Japanese rediscount rate and the inﬂation rate is the change rate of Japanese CPI.2Costas and Smith(1998)proposed a one-sector growth model,where capital investment is creditﬁnanced and there is an adverse selection problem in the credit market,to express the view that theﬁnancial system itself is a source of endogenously arising economic volatility.Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJapan and the World Economyj o ur n a l h o m e p a g e:w w w.e l se v i e r.c om/l oc a t e/j w e0922-1425/$–see front matterß2010Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.japwor.2010.06.004with an incentive-compatible allocation of credit only if the real return on savings(deposits)is sufﬁciently high,and that credit rationing can occur only if the real rate of return on savings(deposits) is sufﬁciently low(Costas and Smith,1998).The economic intuition is as follows.In the lower interest rate regime,if the real rate of interest on savings is sufﬁciently low,the low rate of return on deposits persuades savers to transfer some savings out of the banking system,and into unintermediated storage.This‘‘disinter-mediation’’validates the argument that banks ration credit.When credit is rationed,resources leave the banking system and investment allocation becomes less efﬁcient.In the higher interest rate regime,if the real rate of interest on savings is sufﬁciently high,all savings will be channeled through the banking system, ruling out credit rationing and allowing the credit market to clear, resource allocation becomes more efﬁcient.The relationships between banks andﬁrms in Japan are far more important than in the United States.While the United States is characterized as a market-based economy,Japan is considered to be a bank-based economy(Demirgu¨c¸-Kunt and Maksimovic,2002). Japaneseﬁrms rely more on bank debt than doﬁrms in the United States,although bondﬁnancing in Japan,particularly at large manufacturingﬁrms,has become increasingly important over the past decade(Hoshi and Kashyap,1999).Banking relationships in Japan are stronger,characterized by the relationship with the main bank,and additional ties if the lending bank being in the same keiretsu group as theﬁrm.3In fact,it is government policy for banks to support troubled but operationalﬁrms,despite the risk.Thus, Japanese banks have duties other than to maximize proﬁts.That is, many bank lending decisions are guided by the necessity to support troubledﬁrms,rather than strict credit risk analysis.Peek and Rosengren(2005)examined credit misallocation in Japan associated with the perverse incentives faced by banks to provide additional credit to weakerﬁrms.They found that troubled Japanese banks have an incentive to allocate credit to severely impaired borrowers,in order to avoid the realization of losses on their own balance sheet.Thus,ﬁrms are more likely to receive additional bank credit if they are in poorﬁnancial condition.Peek and Rosengren(2005)noted that,during low interest rate periods in Japan,it is cheaper to keep troubledﬁrms alive,because it does not require substantial amounts of new credit to enable troubled ﬁrms to make their interest payment.Costas and Smith(1998)and Peek and Rosengren(2005)both focused their attentions on analysis of credit allocation,they did not explore directly the relationships betweenﬁnance and growth. And to our best knowledge,it is still not well addressed in the literature whether real interest rates are associated with a stronger or weakerﬁnance and growth relationship.As with the previous discussions,the special economic circumstances of Japan are most appropriate for the objectives of this article.This article modiﬁes the theoretical framework that Odedokun(1996)originally proposed and applies it to the empirical study of time-series data for Japan.Several econometric models are adopted to obtain empirical robustness.Linear multiple regression analysis isﬁrstly used to explore the effects of real interest rates onﬁnance–GDP growth nexus.The multiple structural changes model of Bai and Perron(1998,2003)is used to identify the structural changes of Japan’s economy,and hence relationships betweenﬁnance and GDP growth.Finally,Hansen’s(2000)threshold model is used to examine the threshold effects of real interest rates on theﬁnance–growth nexus.This study conﬁrms the substantial effects of real interest rates onﬁnance–growth relationships in Japan.In a regime where the real interest rates are higher(lower),the banking system has signiﬁcantly positive(adverse)effects on output growth.Empirical evidence supports that a low interest rate policy is an important hindrance to banking system’s impact on economic growth in Japan,which is compatible with Costas and Smith(1998) and Peek and Rosengren(2005)that efﬁciency in allocating credit is reduced during low interest rate period and is beyond pertaining to monetary policy implications.The rest of the study is as follows.Section2provides some background on the Japanese experience,especially concerning interest rate policies.Section3outlines this study’s theoretical framework.Section4describes the econometric methodology. Section5describes the data and empirical results,and theﬁnal section provides conclusions.2.Selected Japanese economic experiences from1980Japan was theﬁrst country to achieve the economic miracle of rapid growth,especially through the1960s,when annual rates of growth averaged over10percent.The1973–1974oil shock marked Japan’s transition from rapid growth to slow growth,as well as for other G7countries.Japan still averaged a over4percent annual growth between1975and1990.However,from1991to 2008,as annual rates averaged a bit over1percent,Japan had the lowest growth rate among the G7.In the early1980s,Japan experienced its longest postwar recession(36months,from February1980to February1983).Its central bank decided to relax monetary policy.At the same time, the U.S.dollar was very valuable,aiding Japan’s trade surplus with the U.S.To alleviate the adverse effect of the high U.S.dollar on the U.S.economy,the September1985Plaza Accord of G5countries took measures to devalue the dollar.The real value of the yen doubled in the next3years.To reduce the adverse effects of this on Japan,Japan’s central bank lowered the discount rate,ultimately bringing it to a then record low of2.5percent in February1987.4 The low-interest policy was accompanied by a rapid expansion of money and credit supplies.Easy money poured into asset markets and sustained asset inﬂation.The central bank belatedly decided to shift to a tight monetary policy,and raised the discount rate sharply in May1989.In February1991,what is called the Heisei recession started.5It lasted32months,until October1993. The discount rate was reduced throughout early1991to a low level of0.5percent in September8,1995and maintained this level until early2001.While the discount rate remained unchanged,Japan’s central bank took the call rate(overnight,uncollateralized)as its primary policy instrument.6This rate fell virtually to zero(in2002,Fig.1.Annualized real interest rates of Japan.3The keiretsu group is a group ofﬁrms with business ties cemented by extensive cross-shareholding and interlocking boards of directors,centered around a major bank.4See Sato(2002).5Lincoln(1998)proposed that the emergence of an enormous amount of bad debt was the core factor of the Japaneseﬁnancial problems.While Kuttner and Posen(2001)considered how the recession emerged,and evaluated the effects of macroeconomic policies undertaken in Japan in response to the Great Recession. 6See Eggertsson and Woodford(2003).S.-H.Chang,L.-C.Huang/Japan and the World Economy22(2010)235–242 2360.001–0.001percent)and the Japanese media termed this a‘‘zero-rate’’policy.7The discount rate was lowered to its then lowest level of0.1percent in early2001and kept at this level until mid-2006. When the Bank of Japan bid farewell to its zero-interest-rate policy of nearly six years,it raised the call rate to0.25percent and increased the ofﬁcial discount rate to0.4percent in July2006.The discount rate increased to0.75percent in March2007,maintaining its level until September2008,and then decreased to0.3percent in October2008.An important economic point here is how fast bank deposits and loans expanded.From1980to1990,the deposit balance in the economy expanded at an average annual rate of9.3percent and the loan balance at9.6percent.Unlike in the1980s,the deposit balance and loan balance diverged in the1990s.From1990to 1999,the deposit balance grew at an average annual rate of2.4 percent and the loan balance at0.7percent.From2000to2008,the deposit balance grew at1.7percent annually,however the loan balance decreased by1.9percent,indicating the divergence of the deposit balance and the loan balance became more signiﬁcant, suggesting the Japanese credit market has changed greatly in the past three decades.3.The theoretical frameworkThis section begins with Odedokun’s(1996)proposed frame-work based on the conventional neo-classical one-sector aggregate production function in whichﬁnancial development constitutes an input,as expressed in the equation:Y t¼fðL t;K t;FD t;Z tÞwhere Y is aggregate output or real GDP;L is labor force;K is capital stock;FD is a measure of the level ofﬁnancial development;and Z is the vector of other factors that can be regarded as input in the aggregate production function.The subscript t denotes the time period.Odedokun(1996)stresses the impact ofﬁnancial intermedia-tion development on economic growth.However,there is a growing body of theoretical literature linking stock markets and output growth,and the empirically detected positive and signiﬁcant effects of stock markets on economic growth,for example,Levine and Zervos(1998),and Arestis et al.(2001).8In this paper,ﬁnancial development is denoted by both stock markets and banking system.In Odedokun(1996),the only element of the vector Z is real exports.However,Bekaert et al.(2001)and Zestos and Tao(2002) suggest that the trade volume has signiﬁcant impacts on economic growth.To prevent the trade volume from repeating the variable of the real exports that Odedokun(1996)suggested,this paper include real imports as another important input in the aggregate production function.Moreover,several recent studies,for example, De Gregorior and Guidotti(1995),Barro(1997),and Bekaert et al. (2001),suggest that the real government expenditure has an important inﬂuence on economic growth.Therefore,in this study, the real government expenditure is also included as an important input of aggregate production.Therefore,the framework of Odedokun(1996)has been modiﬁed as:Y t¼FðL t;K t;EX t;IM t;GC t;B t;S tÞ(1) where EX t is real exports;IM t is real imports;GC t is real government expenditure;B t is the level of banking development; and S t is the level of stock market development.According to the results of Appendix A,the linear regression equation is set as:˙Yt¼a0þa1˙L tþa2D k tY tÀ1þa3D EX tY tÀ1þa4D IM tY tÀ1þa5D GC tY tÀ1þa6D B tY tÀ1þa7D S tY tÀ1þe t(2)where D is a difference operator;˙Y t is the growth rate of real aggregate output;a0is the intercept or constant term;k t denotes the volume change of capital stock and it approximates the total volume of investment9;˙L t is the change rate of labor force;and e is the error term satisfying the standard assumptions for LS regression.To consider the structural changes,following Bai and Perron(1998,2003),Eq.(2)is extended as the following multiple linear regression with m breaks(m+1regimes):˙Yt¼a0jþa1j˙L tþa2jD k tY tÀ1þa3jD EX tY tÀ1þa4jD IM tY tÀ1þa5jD GC tY tÀ1þa6jD B tY tÀ1þa7jD S tY tÀ1þe t(3)for t=T jÀ1+1,...,T j and j=1,...,m+1.The indices(T1,...,T m),or the break points,are explicitly treated as unknown.The purpose is to estimate the unknown regression coefﬁcients together with the break points when T observations on the dependent and independent variables are available.To examine the threshold effects of real interest rates on the ﬁnance–growth nexus,Eq.(2)is speciﬁed as the threshold regression equation:˙Yt¼a10þa11L tþa12D k ttÀ1þa13D EX ttÀ1þa14D IM ttÀ1þa15D GC ttÀ1þa16D B tY tÀ1þa17D S tY tÀ1!Âð1ÀI tÞþa20þa21˙L tþa22D k ttÀ1þa23D EX ttÀ1þa24D IM ttÀ1þa25D GC tY tÀ1þa26D B tY tÀ1þa27D S tY tÀ1!I tþeÃt(4) where the indicator function I t is deﬁned as I t¼1if r tÀ1g0if r tÀ1>g;eÃtis residual.Assuming real interest rates affect the economic system after one period,r tÀ1is set to be the threshold variable;g is the estimated threshold value.Theﬁrst part on the right-hand side of Eq.(4)represents the regime of higher interest rates,the second portion represents that of lower interest rates.4.Empirical methods4.1.The multiple structural change modelBai and Perron(1998)developed the limiting distribution theory of LS estimators and test statistics in the linear model with multiple structural changes.The main aspects of which include the estimates of the break dates and the construction of the tests that allow inferences to be made about the presence of structural changes and the number of breaks.They considered the following multiple linear regression with m breaks(m+1regimes):y t¼x0t bþz0t d jþu t t¼T jÀ1þ1;...;T j(5)7See Bernanke et al.(2004)and Sato(2008).8There are some other papers among them,for example,Levine(1991),Devereux and Smith(1994),and Obstfeld(1994),Bencivenga et al.(1995).9Because it is difﬁcult to measure the change volume of capital stock,Levine and Rentel(1992)and Barro(1997)suggest usually using investment instead.S.-H.Chang,L.-C.Huang/Japan and the World Economy22(2010)235–242237for j =1,...,m +1.In this model,y t is the observed dependent variable at time t ;x t (p Â1)and z t (q Â1)are vectors of covariates and b and d j (j =1,...,m +1)are the corresponding vectors of coefﬁcients;m t is the disturbance at time t .The indices (T 1,...,T m ),or the break points,are explicitly treated as unknown.This is a partial structural change model since the parameter vector b is not subject to shifts and is estimated using the entire sample.When p equals to 0,a pure structural change model is obtained,where all the coefﬁcients are subject to change.The variance of u t needs not be constant.Indeed,breaks in variance are permitted provided they occur at the same dates as the breaks in the regression’s parameters.The multiple linear regression system (5)may be expressed in matrix form asY ¼X b þ¯Zd þU where Y =(y 1,...,y T )0,X =(x 1,...,x T )0,U =(u 1,...,u T )0,d ¼ðd 01;...;d 0m þ1Þ0,and ¯Zis the matrix which diagonally partitions Z at (T 1,...,T m ),that is,¯Z¼diag ðZ 1;...;Z m þ1Þwith Zi =(z Ti À1+1,...,z Ti )0.The true value of a parameter is denoted with a 0superscript.In particular,d 0¼ðd 001;...;d 00m þ1Þand (T 01;...;T 0m )are used todenote,respectively,the true values of the parameters d and the true break points.The matrix ¯Z0is the one which diagonally partitions Z at (T 01;...;T 0m ).Hence,the data-generating process is assumed to beY ¼X b 0þ¯Z0d 0þU (6)The estimation method considered is based on the least-squares principle.For each m -partition (T 1,...,T m ),the associated least-squares estimates of b and d j are obtained by minimizing the sum of squared residuals ðY ÀX b À¯Zd Þ0ðY ÀX b À¯Z d Þ¼Xm þ1i ¼1XT iT i À1þ1½y t Àx 0t b Àz 0t d i2Let ˆbðf T j gÞand ˆd ðf T j gÞdenote the estimates based on the given m -partition (T 1,...,T m )denoted {T j }.Substituting these in the objective function and denoting the resulting sum of squaredresiduals as S T (T 1,...,T m ),the estimated break points (ˆT1;...;ˆT m )are such that ðˆT 1;...;ˆT m Þ¼argmin T 1;...;T m S T (T 1,...,T m ),where the minimization is taken over all partitions (T 1,...,T m )such that T i ÀT i À13q .Thus the break-point estimators are global mini-mizers of the objective function.The regression parameter estimates are the estimates associated with the m -partition {T j },i.e.ˆb¼ˆb ðf ˆT j gÞ;ˆd ¼ðf ˆT j gÞ.Since,the break points are discrete parameters and can only take a ﬁnite number of values,they can be estimated by a grid search.Bai and Perron (2003)mentioned that the estimation of the break dates has no effect on the limiting distribution of other model parameters.This permits the recovery,for these estimates,of the standard ﬃﬃﬃT p asymptotic normality.Bai and Perron (1998)constructed the sup F type test of no structural break (m =0)versus the alternative hypothesis that there are m =k breaks,deﬁned as sup F (m j 0).They also proposed a test for ‘versus ‘+1breaks,labeled sup F T (‘+1j ‘).In addition,Bai and Perron (1998)introduced two test of the null hypothesis of no structural breaks against an unknown number of breaks given an upper bound M ,called the double maximum test,10with the one denoted WD max F T (M,q )used for the present analysis.The theoretical issues related to the limiting distribution of estimatorsand test statistics,and the related asymptotic critical values areprovided in detail by Bai and Perron (1998).4.2.The threshold modelHansen (2000)developed an asymptotic distribution theory of the LS estimator for threshold regression.Hansen (2000)consid-ered the following threshold model:y i ¼u 01x i þe i if q i g y i ¼u 02x i þe i if q i >g(7)where y i is a dependent variable,x i is an m-vector independent variable,e i is the residual,q i is the threshold variable and g is the threshold estimate.In order to write one equation instead of Eq.(7),this paper deﬁnes indictor function I i (g )={q i g }and set x i (g )=x i I i (g ).Therefore,Eq.(7)can be rewritten as y i ¼u 0x i þd 0n x i ðg Þþe i(8)where u =u 2.Eq.(8)allows all of the regression parameters toswitch between the regimes.The results generalize to the case where only a subset of parameters switch between regimes.To express the model in matrix notation,deﬁne the n Â1vector,Y and e by stacking the variables y and e ,and the n Âm matrices X and X g by stacking x 0i and x i (g )0.So,Eq.(8)can be rewritten as Y ¼X u þX g d n þe(9)The parameter estimate vector is (u ,d n ,g ),which is estimated by the LS method.LetS n ðu ;d ;g Þ¼ðY ÀX u ÀX g d n Þ0ðY ÀX u ÀX g d n Þ(10)be the sum of the squared errors function.Then by deﬁnition the LSestimators 11ˆu,ˆd and ˆg jointly minimize Eq.(10).For this minimization,g is assumed to be restricted to a bounded set ½g ¯g ¼G .Conditional on g ,Eq.(10)is linear in u and d n ,yielding theconditional OLS estimators ˆuðg Þand ˆd ðg Þby regression of Y on X Ãg ¼½X ;X g .The concentrated sum of the squared errors function is S n ðg Þ¼S n ðˆu ðg Þ;ˆd ðg Þ;g Þ¼Y 0Y ÀY 0X Ãg ðX 0g ÃX Ãg ÞÀ1X 0gÃY (11)and ˆgis the value that minimizes S n (g ).ˆg can be deﬁned uniquely asˆg¼argmin g 2G nS n ðg Þ(12)where G n =G \{q 1,...,q n }.The slope estimates can be computedvia ˆu¼ˆu ðˆg Þand ˆd ¼ˆd ðˆg Þ.According to Chan (1993)and Hansen (2000),the slope estimate is asymptotically normal.The threshold value and the slope parameters are estimated at the same time;therefore,the threshold value is endogenously determined.It is important to determine whether the threshold effect is statistically signiﬁcant,by testing whether the slope coefﬁcients of the two regimes are equal,Hansen (2000)suggested an LM statistic.The hypothesis of no threshold effect under Eq.(7)can be represented by the null below:H 0:u 1¼u 2Since the threshold value g is not identiﬁed under the null hypothesis of no threshold effect,the p -values are computed by bootstrap analog,ﬁxing the regressors from the right-hand side of Eq.(7)and generating the bootstrap dependent variable from thedistribution N (0,ˆe2i ),where ˆe i is the OLS residual from the estimated threshold model.Hansen (1996)shows that this bootstrap analog produces asymptotically correct p -values.10The ﬁrst is an equally weighted version deﬁned by UD max F T (M ,q )which are the estimates of the break points obtained using the global minimization of the sum of squared residuals.The second test applies weights to the individual test such that the marginal p -values are equal across values of m and is denoted WD max F T (M,q );see Bai and Perron (1998)and Bai and Perron (2003).11Note that the LS estimator is also MLE when e i is i.i.d.N (0,s 2).S.-H.Chang,L.-C.Huang /Japan and the World Economy 22(2010)235–2422385.Empirical results5.1.The data and time series propertiesJapanese seasonally adjusted quarterly data is used to carry out empirical analysis,with a sample period from 1981Q2to 2008Q3.The change rate of Japanese real GDP is used to measure Japanese output growth.In order to measure Japanese ﬁnancial develop-ment levels,the Japanese deposit monetary bank claims in private sectors are used to be the proxy variable of Japanese banking development level B t ,and the total stock market value is taken to be the proxy variable of Japanese stock market development level S t .For empirical purposes,each variable is calculated according to Eq.(2).The deﬁnition of each variable and the data sources are reported in Appendix B .Table 1reports the summary statistics.To implement the empirical methods,all variables must be in their stationary forms,and augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF)Tests (Dickey and Fuller,1979)and Phillips–Perron Tests (Phillips and Perron,1988)are performed on all data.The results indicate that all the variables are stationary (see Table 2).5.2.Results of linear analysisMultiple regression analysis is used to explore the effects of real interest rates on the ﬁnance–GDP growth nexus.Table 3,consist-ing of four models in the four panels,reports the LS estimated results of regression analysis.Model (1)is the benchmark according to Eq.(2).To investigate nonlinear effects,the cross-terms of ﬁnancial sector variables and interest rate levels are considered in Model (2).Assuming the ﬁnancial sector changes affect output growth after one period,the relevant explanatory variables of one lag are therefore used in Models (3)and (4).Both the coefﬁcients of D B t /Y t À1and D S t /Y t À1in Model (1)are statistically insigniﬁcant.For Model (2),the coefﬁcients of D B t /Y t À1and its cross-term with the real interest rate of one lag are positive and statistically signiﬁcant,which implies that the effect of the banking system on output growth increases with the real interest level.For Models (3)and (4),the coefﬁcients of the lag variables of ﬁnancial sectors are statistically insigniﬁcant,however the coefﬁcient of the cross-term of the banking system and the real interest rate is statistically signiﬁcantly positive.The evidence of the linear regressions shows that the real interest rate stimulates the banking system’s effects on output growth.5.3.Nonlinear analysis5.3.1.Results of multiple structural changes modelBai and Perron (1998,2003)is used to identify the structural changes of the Japanese economy.Of interest is the presence of abrupt structural changes in the relationship between output growth and the explanatory variables according to Eq.(3).Table 4reports the results of a one-break model.The sup F T (1j 0)tests takes the value 23.64and is signiﬁcant at the 10percent level.The WDmax test has the value 23.64which is also signiﬁcant at the 10percent level.Thus,at least one break is present.The break date isTable 2Results of unit root tests.ADF test Phillips–Perron test Intercept and trendIntercept Intercept and trend Intercept ˙Y t À3.94[2]***À2.92[2]**À10.82***À9.83***˙Lt À12.05[0]***À1.59[5]*À11.97***À10.81***D k t /Y t À1À5.18[1]***À3.34[2]**À9.45***À9.26***D EX t /Y t À1À2.71[1]*À2.98[1]**À8.37***À8.59***D IM t /Y t À1À4.94[3]***À3.39[4]**À9.33***À9.02***D GC t /Y t À1À13.85[0]***À13.51[0]*À14.92***À14.04***D B t /Y t À1À10.37[0]***À9.90[0]***À10.38***À10.03***D S t /Y t À1À10.19[0]***À10.07[0]***À10.19***À10.11***Notes :[Á]is the lag periods chosen by minimizing the Schwartz information criterion (SC).About the critical value of ADF and Phillips–Perron test,see MacKinnon (1991).*Means signiﬁcantly under 10percent signiﬁcance level.**Means signiﬁcantly under 5percent signiﬁcance level.***Means signiﬁcantly under 1percent signiﬁcance level.Table 1Summary statistics.MaximumMinimum Median Mean Std.Dev.˙L0.0150À0.00790.00150.00160.0037D k t /Y t À10.0204À0.01500.00050.00030.0057D EX t /Y t À10.0032À0.00250.00020.00020.0010D IM t /Y t À10.0036À0.00470.00030.00020.0012D GC t /Y t À10.0067À0.00470.00090.00100.0018D B t /Y t À10.1454À0.76840.00990.00430.0772D S t /Y t À10.1747À0.38790.01470.00780.0837Table 3Results of regression analysis.Model (1)Model(2)Model(3)Model(4)Variable Estimates Std.Error Estimates Std.Error Estimates Std.Error Estimates Std.Error Constant 0.0025*0.00070.00100.00080.0023*0.00080.0020*0.0008˙Lt 0.20630.1715À0.04550.15760.15590.16110.04350.1658D k t /Y t À1 1.2987*0.1099 1.1319*0.1059 1.2740*0.1041 1.1766*0.1113D EX t /Y t À1 2.4175*0.7559 2.4259*0.6159 2.4722*0.6858 2.4434*0.6816D IM t /Y t À1À2.1505*0.6158À1.5227*0.5573À2.1695*0.5912À1.8905*0.5980D GC t /Y t À10.59920.35320.6680*0.31020.8435*0.34900.7656*0.3459D B t /Y t À1À0.00310.00570.0428*0.0127D S t /Y t À10.00860.0089À0.00030.0085D B t /Y t À1*r t À10.0582*0.0132D S t /Y t À1*r t À10.00470.0056(D B t /Y t À1)L 0.00760.00780.00780.0076(D S t /Y t À1)L0.00820.00720.00330.0097(D B t /Y t À1)L *r t À10.0345*0.0136(D S t /Y t À1)L *r t À10.00310.0040Adjusted R 20.66140.72310.66300.6818Notes :Std.error is White corrected heteroskedastic error.(x )L denotes the variable x of one lag.*Means signiﬁcantly under the 5percent signiﬁcance level.S.-H.Chang,L.-C.Huang /Japan and the World Economy 22(2010)235–242239。

语料库常用术语解释

为何要建立语料库？为何要用语料库方法研究语言并将其运用于语言学习？
Frank Liang
Example： Start or begin？在口语中哪个更常用？
我们的老师经常说Let’s begin！之类的话，对吗？
Frank Liang
我们再回到前面提到的问题，如何检索analyze的各种屈折形式？使用“或者”符号，如： There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 book_NN1 on_II the_AT desk_NN1 . Special corpora are not balanced (except within the scope of their given purpose) and, if used for other purposes, give a distorted view of the language segment.
How many words must a learner know in order to participate in everyday conversation?
Materials developed with a corpus can therefore be more authentic and can illustrate language as it is really used.
但有人在BNC等语料库中查到，在口语中，start更在操作界面上，提取多次序列时，先确定序列中所含词数N（如三词序列，四次序列等），计算机自动读取文本，统计每个N序列出现
的频数。
0个或多个任意数目的字母、数字及两者的组合
常用。正则表达式区分大小写、全角和半角，输入时要格外小心。
但是，另外一些文本可能使用analyse，或者我们还需要检索它的曲折形式，如analyzed、analyzing、analyzes、analysed、analysing 、analyses等，分别检索就很麻烦了。 \ban\b 匹配an，不匹配a、and或sand There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 book_NN1 on_II the_AT desk_NN1 . Special corpora are not balanced (except within the scope of their given purpose) and, if used for other purposes, give a distorted

语料库常用术语解释 (1)

Frank Liang
语料库语言学常用术语
Monolingual单语 corpus: a corpus which contains texts in a single language.
Multilingual多语 corpus: a corpus which represents small collections of individual monolingual corpora (or subcorpora) in the sense that they use the same or similar sampling procedures and categories for each language but contain completely different texts in those several languages.
TTR是衡量文本中词汇密度的常用方法。可辅助说明文本的词汇难度。
但是，文本中有大量功能词（function words, 如the、a、of等）反复出现，文本每增加一个词，形符就会增加一个，但类符却未必随之增加。这样文本越长，功能词重复次数越多，TTR会越低。因此用TTR衡量词汇密度就不合理。
语料库的方法基于真实的语言使用情况，事实胜于雄辩
Frank Liang
A corpus can be analyzed using software tools, much like those used to find key words on the Internet, but with greater sophistication. By evaluating the results of these searches, it is possible to see how language is really used, and to find answers to questions like these:

试析南京沦陷前后日军“征缴”政策及其实施原因

试析南京沦陷前后日军“征缴”政策及其实施原因朱继光（淮阴师范学院历史文化旅游学院，江苏淮安223300）摘要：在1937年12月南京沦陷前后，侵华日军在上海至南京的广大区域内实施大规模的劫掠活动，而谓之为“征缴”。

日军教令中，征缴政策指在战地有后勤机构监督之下，进行征收物品，并给予现金赔偿或待赔偿证明。

从后勤理论上看，该政策貌似完善，而实则毫无真正实施的可能。

日本侵华时期日军仅仅是以其之名掩盖自己的劫掠罪行。

这一政策的施行与日军高层的战略设计及对国际法的规避密切相关，也受到当时江南特殊的地理环境和恶劣天气等影响。

但这并不能成为日军“征缴”的借口，也无法掩饰其对华侵略的本质。

关键词：侵华日军；给养补给；征缴；南京大屠杀；劫掠中图分类号：K25文献标识码：A文章编号：1671-9743（2019）07-0041-04An Analysis of the Japanese Army 蒺s the So-called Expropriation Policy and Reasons for Its Implementation around the Fall of NanjingZHU Ji ⁃guang（College of History ，Culture and Tourism ，Huaiyin Normal University ，Huai'an ，Jiangsu 223300）Abstract ：The Japanese invaders carried out large-scale looting activities in a vast area from Shanghai to Nanjing ，which wascalled “collection ”，before and after the fall of Nanjing in December 1937.The collection policy refers to the collection of goodsunder the supervision of logistics agencies in the field ，and the payment of cash compensation or proof of pending compensation inJapanese military orders.The policy seemed perfect from the logistics theory ，but there is no real possibility of implementation.During the Anti-Japanese War ，the Japanese army only covered up its robbery in its name.The implementation of this policy wasclosely related to the strategic design of the high-level Japanese army and evasion of International Laws and Regulations ，and was also affected by the special geographical environment and bad weather in the south of the Yangtze River at that time.However ，thesecan not be used as an excuse for the Japanese army to expropriate or conceal the essence of its aggression against China.Key words ：Japanese invaders ；military supplies ；expropriation ；Nanjing Massacre ；pillage收稿日期：2019-06-02基金项目：国家社科规划办一般项目“侵华日军华中地区劫掠罪行研究（1937-1945）”（18BZS143）；江苏省社科规划办青年项目“抗战时期日军京沪地区‘征缴’政策研究”（15LSC005）；江苏省高校哲社资助项目“南京沦陷前后日军‘征缴’政策研究”（2014SJB660）。

《茶叶科学》征稿启示

3期林家正，等：红光萎凋对茶叶挥发性成分及其成品红茶品质的影响405fermentation duration on aroma and qualities in GuangdongDanxia black tea [J]. Journal of Tea Science, 2019, 39(3):342-354.[26]陈维, 马成英, 王雯雯, 等. 萎凋时间对“英红九号”白茶香气的影响[J]. 食品科学, 2017, 38(18): 138-143.Chen W, Ma C Y, Wang W W, et al. Effects of witheringduration on the aroma profile of Yinghong No. 9 white tea[J]. Food Science, 2017, 38(18): 138-143.[27]Ravichandran R, Parthiban R. Lipid occurrence, distributionand degradation to flavour volatiles during tea processing[J]. Food Chemistry, 2000, 68(1): 7-13.[28]Mosblech A, Feussner I, Heilmann I. Oxylipins: structurallydiverse metabolites from fatty acid oxidation [J]. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 2009, 47(6): 511-517.[29]朱荫, 杨停, 施江, 等. 西湖龙井茶香气成分的全二维气相色谱-飞行时间质谱分析[J]. 中国农业科学, 2015, 48(20): 4120-4146.Zhu Y, Yang T, Shi J, et al. Analysis of aroma components inXihu Longjing tea by comprehensive two-dimensional gaschromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry [J].Scientia Agricultura Sinica, 2015, 48(20): 4120-4146.[30]王梦琪, 朱荫, 张悦, 等. 茶叶挥发性成分中关键呈香成分研究进展[J]. 食品科学, 2019, 40(23): 341-349.Wang M Q, Zhu Y, Zhang Y, et al. A review of recentresearch on key aroma compounds in tea [J]. Food Science,2019, 40(23): 341-349.[31]Zhu Y, Lv H P, Shao C Y, et al. Identification of key odorantsresponsible for chestnut-like aroma quality of green teas [J].Food Research International, 2018, 108: 74-82.[32]Hattori S, Takagaki H, Fujimori T. Identification of volatilecompounds which enhanced odor notes in Japanese green teausing the OASIS (original aroma simultaneously input to thesniffing port) method [J]. Food Science and TechnologyResearch, 2005, 11(2): 171-174.[33]Zhao X P. Identification of aroma active compounds infenghuangdancong tea stalk by solvent assisted flavourevaporation combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry/gas chromatography-olfactometry [J]. HansJournal of Agricultural Sciences, 2017, 7(9): 636-647.[34]石渝凤, 邸太妹, 杨绍兰, 等. 花香型红茶加工过程中香气成分变化分析[J]. 食品科学, 2018, 39(8): 167-175.Shi Y F, Di T M, Yang S L, et al. Changes in aromacomponents in the processing of flowery black tea [J]. FoodScience, 2018, 39(8): 167-175.[35]郑鹏程, 刘盼盼, 龚自明, 等. 湖北红茶特征性香气成分分析[J]. 茶叶科学, 2017, 37(5): 465-475.Zheng P C, Liu P P, Gong Z M, et al. Analysis ofcharacteristic aroma components of Hubei black tea [J].Journal of Tea Science, 2017, 37(5): 465-475.（责任编辑：黄晨）《茶叶科学》征稿启示《茶叶科学》创刊于1964年，由朱德委员长题写刊名，是由中国科学技术协会主管、中国茶叶学会和中国农业科学院茶叶研究所主办的学术期刊，双月刊，中文核心期刊。

education and meaning-making outcomes in Japan and the United States

International Journal of Intercultural Relations24(2000)741–761Training in culture:the case of aikido education and meaning-making outcomes in Japanand the United StatesC.Jeﬀrey Dykhuizen*Lakeland College JapanAbstractThis study investigated whether a relationship existed between instructional style and points of emphasis in the training context of the martial art aikido and the perceptions which practitioners of aikido generated for aikido-related concepts.Theﬁndings were gathered within and compared across aikido training settings in two cultures}Japan and the United States.Analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data gathered for this investigation revealed several potent diﬀerences between the manner in which Japanese and American aikido practitioners represented their understandings of aikido-related concepts.Diﬀerences in the manner in which aikido practitioners in Japan and the United States represented their understandings of aikido reﬂected the teaching emphasis observed in the respective cultures.It was concluded that aikido instructors represented the values of their own culture in the context of aikido training,and thus served as important mediating forces inﬂuencing the meaning which practitioners generated for aikido.An additionalﬁnding revealed that in neither culture were participants able to accurately represent how practitioners in the‘‘other’’culture structured their understandings of aikido.It was reasoned that both cultural groups generated faulty perceptions of how the‘‘other’’group understood aikido because they utilized a similar pattern of projection,using their own meanings of aikido to represent the understandings of practitioners in the‘‘other’’cultural group.#2000Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords:Aikido;Cultural diﬀusion;Education;Cross-cultural studies;Psychology;Semiotics*Correspondence address.9320Ravine Ridge,Caledonia,MI,49316,USA.E-mail address:cjdyk@(C.J.Dykhuizen).0147-1767/00/$-see front matter#2000Elsevier Science Ltd.All rights reserved.PII:S0147-1767(00)00029-81.IntroductionWhen persons from diﬀerent cultures come into contact,there is an inevitable exchange of cultural elements.Generally,the meaning and function of a cultural artifact or practice is altered as it is transferred from one culture to another (Hunter &Whitten,1976).Developments in transportation and communications technology in the contemporary world have resulted in information being shared between cultures at ever-increasing rates.It is therefore becoming increasingly important to have a clear understanding of the process of information transfer across cultures.This study investigated the process by which an artifact from one culture was received into another.In the past several decades the Asian martial arts have become quite popular and extensively practiced in the United States (Trulson,1986).Several authors (Min,1979;Back &Kim,1984)have suggested that there are diﬀerences in martial arts instruction in American and Japanese dojo s (training halls).It has been argued that the process of recontextualizing the martial arts into the culture of the United States has resulted in new understandings of the martial arts (Columbus &Rice,1991;Trulson,1986;Deshimaru in Wertz,1984).The majority of the research which has generated these ﬁndings,however,has involved hard,linear,combat-oriented martial arts.Aikido,which was used as an example in this study,is a relatively new,soft,spiritually based martial art.1.1.The nature of aikidoAikido is a soft,circular Japanese martial way which is commonly translated into English as ‘‘the way of harmony’’.In aikido,the goal of training is to generate a balance of body,mind,and spirit (Ueshiba,1984).This is accomplished by training to centralize and extend ‘‘ki ’’or vital energy,and to coordinate it harmoniously with the surrounding circumstances (Ratti &Westerbrook,1973,p.359).Aikido’s founder,Morihei Ueshiba,believed that violence and aggression could be guided,led or turned aside by the harmonious coordination of spirit.The manifestations of this principle can be observed in watching an aikido practitioner whirl and spin,leading the aggressor’s force to a harmonious,non-violent outcome.From its inception,aikido has emphasized a spiritual component (Ueshiba,1984;Saotome,1993),and this emphasis has diﬀerentiated aikido from other,more combative martial arts.Aikido was founded by Morihei Ueshiba in Japan in 1942(Crawford,1992;Ueshiba,1984)and it is practiced widely in Japan by persons of both genders and various ages.Aikido was ﬁrst introduced in the United States in 1953,and it is currently estimated that there are approximately 1000aikido dojo s in the continental United States (Pranin,1991).Aikido has recently received attention due to the success of Steven Segal’s movies.1.2.Research questionsThis study sought to clarify whether,and if so how the meaning of aikido was altered in its diﬀusion to the United States.Although the investigation was broadlyC.J.Dykhuizen /International Journal of Intercultural Relations 24(2000)741–761742C.J.Dykhuizen/International Journal of Intercultural Relations24(2000)741–761743contextualized within theﬁeld of cultural diﬀusion,it speciﬁcally explored the relationship between the presentation and instruction of aikido,and students’understandings of it.Three interrelated research questions guided the inquiry.(1)How is the instruction and practice of aikido in the United States diﬀerent thanthe instruction and practice of aikido in Japan?(2)What diﬀerences,if any,exist between what aikido means to practitioners in theUnited States and Japan?(3)In what manner are diﬀerences in instruction and practice related to diﬀerencesin the meaning which aikido has to practitioners in diﬀerent cultures?1.3.Culture as a research variableIn this research project,as in many cross-cultural studies,culture‘‘entails some sort of‘treatment’or‘condition’’’(Berry,Poortinga,Segall&Dasen,1992,p.220). When culture serves as an antecedent or independent variable,individuals’beliefs and behaviors are dependent variables(Berry,1980).By comparing the manner in which aikido practitioners in Japan and the United States structured their understandings of aikido-related concepts,this project compared the dependent variables of diﬀerent‘‘treatment’’groups.The terms America(employed to parsimoniously refer to the United States)and Japan were used in this project to refer to speciﬁc research settings,and not to entire nation-states.As pointed out by Berry et al.(1992),the contrast between large cultural populations‘‘is rarely of more psychological interest than between the people of two small groups within the two areas’’(p.228).This investigation took place within the socially constructed world within which speciﬁc groups of aikido practitioners trained.2.Methodology2.1.Multiple case study design and mixed-methods methodologyA multiple-case study comparative research design using mixed methods was used to conduct this investigation.The multiple-case study design accommodated an essential feature of this study}across case analysis.Yin(1984)stated that in the multiple case study design,the use of multiple sources of data aids in the generation of‘‘more convincing and accurate’’ﬁndings.The comparative nature of the investigation’s research design was facilitated by being structured within a format of constant–comparative analysis(Glasser&Strauss,1967).Berry and his colleagues(1992)have stated that for cross-cultural comparative studies,‘‘an important strategy is to use more than one method of measurement’’(p.223).Both qualitative and quantitative data gathering and analysis strategies were used in this comparative investigation.Data were gathered using in-depthinterviews with participants (LeCompte &Preissle,1993;Glesne &Peshkin,1992;Yin,1984),participant–observation (LeCompte &Preissle,1993;Glesne &Peshkin,1992;Yin,1984),direct,structured observation (Yin,1984;LeCompte &Preissle,1993)semantic diﬀerentials (Osgood,Suci &Tannenbaum,1957),and a demographic questionnaire.Berry and his colleagues (1992)have asserted that by using more than one method of measurement,‘‘one can have more conﬁdence in a ﬁnding’’(p.223).2.2.Semantic diﬀerentialsThe semantic diﬀerential (Osgood et al.,1957)is a quantitative tool which measures the meaning of concepts.The semantic diﬀerential is a ﬁtting tool to use in gathering data cross-culturally,particularly between populations speaking diﬀerent languages.One reason for this is that the semantic diﬀerential utilizes the principles of synesthesia.Synesthesia is the act of using descriptors from one sensory mode to describe a sensation experienced through another sense.For example,when someone says,‘‘That’s a hot suit.’’when referring to the color and style of someone’s outﬁt,they are using the principles of synesthesia.Instruction in aikido uses a variety of sensory modes to convey teachings }visual,tactile,aural,kinesthetic,etc.Because practitioners acquire information about aikido from a variety of sensory modes,the semantic diﬀerential was chosen as a tool to gather data on this topic.The concepts measured in this study were deliberately selected for purposes of comparison }to compare the manner in which two diﬀerent cultural groups structure the meaning of a shared activity,aikido.Concepts were also selected to evaluate participants’perceptions of how members of the ‘‘other’’group perceives aikido.The concepts whose meaning was measured were:(a)‘‘‘Ki ’is’’;(b)‘‘‘Aikido’is’’;(c)‘‘Aikido practitioners in the United States think aikido is’’;and (d)‘‘Aikido practitioners in Japan think aikido is’’.Twelve descriptive scales were used to generate a semantic diﬀerential for the four concepts.The descriptive scales,comprised of pairs of polar adjectives,were selected from scales published in Osgood et al.(1957).Scales were selected for use in this study based upon several criteria,the primary criteria being that the scales were relevant to the martial arts-related concepts under investigation.Additionally,scales were given selection priority if they had also been shown to account for a large amount of variance in previous studies presented in Osgood et al.(1957).2.3.Back-translationIn cross-cultural comparative studies translation is a factor which must be addressed.This research project used the back-translation technique described by Brislin (1980).In this study,back-translation consisted of a bilingual person translating the tool from one language (English)to another (Japanese),after which another bilingual person independently translated the tool back to the original language.The ﬁrst and third versions of the documents were then compared for consistency.This technique has the advantage of ‘‘decentering’’the material awayC.J.Dykhuizen /International Journal of Intercultural Relations 24(2000)741–761744C.J.Dykhuizen/International Journal of Intercultural Relations24(2000)741–761745 from the semantic bias of the original language.The result of the process of decentering‘‘means that the research project is not centered around any one culture or language’’(Brislin,1980,p.433).The questions used to guide interviews,as well as the semantic diﬀerentials used in this study were back-translated.2.4.ParticipantsAll participants in the study were adult practitioners of aikido in dojo s in Japan and the United States.Several of the practitioners in each culture who participated in this study were instructors.In each culture,data was gathered only from participants who were‘native’to that culture;for example,in Japan data was gathered only among Japanese aikido practitioners,and in the United States only from American practitioners.Data was not collected among non-Japanese aikido practitioners training in Japan,nor among non-Americans training in dojo s in the United States.2.5.Quantitative populationThe quantitative population in this study consisted of aikido practitioners who trained at dojo s in the research settings,and who volunteered to participate inﬁlling out a semantic diﬀerential packet.One hundred twenty aikido practitioners training at12dojo s in the Japanese research setting completed the quantitative measures.In the research area in the United states,128aikido practitioners training at nine dojo s participated in completing the forms.A minimum of120participants training in each culture was required to maintain the statistical integrity of the semantic diﬀerential.2.6.Qualitative interview participantsIn-depth,structured interviews with aikido practitioners were conducted in Japan and the United States.The majority of interview participants were drawn from among practitioners training in aikido dojo s which served as the participant observation sites in the study.After a minimum of two months of training with participants,individual practitioners were approached if their beliefs,attitudes and training practices were judged to be representative of other individuals at the same level of expertise training in dojo s in that research setting.In this sense, interview participants were selected purposively.In several cases,instructors teaching at sites in the research area where systematic observation was conducted were also approached for interviews.All practitioners who were asked volunteered to participate in the interviewing process.Interviews with Japanese participants were conducted in Japanese.Although the primary researcher is functionallyﬂuent in spoken Japanese,interviews in Japan preceded with a native Japanese speaker present to ensure that theﬂow and focus of the inquiry was maintained.The interviews were audio-taped,translated in the case of the Japanese interviews,and transcribed to text for analysis.Participants possessed a variety of demographic characteristics and experiences.Ten Japanese interview participants,eight males and two females,participated in interviews between June and August,1995.All were actively engaged in aikido training at aikido dojo s at the time the interviews were conducted.Their ages ranged from 20to 55years.One participant had been training for just over one year,while two others had been training for over 40years.Participants had aikido rankings ranging from fourth kyu (pre-black belt ranking)to eighth dan (black belt ranking).There were three instructors,all of whom were male,among Japanese interview participants.Seven participants,one of whom was female,were interviewed in the research area in the United States.They ranged in age from 20to 50.Their aikido experience ranged from slightly less than one year to more than 25,and they had ranks ranging from ﬁfth kyu to fourth dan .Three of the participants in the United States were male instructors.One had seven,one ﬁve,and the other three years teaching experience.3.FindingsThis section presents the ﬁndings of the study.The ﬁndings concerning the instructional emphasis observed and experienced while training in aikido dojo s is presented ﬁrst.This is followed by a section describing practitioners’perceptions of aikido-related concepts,and a comparison of these perceptions across cultures.The implications of the ﬁndings are addressed in the discussion section.3.1.Instructional style and content emphasis observed at the participantobservation sitesParticipant observation was conducted on two sites simultaneously for a three month period in the Japanese research area.Participant observation occurred at one site in the United States for a total period of six months.Dojos were selected for participant observation if they (a)provided training in Aikikai-aﬃliated aikido,(b)granted access,(c)were accessible to the researcher in terms of commuting time,and (d)were representative of aikido dojos in the research areas.For this investigation,participant observation included involvement in all aspects of training,maintenance,and after training activities both inside and outside the dojo .Field notes were taken to record observations,experiences,and conversations with informants which occurred before,during,and after training sessions.The following section provides a brief description of the teaching emphasis observed and experienced at each of the participant observation sites.Pseudonyms are used to refer to all persons and places.3.2.Participant observation sites in Japan3.2.1.Akiyama dojoAkiyama dojo was a small dojo ,both in size of training area and number of students.Typically,8–10students trained during each of the three-night a weekC.J.Dykhuizen /International Journal of Intercultural Relations 24(2000)741–761746C.J.Dykhuizen/International Journal of Intercultural Relations24(2000)741–761747 classes.Classes were very structured,beginning with a bow to shomen(the front of the dojo),continuing through a short meditation session,group warm-ups,and speciﬁc instruction in and practice of aikido techniques.All activities at Akiyama dojo,including partner selection and technique training,were scripted,even ritualized,and Akiyama sensei(teacher;instructor)insured that the behavioral patterns were strictly adhered to.Akiyama sensei placed emphasis on kokyu ho(breathing method)during training.A seated,meditative version of the exercise was performed at the beginning and end of each training session.During kokyu ho,Akiyama sensei instructed students to keep their posture straight,their chins pulled in,and their breath slow:‘‘When inhaling,concentrate on the incoming breath,bringing ki energy into your tanden (center point),then hold it there.When exhaling,force ki out through every part of your body;do not try to keep ki in your body’’.We were instructed to literally ‘‘watch’’our breathing(Fieldnotes,June,1995).Akiyama sensei also provided speciﬁc instruction on the‘‘proper’’positioning of the hands,feet,and hips when performing aikido movements.For example,we were told to hold the bokken(a wooden training sword)with our hands on the top of the hilt,gripping only with the two smallestﬁngers.‘‘Hold the bokken straight in front of you,the butt twoﬁsts from your hara(belly)’’.He stated that the cut had to originate in the hara,and that ki should‘‘ﬂow through the bokken’’.He insisted that the only way to get a smooth,fast,yet powerful cut‘‘was to concentrate ki through the tip of the ken(colloquial for‘‘bokken’’).The hips are also important,because speed and power come from the hara’’(Fieldnotes,June3,1995).These comments exemplify Akiyama sensei’s consistent emphasis on ki control and extension as it related to coordinating breathing and bodily movement,as well as the precise manner in which he gave speciﬁc instruction.3.2.2.Sakamoto dojoSakamoto sensei,the instructor at the second participant observation site in Japan,also placed emphasis upon aspects of spirit and energy in aikido,although such imagery was employed in a context of educating toward practical applica-tion of aikido principles and techniques to martial situations.Approximately 25–30practitioners participated in each of the twice-a-week training sessions.I observed that the aikido practiced at Sakamoto dojo was sharp,clean,and in many ways‘‘harder’’than the aikido observed at the majority of dojo s visited in the Japanese research setting.Although demonstrations of and instruction in the performance of speciﬁc aikido techniques was provided by Sakamoto sensei,the practice sessions were less formally structured than at Akiyama dojo,and students freely chose partners with whom they trained at mutually agreed-upon levels of rigor.Occasionally,individuals would receive personal instruction from Sakamoto sensei during a training session.For instance,once while instructing me to work on body movements,he told me to‘‘Move with your whole body,not just your feet. Don’t show your opponent where you are moving,don’t show him your heart.Feel from hara’’(Fieldnotes,June10,1995).He continued giving individualizedinstruction during pair-work,telling me to ‘‘Look at the eyes (of your partner),only at the eyes.Don’t look at the weapon or your hands.Eyes.Capture the spirit of your opponent’’(Fieldnotes,June 10,1995).As his comment illustrates,although Sakamoto sensei taught within a context which emphasized martial engagement,he did occasionally refer to spirit to illustrate his instructional points.3.3.The American participant observation site:White Hall dojoAt the American participant observation site,labeled White Hall dojo because there was more than one regular instructor,there was an easily discernable ‘‘script’’of dojo procedures for activities (such as opening and closing class procedures,partner selection,and technique demonstration).Unlike instruction in the Japanese settings,however,there was no recognizable systematic approach to teaching speciﬁc techniques or movements.This coincides with the two American instructors’descriptions of their teaching styles as ‘‘idea-driven’’.Both Frank and William,the two primary instructors at the dojo ,taught from a non-scripted,thematic framework which emphasized the basic principles of aikido.As William stated during an interview:‘‘Usually for teaching,I just come in with an idea.And we explore the idea,and we try to make as many connections as possible with the various techniques based on an idea’’(Interview,November 8,1995,p.9).Among the ‘‘ideas’’around which training sessions frequently revolved at White Hall dojo were:being centered,extension,establishing and maintaining a connection with the training partner,and circularity.Additionally,both instructors placed emphasis upon the application of aikido principles for martial eﬀectiveness.For example,while giving an explanation to the class,Frank stated that,‘‘Aikido must be able to work against anybody from any martial art.Aikido is a martial art.Otherwise you’re just dancing around and feeling good’’(Fieldnotes,January 6,1996).This statement reﬂects an instructional style aimed at generating an understanding of aikido as a martial activity,and not primarily as a practice designed for psychological or spiritual development.White Hall dojo instructors rarely spoke of energy when providing explanations,and they were never heard to mention ki during a training session.Instead,their explanations generally focused on the principles upon which aikido’s dynamic movements were founded,as exempliﬁed in their utilization of terms such as ‘‘centering’’,and ‘‘connection’’.The instructors taught martial practicality in a manner which did not deny,but certainly did not give primacy to,psychological or spiritual considerations.3.4.Practitioners ’perceptions of aikido-related concepts:integrated ﬁndings from the semantic diﬀerential and interview dataThis project utilized the constant comparative method (Glasser &Strauss,1967);analysis of interview and participant observation data were on-going throughout the study.The ﬁndings generated from the analysis of these data were integrated with the empirical ﬁndings which emerged from the analysis of the semantic diﬀerentialC.J.Dykhuizen /International Journal of Intercultural Relations 24(2000)741–761748C.J.Dykhuizen/International Journal of Intercultural Relations24(2000)741–761749 data.Theﬁndings generated from the analysis of the semantic diﬀerential data provide a structured representation of participants’understandings of aikido-related concepts,while the qualitativeﬁndings generate a fuller,more detailed description of participants’dynamic and personal understandings of aikido.A principle component analysis(factor analysis)with verimax rotation was applied to analyze the semantic diﬀerential data.The data collected from aikido practitioners in Japan and the United States were treated separately,and items loading at0.60or higher were retained to represent the factors extracted from the analysis.Theﬁndings are presented below.3.5.Concept1:Ki is‘‘Ki’’is typically translated into English as‘‘spirit’’,‘‘mind’’,‘‘will’’,and‘‘intrinsic or inner energy’’(O’Neill,1973;Ratti&Westerbrook,1973).Three distinct factors for‘‘ki is’’were extracted from the Japanese semantic diﬀerential data,while only two factors were extracted from the American data.This indicates that Japanese practitioners structured their understanding of ki in a more complex manner than American practitioners.An examination of the items comprising the factors for each group reveals further diﬀerences in how members of the two cultural groups constructed meaning for the same concept.For clarity,the items comprising a factor are not presented here as polar adjective pairs,but as single adjectives,in accordance with the positive or negative sign extracted during analysis.It should be also noted that theﬁrst factor extracted during analysis typically serves as the‘‘central’’factor around which the meaning for a particular concept is structured.Theﬁrst factor extracted from the Japanese data consisted of theﬁve items‘‘kind’’,‘‘graceful’’,‘‘peaceful’’,‘‘soft’’,and ‘‘rounded’’.These items connoted a sense of ethicalﬂuidness,characterizing harmony.The second factor consisted of the items‘‘strong’’,‘‘deep’’and‘‘active’’, and the third factor of the items‘‘heavy’’and‘‘tenacious’’(Table1).Theﬁrst factor extracted from data gathered among participants in the United States consisted of the items‘‘cruel’’,‘‘ferocious’’,‘‘hard’’and‘‘tenacious’’.The connotative quality of this factor was intrusive,even aggressive.No factor extracted from the Japanese data carried a similar quality of meaning.The second factor contained the items‘‘beautiful’’,‘‘graceful’’,‘‘strong’’,‘‘deep’’,‘‘tenacious’’,and ‘‘active’’.The two factors extracted from the American data seemed to exist on a semantic continuum;a continuum which ranged from‘aggression’,to a sense of aesthetic movement.The meaning of ki was less diﬀerentiated by the American aikido practitioners than by their Japanese counterparts,indicating that American practitioners had a less complex understanding of the concept.This is not surprising,as the kanji (Chinese character)‘‘ki’’is found in words and phrases used everyday in Japanese society;for example,the word for weather,‘‘tenki’’,contains the kanji for‘‘heaven’’and‘‘ki’’.The analysis of the Japanese interview data also revealed that ki plays an important role in Japanese participants’conceptions of aikido.For example,a female aikidoist stated,‘‘If you don’t have harmonious ki,you can’t do aikido’’(Participant interview,June 29,1995,p.3).Not only does her statement illuminate the central importance of the practice and philosophy of harmony to aikido,but it contextualizes this idea in the concept of ki .For English speakers,however,‘‘ki ’’is a foreign concept.Although Americans training in aikido have more opportunities to reﬁne their understanding of ‘‘ki ’’than do non-aikido practicing Americans,the lesser diﬀerentiation of the concept among American participants may simply be due to their relative unfamiliarity with the concept.It was also found that in the educational settings American instructors referred to ki less frequently during training sessions than did instructors teaching in the Japanese settings.Table 1Results of the principle component analysis of the semantic diﬀerential data by culture (Concept:ki is)Factors123LoadingsJapanBeautiful/ugly0.430.59À0.35Kind/cruel0.740.20À0.18Graceful/awkward0.810.25À0.20Peaceful/ferocious0.800.14À0.01Hard/soft À0.85À0.23À0.01Heavy/light0.080.050.78Strong/weak 0.400.630.15Deep/shallow 0.160.85À0.06Tenacious/yielding À0.12À0.090.69Active/passive 0.220.740.14Complex/simpleÀ0.140.390.50Angular/rounded À0.81À0.13À0.04Factors12LoadingsUSABeautiful/ugly À0.350.72Kind/cruelÀ0.760.37Graceful/awkward À0.260.72Peaceful/ferociousÀ0.720.26Hard/soft0.72À0.20Heavy/light0.53À0.05Strong/weak À0.250.64Deep/shallow À0.150.73Tenacious/yielding0.690.03Active/passive0.190.67Complex/simple0.56À0.07Angular/rounded 0.55À0.36C.J.Dykhuizen /International Journal of Intercultural Relations 24(2000)741–761750。

对日本语言的理解英语作文

对日本语言的理解英语作文The Japanese language, with its intricate writing system and unique grammatical structure, has long been a subject of fascination for language enthusiasts around the world. As a language teacher, I find that understanding the Japanese language offers not only a window into the rich culture of Japan but also valuable insights into the cognitive processes that govern human communication.Firstly, the writing system of Japanese is a blend of three scripts: Kanji, Hiragana, and Katakana. Kanji, derived from Chinese characters, are used to represent concepts and are often complex in form. Hiragana, with its cursive style, is used for native Japanese words and grammatical elements. Katakana, on the other hand, is angular and typically usedfor foreign words and onomatopoeic expressions. The coexistence of these scripts in a single language is a testament to the adaptability and evolution of the Japanese linguistic system.Secondly, the grammar of Japanese is markedly different from that of Indo-European languages. It follows a subject-object-verb (SOV) word order, which can be challenging for English speakers accustomed to a subject-verb-object (SVO) structure. Additionally, Japanese relies heavily on particles that are attached to the end of words to indicate their grammatical role in a sentence. This system requires a different approach to sentence construction and emphasizes the importance ofcontext in understanding meaning.Another intriguing aspect of the Japanese language is its honorific system, which is deeply rooted in the culture's hierarchical social structure. There are various levels of speech, from casual to highly formal, that are used depending on the social relationship between the speaker and the listener. This system reflects the importance of politeness and respect in Japanese society.Furthermore, the Japanese language is known for its nuance and subtlety. Often, the meaning of a sentence is not explicitly stated but rather implied through context, shared knowledge, and non-verbal cues. This can make the language both rewarding and challenging for learners, as it requires a deep understanding of the culture and the ability tointerpret the unspoken.In conclusion, the Japanese language is a complex and multifaceted system that offers a wealth of knowledge to those who study it. It is not merely a means of communication but also a key to understanding the cultural nuances and social dynamics of Japan. As an English teacher, I encourage my students to explore the Japanese language not just for its linguistic merits but also for the broader perspective it can provide on the world and human interaction.。

新教材同步系列2024春高中英语Unit2Success单元词汇预通关课件北师大版选择性必修第一册

date. 【答案】1.appreciate bels
3．His business empire __________ under a massive burden of debt.
4．Why don’t you __________ a car? Then you’ll be able to visit more of the area.
3．I’d always played a __________ game，waiting for my opponent to make a mistake.
4．Imagination is a valuable quality and __________power， and stimulates achievement.
3．Old people prefer to ________their own homes. 老年人喜欢待在自己家中。 4．It doesn’t _______________ to buy the cheapest computer just to save a few dollars. 为了省点钱而买最便宜的电脑是没有意义的。 5．His reasons for not wanting to go all __________________ the fact that he doesn’t have enough money. 他不想去的全部理由可以归结为：他没有足够的钱。【答案】3.stay in 4．make sense 5.boil down to
【答案】8.designer 9.incomes 10．leadership
形容词(adj.)&副词(adv.) optimistic ， disciplined ， defensive ， committed ， enthusiastic，academic，comfortably，influential，motivating 1．He was always __________，even when things were at his worst. 2．The winners were given an _________welcome when they arrived home. 【答案】1.optimistic 2.enthusiastic

哪些日语单词来自英语作文

哪些日语单词来自英语作文The Curious Origins of Japanese Words from English Essays。

One fascinating aspect of language evolution is the cross-cultural borrowing that occurs over time. In the case of Japanese, a language with a rich history of adopting foreign vocabulary, some words have an interesting origin: they're borrowed directly from English essays.Take the word "shutsushiki," which in Japanese means "photogenic." This term was actually coined from an English essay describing the quality of being photographically appealing. It's a perfect example of how a concept described in English literature has been seamlessly integrated into the Japanese language.Another example is "kigou," which translates to "symbol" or "notation." This word was borrowed from English essays discussing mathematical or scientific notations,highlighting how Japanese language absorbs terminology from fields as diverse as the sciences.The word "ranbu," meaning "random," also has an English essay connection. It's derived from the English concept of randomness, reflecting how Japanese language adapts to capture modern ideas and concepts.The trend doesn't stop there. "Kaiseki," which refers to a traditional Japanese multi-course meal, actually originated from English essays describing the art of carefully selecting and presenting food. This shows how even cultural practices can influence language borrowing.These examples illustrate the dynamic nature of language and how it evolves by borrowing from。

写日本的初三英语作文

Japan is a country with a rich history and a unique blend of traditional and modern culture. As a student in the ninth grade, writing an essay about Japan can be an exciting opportunity to explore the many facets of this fascinating nation.Title: The Diverse Charm of JapanJapan, an archipelago in East Asia, is known for its captivating blend of ancient traditions and cuttingedge technology. As a ninthgrade student, I am intrigued by the countrys history, culture, and the way it harmoniously integrates the old with the new.Geography and HistoryJapans geography is diverse, ranging from the bustling metropolis of Tokyo to the serene rural landscapes of the countryside. The countrys history is equally rich, with the first written records dating back to the 8th century. Japans past is marked by periods of significant cultural and political changes, such as the Nara, Heian, and Edo periods, each leaving a lasting impact on Japanese society.Cultural TraditionsOne of the most striking aspects of Japanese culture is its deep respect for tradition. The tea ceremony, or chanoyu, is a prime example of this, where the ritual of preparing and serving tea is a meditative and artistic experience. Traditional arts such as kabuki theater and bunraku puppet shows continue to be celebrated and enjoyed by audiences today. Language and WritingThe Japanese language is complex and beautiful, with three writing systems: hiragana, katakana, and kanji. Learning even the basics of the language can provide insight into the intricacies of Japanese thought and expression.Modern InnovationsDespite its strong ties to the past, Japan is also a global leader in technology and innovation. From advancements in robotics to the development of ecofriendly vehicles, Japan consistently pushes the boundaries of what is possible.CuisineJapanese cuisine is another area where tradition meets innovation. Sushi, ramen, andtempura are just a few examples of dishes that have gained international popularity. The emphasis on fresh ingredients and presentation reflects the Japanese attention to detail and aesthetics.Education SystemThe Japanese education system is renowned for its rigor and high standards. Students in Japan are known for their discipline and dedication to learning, which is evident in the countrys impressive literacy rates and academic achievements.ConclusionIn conclusion, Japan is a country that offers a unique blend of the past and the future. Its rich cultural heritage, innovative spirit, and commitment to education make it a fascinating subject for study. As a ninthgrade student, I look forward to learning more about Japan and perhaps one day experiencing its diverse charm firsthand.This essay provides a brief overview of Japan, touching on its geography, history, cultural traditions, language, modern innovations, cuisine, and education system. It is written in a style suitable for a ninthgrade English composition, with a focus on clarity and informative content.。