08 syntax
普通语言学 6-Syntax解析
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Syntax
pedago gy
• Syntax 来自古希腊语：sý ntaxis • 布局、陈列（“arrangement” or “setting out together”）
符号学中的 Syntax
• Morris (1938):符号学（semiotics）的三个分支
1. Syntactics: 符号之间的关系
NP
N’ 是介于名词 N 和名 词短语NP的中间层次
X-语杠
• X-语杠是大于中心语，小于短语（XP）的中间成分。 • X-语杠理论意味着每个短语都有中心语，即每个短语 都是一个向心结构（endocentric structure）。 • 这有别于传统结构语言学区分向心结构和离心结构（ exocentric structure）的做法。
• 句子是理论/抽象单位,由语法界定。 正确/不正确 • 语段是物理单位，属于言语表达或运用的范畴。 合适/不合适
如何解决？？？
• 句子功能的区分：
1. 2. 3. 4. 陈述句（statement） 疑问句（question） 命令句（command） 感叹句（exclamation）
如何解决？？？
???
• 现代句法学的句子定义不再使用“思想” 这一抽象的概念。 • 例如：an apple 表达思想,但不是句子； He came late, because he overslept. 一个句子，两个思想。
Bloomfield
• 现代语言学的句子定义深受美国结构主义语言学影响。 • 语法中最大的语言单位 / 适用于句法规则的最大结构单 位。 • 一个独立的语言形式，不被任何语法结构包含在更大的 语言形式中（Bloomfield, 1933）。 • An independent linguistic form, not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form.
syntax
Syntax
2015/04/15
1
Outline
What is syntax? Syntactic units; Syntactic functions Syntactic relations
Syntagmatic relation 组合关系 paradigmatic relation 聚合关系
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Clause
A constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence, is a CLAUSE. (1) I want to know why. (2) Having an influential father is often advantageous. (3) Do you know where I come from? finite and non-finite clause (traditional infinite phrase, participial phrase and gerundial phrase)
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词如何组织为句子
句子结构 制约句子结构的规则
4
The word “syntax” , derived originally from the Ancient Greek sý ntaxis, is made up of two morphemes: syn and tax . The former means “together” and the latter “to arrange”, hence the literal meaning “a setting out together” or “arrangement” . The core of syntax is the study of the structures of sentences. Different linguistic theories first differ in their treatment of sentence structures.
注释语法分析树
注释语法分析树概念语法制导翻译的基本思想在语法分析基础上边分析边翻译•翻译的依据：语义规则或语义子程序•翻译的结果：相应的中间代码•翻译的做法：为每个产生式配置相应的语义子程序，每当使用某个产生式进行规约或推导时，就调用语义子程序，完成一部分翻译工作•语法分析完成时，翻译工作也告结束sdd && sdt•语法制导定义 syntax-directed definitions（sdd）o将文法符号和某些属性相关联规则与产生式相关联o并通过语义规则来描述如何计算属性的值 e → e 1+ t e . v a l = e 1. v a l + t . v a l e→e1+t e.val=e1.val + t.vale→e1+te.val=e1.val+t.val•语法制导的翻译方案 syntax-directed translationscheme（sdt）o在产生式体中加入语义动作，并在适当的时候执行这些语义动作o e → e 1 + t { e . v a l = e 1. v a l + t . va l ; } e → e1+t \{e.val=e1.val + t.val;\}e→e1+t{e.val=e1.val+t.val;}语义规则•描述一个产生式所对应的翻译工作，如：o改变某些变量的值；o填/查各种符号表；o发现并报告源程序错误；o产生中间代码•决定于翻译的目的，例如：产生什么样的中间代码文法属性（s,l）•综合属性：分析树节点n上的非终结符的综合属性只能通过该节点或子节点的属性来定义。
终结符可以具有综合属性，值由词法分析器提供。
•继承属性分析树节点n上的非终结符的继承属性只能通过该节点或父节点或兄弟节点的属性来定义。
终结符没有继承属性sdd•只包含综合属性的sdd称为s属性的sdd•含有继承属性的sdd在对sdd的求值过程中，如果结点n的属性a依赖于结点m1的属性a1， m2的属性a2，…。
残存SYNTAX评分对311例冠心病PCI患者长期预后评价
㊃论著㊃基金项目:内蒙古自治区科技计划项目(20140149)通信作者:韩雅君,E m a i l :j u n ya h a n 123456@163.c o m 残存S Y N T A X 评分对311例冠心病P C I 患者长期预后评价韩雅君,赵 平,朱 慧,赵炜祎,王燕芳,刘志宏(内蒙古自治区人民医院老年心血管内科,内蒙古呼和浩特010017) 摘 要:目的 评价残存S Y N T A X 评分对冠心病经皮冠状动脉介入治疗(p e r c u t a n o u sc o r o n a r y in t e r v e n t i o n ,P C I )患者长期预后的预测能力㊂方法 连续入选2013年1月至2014年5月于内蒙古自治区人民医院心内科一病区住院冠心病并行P C I 患者311例,收集性别㊁年龄㊁临床诊断㊁血脂㊁肾功能等临床资料,进行S Y N T A X 评分和残存S Y N Y T A X 评分,同时进行2~4年临床随访,随访不良心脑血管事件(MA C C E ),包括全因死亡㊁卒中㊁血运重建㊁心力衰竭㊂结果 311例患者发生MA C C E48例,其中全因死亡14例;再次血运重建23例;缺血性卒中9例;心力衰竭2例㊂MA C C E 组与无MA C C E 组比较年龄大(64.13ʃ8.45岁v s60.79ʃ10.12岁,P =0.03)㊁糖尿病患者比例高(39.58%v s 18.63%,P =0.001)㊁S Y N T A X 评分高(15.16ʃ6.53v s 12.94ʃ7.44,P =0.017)和残存S Y N T A X 评分高(7.52ʃ6.54v s 4.23ʃ5.50,P =0.000)㊂S Y N T A X 评分㊁残存S Y N T A X 评分㊁目测冠状动脉病变预测终点事件的曲线下面积分别为0.608(P =0.018)㊁0.665(P =0.000)㊁0.668(P =0.000)㊂完全血运重建组与不完全血运重建组MA C C E 发生率分别为5.98%和20.42%(P =0.003),两组再次血运重建率分别为0.85%和12.37%(P =0.000)㊂糖尿病患者和非糖尿病患者S Y N T A X 评分为15.09ʃ7.69和12.78ʃ7.17(P =0.026),残存S Y N T A X 评分为6.15ʃ6.32和4.34ʃ5.57(P =0.016)㊂糖尿病患者和非糖尿病患者M A C C E 发生率分别为27.9%和11.8%(P =0.001),再次血运重建率分别为19.1%和4.9%(P =0.000)㊂结论 ①冠心病P C I 患者完全血运重建优于不完全血运重建,残存冠状动脉病变越多MA C C E 发生率越高㊂②残存S Y N T A X 评分㊁S Y N T A X 评分和冠状动脉病变均能预测长期预后㊂③糖尿病患者冠状动脉病变程度重,MA C C E 发生率高,主要原因是再次血运重建㊂关键词:冠心病;残存S Y N T A X 评分;再次血运重建;主要不良心脑血管事件中图分类号:R 541.4 文献标志码:A 文章编号:1004-583X (2018)08-0670-05d o i :10.3969/j.i s s n .1004-583X.2018.08.006E v a l u a t i o n t o l o n g -t e r m p r o g n o s i s b y re s i d u a l S Y N T A Xs c o r e t o 311p a t i e n t s w i t h p e r c u t a n e o u s c o r o n a r y a r t e r yi n t e r v e n t i o n H a nY a j u n ,Z h a oP i n g ,Z h uH u i ,Z h a o W e i y i ,W a n g Y a n f a n g ,L i uZ h i h o n gD e p a r t m e n t o fE l d e r l y C a r d i o l o g y o f I n n e rM o n go l i aA u t o n o m o u s R e g i o nP e o p l e sH o s pi t a l ,H o h h o t 010017,C h i n a C o r r e s p o n d i n g a u t h o r :H a nY a j u n ,E m a i l :j u n ya h a n 123456@163.c o m A B S T R A C T :Ob j ec t i v e T oe v a l u a t e t h ea b i l i t y o f r e s id u a lS Y N T A Xt o p re d i c t l o n g -t e r m p r o g n o s i s i n p a t i e n t s w i t hc o r o n a r y a r t e r y d i s e a s e .M e t h o d s At o t a l of 311p a t i e n t sw i t h c o r o n a r y a r t e r y d i s e a s e u n d e rg o i n g c o r o n a r y a r t e r yd i se a s ew e r ee n r o l l e di nt h eD e p a r t m e n to fC a r d i o l o g y ,I n n e r M o n g o l i a A u t o n o m o u sR e g i o n H o s p i t a lf r o m J a n u a r y2013t o M a y 2014.C l i n i c a l d a t a i n c l u d i n g s e x ,a g e ,c l i n i c a l d i a g n o s i s ,b l o o d l i pi da n dr e n a l f u n c t i o nw e r ec o l l e c t e d .M a i n a d v e r s e c a r d i o v a s c u l a r a n d c e r e b r o v a s c u l a r e v e n t s (MA C C E ),i n c l u d i n g a l l -c a u s ede a t h ,s t r o k e ,r e p e a t r e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n ,a n dh e a r tf a i l u r e ,w e r e f o l l o w e du p fo r2t o4y e a r s .R e s u l t s O f t h e311p a t i e n t s ,t h e r ew e r e48c a s e s o fMA C C E ,i n c l u d i n g 14c a s e s o f a l l c a u s e d e a t h ,23c a s e s o f r e p e a t r e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n ,9c a s e s o f i s c h e m i c s t r o k e a n d 2c a s e s o f h e a r t f a i l u r e .MA C C E g r o u p w a s o l d e r t h a nn o n -MA C C E g r o u p (64.13ʃ8.45v s 60.79ʃ10.12,P =0.03),a n d t h er a t i oo f p a t i e n t sw i t hd i a b e t e sm e l l i t u sw a sh i g h e r t h a nt h a to f t h en o n -MA C C E g r o u p (39.58%v s 18.63%,P =0.001),S Y N T A Xs c o r e s (15.16ʃ6.53a n d 12.94ʃ7.44),a n d r e s i d u a l S Y N T A Xs c o r e s (7.52ʃ6.54a n d 4.23ʃ5.50,P =0.000)w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r i nMA C C E g r o u p t h a n t h o s ew i t h o u tMA C C E g r o u p .T h e a r e a u n d e r t h e c u r v e f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e e n d p o i n t e v e n t s a b o u t S Y N T A Xs c o r e ,r e s i d u a l S Y N T A Xs c o r e ,v i s u a l i z e d c o r o n a r ya r t e r y d i s e a s ew e r e0.608(P =0.018),0.665(P =0.000),0.668(P =0.000)r e s p e c t i v e l y .T h ei n c i d e n c eo f MA C C Ew a s 5.98%a n d20.42%i n c o m p l e t e r e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n g r o u p a n d i n c o m p l e t e r e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n g r o u p,w i t hP b e i n g 0.003.T h e r e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o nr a t e so f t h et w o g r o u p sw e r e0.85%a n d12.37%,r e s p e c t i v e l y (P =0.000).T h e S Y N T A Xs c o r e s f o r p a t i e n t sw i t hd i a b e t e sm e l l i t u s a n dn o n -d i a be t i cw e r e 15.09ʃ7.69a n d 12.78ʃ7.17,P =0.026,㊃076㊃‘临床荟萃“ 2018年8月5日第33卷第8期 C l i n i c a l F o c u s ,A u gu s t 5,2018,V o l 33,N o .8Copyright ©博看网. All Rights Reserved.a n d t h e r e s i d u a l S Y N T A Xs c o r e sw e r e6.15ʃ6.32a n d4.34ʃ5.57,P=0.016.T h e i n c i d e n c e o fMA C C E i n d i ab e t ic sa n dn o n-d i ab e t ic p a t i e n t sw a s27.9%a n d11.8%(P=0.001),a nd t he r e p e a t r e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n r a t e sw e r e19.1%a n d4.9%,r e s p e c t i v e l y(P=0.000).C o n c l u s i o n①T h ec o m p l e t er e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o no f p a t i e n t s w i t hc o r o n a r y h e a r td i se a s e i s s u p e r i o r t o i n c o m p l e t e r e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n,a n d t h em o r e l e s i o n s t h e r e s i d u a l c o r o n a r y a r t e r y h a s,t h e h i g h e r t h e i n c i d e n c e of MA C C Ei s.②R e s i d u a lS Y N T A X s c o r e,S Y N T A X s c o r ea n dv i s u a l i z e dc o r o n a r y a r t e r y d i s e a s ec a n p r e d i c t l o n g-t e r m p r og n o s i s.③Th e d e g r e e o f c o r o n a r y a r t e r y di s e a s e i n p a t i e n t sw i t hd i a b e t e s i s h e a v y,a n d t h em a i n r e a s o n f o r t h eh i g h i n c i d e n c e o fMA C C E i s r e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n.K E Y W O R D S:c o r o n a r y d i s e a s e;r e s i d u a l S Y N T A Xs c o r e;r e p e a t r e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n;M a i na d v e r s e c a r d i o v a s c u l a r a n d c e r e b r o v a s c u l a r e v e n t s冠心病多支病变患者血运重建方式目前仍是争议的话题㊂多项研究表明完全血运重建患者不良心脑血管事件(m a i n a d v e r s e c a r d i o v a s c u l a r a n d c e r e b r o v a s c u l a r e v e n t s,MA C C E)发生率低于不完全血运重建㊂N a g a r a j a等[1]发表一篇荟萃分析,分析了38项关于多支病变血运重建研究,包括156240例患者,结果完全血运重建患者的死亡㊁心肌梗死和不良心脏事件明显低于不完全血运重建患者㊂而临床实践中多种因素包括患者的临床状况㊁病变特征㊁经皮冠状动脉介入治疗(p e r c u t a n o u s c o r o n a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n,P C I)失败㊁医生和患者的意愿等导致不完全血运重建㊂在E R A C I I V研究中仅对重度狭窄病变进行P C I治疗,随访2年结果MA C C E死亡/心肌梗死/中风的发生率并不高(3.9%),血运重建率4%,而未干预的中度狭窄病变的靶血管重建率仅为1.3%[2]㊂在F AM E研究中血流分数储备(f r a c t i o n a l-f l o wr e s e r v e,F F R)指导功能性完全血运重建随访中,无缺血的冠状动脉病变并不影响预后,功能性血运重建更优于解剖上血运重建[3],因此对于多支血管病变血运重建方式孰优孰劣仍不确定,通过对311例冠心病行P C I患者进行3年临床随访,观察不良心脑血管事件,进一步评价发生MA C C E与临床危险因素和解剖病变的相关性,同时通过残存S Y N T A X评分评价完全和不完全血运重建与MA C C E的相关性㊂1资料与方法1.1病例选择2013年1月至2014年5月我院心内科一病区进行P C I治疗冠心病患者311例,男226例,女85例,平均年龄(61.31ʃ9.95)岁㊂合并高血压164例;糖尿病68例;卒中史25例;临床诊断稳定性冠心病3例,不稳定性冠心病159例,急性心肌梗死149例;单支病变119例,双支病变109例,3支病变83例㊂1.2临床资料收集收集患者信息,包括年龄㊁性别㊁体重㊁肾功能㊁左心室射血分数㊁外周血管疾病㊁慢性阻塞性肺疾病(C O P D)病史㊁既往手术史㊁合并高血压㊁合并糖尿病等㊂收集介入光盘,签署患者随访知情同意书㊂1.3冠状动脉病变分析 ①目测冠状动脉病变:根据冠状动脉造影结果3支血管每1支血管目测狭窄程度ȡ50%,即为该血管病变,分为单支病变㊁双支病变㊁3支病变㊂②S Y N T A X评分:进入S Y N T A X 评分网站(h t t p//w w w.S T N T A X.c o m)对每一位患者的冠状动脉造影中血管直径ȡ1.5mm,狭窄ȡ50%血管进行S Y N T A X在线评分㊂③残存S Y N T A X评分和分组:评价P C I术前和术后的S Y N T A X评分,术前和术后S Y N T A X评分差值为残存S Y N T A X评分㊂根据残存S Y N T A X评分进行分组:一是残存S Y N T A X评分=0为完全血运重建组,>0为不完全血运重建组㊂二是对残存S Y N T A X评分进行3分位分组,用以评价残存冠状动脉解剖病变程度对预后的影响㊂1.4终点事件收集入选患者每6个月随访1次,平均随访(36.22ʃ12.06)个月㊂包括临床用药指导,一般问卷调查,常规肝功能㊁血脂㊁血常规检查, MA C C E(包括全因死亡㊁再次血运重建㊁心力衰竭㊁卒中)㊂1.5统计学方法采用S P S S17.0统计软件进行分析㊂计量资料采用均数ʃ标准差(x-ʃs)表示,计数资料的比较采用χ2检验,计量资料两组样本比较采用独立样本t检验或秩和检验,S Y N T A X评分㊁残存S Y N T A X评分和目测冠状动脉病变对预后判断能力采用R O C曲线分析㊂对M A C C E相关危险因素进行l o g i s t i c回归分析,P<0.05为差异有统计学意义㊂2结果2.1MA C C E 311例患者发生MA C C E48例,其中全因死亡14例;再次血运重建23例;缺血性卒中9例;心力衰竭2例㊂累计发生事件次数55次,其中7例患者发生2次MA C C E事件,见表1㊂实际发生缺血性卒中事件11次,再次血运重建事件26次,心力衰竭事件4次㊂㊃176㊃‘临床荟萃“2018年8月5日第33卷第8期 C l i n i c a l F o c u s,A u g u s t5,2018,V o l33,N o.8Copyright©博看网. All Rights Reserved.表1发生2次M A C C E患者列表病例序号随访时间(月)事件病例序号随访时间(月)事件10.5缺血性卒中136死亡218心力衰竭245再次血运重建327再次血运重建344死亡43再次血运重建429再次血运重建53心力衰竭523再次血运重建618再次血运重建626再次血运重建727缺血性卒中737再次血运重建2.2MA C C E组和无MA C C E组一般资料比较MA C C E组年龄高于无MA C C E组(P=0.032)㊂MA C C E组患糖尿病比例(39.6%)高于无MA C C E 组(18.6%)(P=0.001)㊂MA C C E组冠状动脉病变支数构成比与非MA C C E组比较差异有统计学意义㊂MA C C E组S Y N T A X评分和残存S Y N T A X评分明显高于无MA C C E组(P值分别为0.017和0.000)㊂见表2㊂表2两组一般资料比较项目MA C C E组(n=48)无MA C C E组(n=263)统计值P值年龄(岁)64.13ʃ8.4560.79ʃ10.12t=2.1480.032性别[例(%)]女性13(27.1)72(27.4)χ2=0.0020.967临床诊断[例(%)]稳定性冠心病03(1.1)不稳定型心绞痛28(58.3)131(49.8)χ2=1.5860.452急性心肌梗死20(41.7)129(49.0)高血压病史[例(%)]28(58.3)136(51.7)χ2=0.7140.398糖尿病病史[例(%)]19(39.6)49(18.6)χ2=10.4300.001卒中病史[例(%)]6(12.5)13(4.9)χ2=0.0530.817冠状动脉病变[例(%)]单支病变10(20.8)3(1.1)双支病变13(27.1)131(49.8)χ2=19.2500.000 3支病变25(52.1)129(49.0)胆固醇水平(mm o l/L)4.19ʃ1.084.25ʃ1.07t=0.3850.701肌酐清除率(m l/m i n)92.27ʃ29.5194.23ʃ30.32t=0.4220.674 S Y N T A X评分(分)15.16ʃ6.5312.94ʃ7.44Z=2.3770.017残存S Y N T A X评分(分)7.52ʃ6.544.23ʃ5.50Z=3.7310.000 2.3冠状动脉病变㊁S Y N T A X评分㊁残存S Y N T A X评分对MA C C E的预测能力冠状动脉病变程度(单支病变㊁双支病变㊁3支病变)㊁S Y N T A X评分㊁残存S Y N T A X评分均能预测MA C C E,但三者比较差异无统计学意义,见图1,表3㊂2.4不同程度残存冠状动脉病变对MA C C E的影响对残存S Y N T A X评分进行3分位分组,组1残存S Y N T A X评分=0;组2残存S Y N T A X评分为> 0~<5;组3残存S Y N T A X评分ȡ5㊂残存S Y N T A X评分越高,发生MA C C E概率越高,P= 0.004㊂见表4㊂图1不同评分方法预测终点事件的R O C曲线表3目测冠状动脉病变㊁S Y N T A X评分㊁残存S Y N T A X评分预测M A C C ER O C曲线下面积评分方法曲线下面积P值95%可信区间下限上限目测冠状动脉病变0.6680.0000.5830.754 S Y N T A X评分0.608*0.0180.5240.692残存S Y N T A X评分0.665*0.0000.5800.749注:与目测冠状动脉病变比较,Z=1.400,0.0983,P=0.162, 0.922;与S Y N T A X评分比较,Z=1.568,P=0.117表4不同残存S Y N T A X评分对M A C C E的影响[例(%)]组别例数残存S Y N T A X评分0分0~<5分ȡ5分MA C C E组489(18.8)24(29.2)25(52.1)无MA C C E组263105(39.9)79(30.4)79(30.4)χ2值10.874P值0.0042.5糖尿病患者冠状动脉病变和MA C C E分析糖尿病患者3支病变率明显高于非糖尿病患者,糖尿病患者基础S Y N T A X评分明显高于非糖尿病患者,经过P C I术后残存S Y N T A X评分也明显高于非糖尿病患者㊂糖尿病患者MA C C E发生率高于非糖尿病患者,主要源于血运重建率升高㊂见表5,6㊂2.6 L o g i s t i c回归分析对MA C C E相关危险因素如年龄㊁临床诊断㊁糖尿病史㊁肌酐清除率㊁冠状动脉病变㊁S Y N T A N评分㊁残存S Y N T A X评分进行l o g i s t i c回归分析,结果表明冠状动脉病变和糖尿病史是发生MA C C E的危险因素㊂见表7㊂㊃276㊃‘临床荟萃“2018年8月5日第33卷第8期 C l i n i c a l F o c u s,A u g u s t5,2018,V o l33,N o.8Copyright©博看网. All Rights Reserved.表5 糖尿病患者冠状动脉病变分析组别例数冠状动脉病变[例(%)]单支病变双支病变3支病变S Y N T A X 评分(分)残存S Y N T A X 评分(分)糖尿病患者 6821(30.9)18(26.5)29(42.6)15.09ʃ7.696.15ʃ6.32无糖尿病患者24398(40.3)91(37.4)54(22.2)12.78ʃ7.174.34ʃ5.57统计值χ2=11.371Z =2.225Z =2.419P 值0.0030.0260.016表6 糖尿病患者M A C C E 分析[例(%)]组别例数总MA C C E全因死亡缺血性卒中再次血运重建心力衰竭糖尿病患者 6819(27.9)2(2.9)4(5.9)13(19.1)2(2.9)无糖尿病患者24329(11.9)12(4.9)7(2.9)12(4.9)2(0.8)χ2值10.430.4931.40314.4511.878P 值0.0010.4830.23600.171表7 M A C C E 危险因素l o gi s t i c 回归分析因素自变量W a l d χ2回归系数标准误P 值O R 值95%可信区间下限上限糖尿病史6.2020.8660.3480.0132.3771.2134.698冠状动脉病变12.2240.7410.2120.0002.0991.3853.1813 讨 论冠状动脉多支血管病变完全血运重建的定义存在差异,造成研究结果的不同,S a n d o v a l 等[4]近期发表综述对完全血运重建定义进行归纳总结:①解剖或传统意义的完全血运重建,即对直径ȡ1.5mm ㊁狭窄>50%的冠状动脉进行旁路移植或支架治疗(支架定义在直径2.25mm 以上血管)㊂②功能性完全血运重建,所有缺血心肌区域进行旁路移植或支架治疗㊂③评分基础上的完全血运重建,对不同血管病变进行评分,根据血管供血范围评分不同,残存评分为0相当于完全血运重建㊂④生理学基础上完全血运重建,所有冠状动脉病变进行F F R 测定,对F F Rȡ0.75~0.8血管进行旁路移植或支架治疗㊂不同的定义之间有重叠㊂G én ér e u x 等[5]为评价不完全血运重建P C I 术后残留的冠状动脉病变的复杂性和严重性,采用基础S Y N T A X 评分和术后S Y N T A X 积分差值即残存S Y N T A X 评分定量表述残存的冠状动脉病变,S Y N T A X 评分是在解剖基础上形成的评分方法,残存S Y N T A X 评分为0即为解剖与评分基础上的完全血运重建㊂利用残存S Y N T A X 评分观察冠心病多支血管病变患者完全血运重建长期预后优于不完全血运重建[6-7]㊂我们通过对311例冠心病P C I 术后患者进行长期随访,根据入选时的残存S Y N T A X 评分评价完全和不完全血运重建,311例患者中残存S Y N T A X 为0患者占36.7%,其中以单支病变为主,3支血管病变达到完全血运重建仅占3.4%,多支血管病变不能达到完全血运重建是多种因素所致,包括临床因素(如高龄㊁并存疾病㊁心功能状态等)㊁解剖因素(如C T O 病变㊁弥漫病变㊁分叉病变等)㊁医生的意见(对不同病变的认识不同导致治疗策略不同)和患者的意愿(不愿意接受多个支架以及二次手术)等,残存S Y N T A X 评分越高MA C C E 发生率越高,不仅残存S Y N T A X评分可以预测MA C C E 发生,冠状动脉病变和基础S Y N T A X 评分也可以预测MA C C E 发生,MA C C E主要为再次血运重建㊂基础冠状动脉病变范围越广㊁P C I 术后残存病变越多再次血运重建发生率越高,这和其他研究报道一致[6-7]㊂张敬霞和刘吉园等[8-9]通过残存S Y N T A X 评分评价冠心病患者血运重建的预后,结果表明完全血运重建患者预后优于不完全血运重建,残存S Y N T A X 评分是评估预后的良好指标㊂S Y N T A X 评分包括ȡ1.5mm 并>50%狭窄血管,而<2.0~2.5mm 血管很少进行P C I 治疗,是导致残存S Y N T A X 评分升高主要原因之一,目前针对这些小血管的血运重建治疗包括药物涂层球囊㊁药物涂层支架治疗,但是尚缺乏远期预后的证据,因此针对小血管病变的合理治疗仍不明确[10-12]㊂残存S Y N T A X 评分增高的其他原因包括慢性闭塞病变㊁钙化病变㊁分叉病变,也是P C I 成功率降低的因素之一,随着介入器械的改进和技术进步,对复杂冠状动脉病变的治疗适应证越来越广泛,达到解剖上完全血运重建的概率会逐渐增多,但是真实世界中更多的支架植入是否带来良好的预后仍需要更多的临床实践证实,采取什么样的血运重建方式更加适合每一位患者仍然是一个巨大的挑战㊂近十余年糖尿病研究显示糖尿病患者冠状动脉病变复杂[13],常合并心功能不全和肾功能不全,P C I治疗再狭窄和支架内血栓发生率明显升高,长期不良心血管事件明显升高,尤其在胰岛素治疗的糖尿病患者明显,主要原因是再次血运重建㊂因此针对糖尿病合并冠心病患者P C I 术后需要更加强化抗血小板和抗动脉粥样硬化治疗,新一代支架如生物可吸收支架或无多聚酯膜支架可能改善长期结果[14-17]㊂我们观察68例糖尿病患者中3支病变占42.6%,糖尿病患者的S Y N T A X 评分和残存S Y N T A X 评分明显高于㊃376㊃‘临床荟萃“ 2018年8月5日第33卷第8期 C l i n i c a l F o c u s ,A u gu s t 5,2018,V o l 33,N o .8Copyright ©博看网. All Rights Reserved.非糖尿病患者,MA C C E事件高于非糖尿病患者,主要原因是再次血运重建,与其他研究结论一致[18-19], J i mén e z-N a v a r r o等[20]观察5350例冠心病P C I治疗患者,糖尿病患者完全血运重建长期不良心血管事件明显低于不完全血运重建患者,糖尿病患者即使行完全血运重建其不良心血管事件发生率高于非糖尿病患者㊂多因素分析结果表明糖尿病是MA C C E的主要危险因素之一㊂结论:①冠心病P C I患者完全血运重建优于不完全血运重建,残存冠状动脉病变越多MA C C E发生率越高㊂②残存S Y N T A X评分㊁S Y N T A X评分和目测冠状动脉病变程度均能预测长期预后㊂③糖尿病患者冠状动脉病变程度重,MA C C E发生率高,主要原因是再次血运重建㊂参考文献[1] N a g a r a j aV,O o iS Y,N o l a nJ,e ta l.I m p a c to fi n c o m p l e t ep e r c u t a n e o u s r e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o n i n p a t i e n t s w i t h m u l t i v e s s e lc o r o n a r y a r t e r yd i se a s e:a s y s t e m a t i c r e v i e wa n dm e t a-a n a l y s i s[J].JA m H e a r tA s s o c,2016,5(12):e004598.[2] H a i e kC,F e r n췍n d e z-P e r e i r aC,S a n t a e r aO,e t a l.S e c o n dv s.F i r s t g e n e r a t i o nd r u g e l u t i n g s t e n t s i n m u l t i p l ev e s s e ld i s e a s ea n d l e f t m a i n s t e n o s i s:t w o-y e a r f o l l o w-u p o f t h eo b s e r v a t i o n 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rH e a r t J,2013,34(31):2436-2443.[14] A r m s t r o n g E J,W a l t e n b e r g e rJ,R o g e r sJ H.P e r c u t a n e o u sc o r o n a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n p a t i e n t s w i t hd i a be t e s:c u r r e n tc o n c e p t s a n df u t u r ed i re c t i o n s[J].J D i a b e t e sS c iT e c h n o l,2014,8(3):581-589.[15] A mm i r a t i E,G u i d a V,L a t i b A,e t a l.D e t e r m i n a n t s o fo u t c o m ei n p a t i e n t s w i t h c h r o n i ci s c h e m i cl e f t v e n t r i c u l a rd y s f u n c t i o n u n de r g o n e p e r c u t a n e o u s c o r o n a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n s[J].B M CC a r d i o v a s cD i s o r d,2015,15:137.[16] L o u t f iM,S a d a k aMA,S o b h y M.O u t c o m e s o f D E S i n d i a b e t i ca n dn o n d i ab e t ic p a t i e n t sw i t hc o m p l e xc o r o n a r y a r t e r yd i se a s ea f t e r i s ks t r a t i f i c a t i o nb y t h eS Y N T A X sc o r e[J].C l i n M e dI n s i g h t sC a r d i o l,2016,10:103-110.[17] B a n g a l o r e S,G u o Y,S a m a d a s h v i l i Z,e t a l.E v e r o l i m u se l u t i n g s t e n t sv e r s u sc o r o n a r y a r t e r y b y p a s s g r af ts u rg e r y f o rp a t i e n t sw i t h d i a b e t e sm e l l i t u s a n dm u l t i v e s s e l d i s e a s e[J].C i r cC a r d i o v a s c I n t e r v,2015,8(7):e002626.[18] K e n n e d y MW,H e r m a n i d e s R S,K a p l a n E,e ta l.F r a c t i o n a lf l o wr e s e r v e-g u i d e dd e f e r r e dv e r s u sc o m p l e t er e v a s c u l a r i z a t i o ni n p a t i e n t sw i t h d i a b e t e sm e l l i t u s[J].A mJ C a r d i o l,2016,118(9):1293-1299.[19] R i t s i n g e rV,S a l e h N,L a g e r q v i s tB,e ta l.H i g he v e n tr a t ea f t e r a f i r s t p e r c u t a n e o u s c o r o n a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n p a t i e n t sw i t hd i a be t e s m e l l i t u s:r e s u l t sf r o m t h e S w e d i s h c o r o n a r ya n g i o g r a p h y a n d a n g i o p l a s t y r e g i s t r y[J].C i r c C a r d i o v a s cI n t e r v,2015,8(6):e002328.[20]J i mén e z-N a v a r r o M F,L췍p e z-J i m췍n e z F,B a r s n e s s G,e ta l.L o n g-t e r m p r o g n o s i s o f c o m p l e t e p e r c u t a n e o u s c o r o n a r y r e v a s c u l a r i s a t i o ni n p a t i e n t s w i t h d i a b e t e s w i t h m u l t i v e s s e ld i se a s e[J].H e a r t,2015,101(15):1233-1239.收稿日期:2018-01-05编辑:张卫国㊃476㊃‘临床荟萃“2018年8月5日第33卷第8期 C l i n i c a l F o c u s,A u g u s t5,2018,V o l33,N o.8Copyright©博看网. All Rights Reserved.。
syntax评分
08年长城会上听专家讲了Syntax score评分方法，这评分方法比较复杂，主要是依据冠脉造影的结果来判断。
在准备阅读之前，先要熟悉冠脉解剖的节段分布情况：（上图为左优势型冠脉解剖分布，下图为右优势型解剖分布）Figure 1. Definition of the coronary tree segments（冠脉束血管段的识别）1. RCA proximal: From the ostium to one half the distance to the acute margin of the heart.2. RCA mid: From the end of first segment to acute margin of heart.3. RCA distal: From the acute margin of the heart to the origin of the posterior descending artery.4. Posterior descending artery: Running in the posterior interventricular groove.16. Posterolateral branch from RCA: Posterolateral branch originating from the distal coronary artery distal to the crux.16a. Posterolateral branch from RCA: First posterolateral branch from segment 16.16b. Posterolateral branch from RCA: Second posterolateral branch from segment 16.16c. Posterolateral branch from RCA: Third posterolateral branch from segment 16.5. Left main: From the ostium of the LCA through bifurcation into left anterior descending and left circumflex branches.6. LAD proximal: Proximal to and including first major septal branch.7. LAD mid: LAD immediately distal to origin of first septal branch and extending to the point where LAD forms an angle (RAO view). If thisangle is not identifiable this segment ends at one half the distance from the first septal to the apex of the heart.8. LAD apical: Terminal portion of LAD, beginning at the end of previous segment and extending to or beyond the apex.9. First diagonal: The first diagonal originating from segment 6 or 7.9a. First diagonal a: Additional first diagonal originating from segment 6 or 7, before segment 8.10. Second diagonal: Originating from segment 8 or the transition between segment 7 and 8. 10a. Second diagonal a: Additional second diagonal originating from segment 8.11. Proximal circumflex artery: Main stem of circumflex from its origin of left main and including origin of first obtuse marginal branch.12. Intermediate/anterolateral artery: Branch from trifurcating left main other than proximal LAD or LCX. It belongs to the circumflex territory.12a. Obtuse marginal a: First side branch of circumflex running in general to the area of obtuse margin of the heart.12b. Obtuse marginal b: Second additional branch of circumflex running in the same direction as 12.13. Distal circumflex artery: The stem of the circumflex distal to the origin of the most distal obtuse marginal branch, and running along the posteriorleft atrioventricular groove. Caliber may be small or artery absent.14. Left posterolateral: Running to the posterolateral surface of the left ventricle. May be absent or a division of obtuse marginal branch.14a. Left posterolateral a: Distal from 14 and running in the same direction.14b. Left posterolateral b: Distal from 14 and 14 a and running in the same direction.15. Posterior descending: Most distal part of dominant left circumflex when present. It gives origin to septal branches. When this arteryis present, segment 4 is usually absent。
语言学重点讲解
三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。
错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。
因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。
4.Syntax
A story about a sentimental girl
4.3 Phrase structure rule
Grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase
A bird in the hand
2) Inflection
Words of different categories take different inflections. e.g. nouns – plural affix –s verbs – past tense affix –ed progressive affix –ing adjectives – -er, -est very helpful but does not always suffice e.g. moisture, fog; take, break; frequent, intelligent, dead;
Table 4-1 P43
Criteria in determining a word’s category
Word categories are not clear-cut e.g. love and push Use returnable plates. Not disposables. Three criteria :
It is misleading to assume that a word’s category can be told straight forward from its meaning.
e.g. dilemma, friendship (concrete entities?); love, hate (also nouns); (be) aware of, know about (similar meaning)
syntax终结版
Still there are some problems when we refer to some words, such as nouns moisture, fog and adjectives frequent, intelligent. Therefore, the 3rd one-distribution is essential. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.
To sum up, a word’s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.
A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement. For example, verbs like appear can occur without any complement, cut can occur with an NP complement and some heads in English such as give can take more than one complement. So, we can revise the earlier XP rule as follows,
(完整word版)专业学位硕士研究生英语教程08
Unit 8Literary WorksPreviewNobody grows old by merely living a number of years. They must have undergone disappointment and despair。
For them, life is truly a box of chocolates except that it is black and bitter：years wrinkle their skin，loneliness is taking away the dim light，and the reality is a horrible truth of vanity。
A clean and well—lighted place thus is the only refuge from the darkness of the world outside。
It is best to be a home，a bar, or a cafe with brandy and coffee served by the young generation。
Part I Text ReadingWarm-upI. Aging issueA trend towards an ever older population is sweeping the world. But far prior to this, some proverbs or sayings have showed their attitudes toward the aged. Guess the meanings of the following proverbs or sayings，and tell whether they are positive，negative or neutral with regard to the aged.1。
语言学 Syntax
Chapter 5: SyntaxLearning Objectives⏹I. Syntax the field⏹II. The Traditional Approach⏹III. The Structuralist Approach⏹IV. The Generative Approach⏹V. The Systemic Functional Approach⏹VI. The Textual ApproachI. Defining Syntax⏹The word comes from Ancient Greek - syn-, "together", and táxis, "arrangement")⏹The definition:❑The study of the internal structure ofsentences and the rules that govern theformation of sentences.⏹What is grammar?❑morphology + syntax = grammar Autonomy of syntax⏹Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.⏹This is a very interesting sentence,because it shows that syntax can beseparated from semantics—that form canbe separated from meaning. The sentencedoesn’t seem to mean anything coherent,but it sounds like an English sentence.——Howard Lasnik,The Human LanguageClassification of sentences⏹ E.g.1 Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.⏹ E.g.2 *Furiously sleep ideas green colorless.⏹ E.g.3 He walked quickly.Criteria:⏹ 1. Conforms to the grammatical rules of a specific language or not;(Grammaticality/well-formedness)⏹ 2. Conforms to the worldly common sense knowledge.Sentence classificationII. The Traditional Approach⏹ A Syntactic Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same orsimilar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or averb.⏹When words are grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, they arecalled syntactic categories.1. Lexical Categories⏹In grammar, a lexical category (also word class, lexical class, or in traditionalgrammar part of speech) is a linguistic category of words, or more precisely lexicalitems.⏹Major lexical categories❑Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition⏹Minor lexical categories❑Determiner, Auxiliary, Conjunction, Infinitive, Negative2. Phrasal Categories⏹Word level categories can be extended to phrasal categories with heads :3. Syntactic Functions⏹Subject: in nominative case, doer of the action.❑ E.g. She slapped him.❑ E.g. He was slapped by her.⏹Grammatical subject vs. logical subject⏹Object: accusative case, receiver or goal of an action.⏹ E.g. He was slapped by her.⏹ E.g. I gave my sister a doll.Ind. Obj. Dir. Obj.⏹ E.g. I gave a doll to my sister.Dir. Obj. Ind. Obj.Sentence division⏹Binary analysis:❑Predicate + Subject = Sentence⏹ E.g. The man is eating dinner.⏹ E.g. John broke the door.⏹ E.g. Alice must be out of her mind.⏹Predicator: verb included in a predicate4. Syntactic Features5．Sentence types:traditional approachsimpleSentence complexnon-simplecompoundBasic sentence types by Bolinger⏹ 1. Mother fell.⏹ 2. Mother is young.⏹ 3. Mother loves Dad.⏹ 4. Mother fed Dad breakfast.⏹ 5. There is time.⏹Question: What are the abstract grammatical representations?Bolinger’s idea⏹Mother fell. (Nominal + intransitive verbal)⏹Mother is young. (Nominal + copula + complement)⏹Mother loves Dad. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal)⏹Mother fed Dad breakfast. (Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)⏹There is time. (There + existential + nominal)Basic sentence types: Quirk⏹Seven sentence types:❑SVC❑SV A❑SV❑SVO❑SVOC❑SVOA❑SVOOQuirk’s idea⏹SVC Mary is kind. / a nurse.⏹SV A Mary is here. / in the house.⏹SV The child is laughing.⏹SVO Somebody caught the ball.⏹SVOC We have proved him wrong. / a fool.⏹SVOA I put the plate on the table.⏹SVOO She gives me expensive presents.III. The Structuralist Approach1. Syntactic Relations⏹Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:❑relations of position❑relations of substitutability❑relations of co-occurrenceRelations of Position⏹All languages have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases thatcan occur in a clause.⏹The boy kicked the ballNP1 NP2Subject Object⏹Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, r efers to the sequential arrangement of wordsin a language.⏹Question: If word order is not followed, what would happen?❑ungrammatical or nonsensical❑semantic change⏹The boy kicked the ball❑*Boy the ball kicked the❑*The ball kicked the boy⏹The teacher saw the students.⏹The students saw the teacher.⏹Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relationsobserved by F. de Saussure.⏹They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.⏹Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and arealclassifications) to classify languages in the world:❑SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.❑English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.Relation of Substitutability⏹The ________ smiled.menboysgirlsmonkeys⏹The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable foreach other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.⏹It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man❑The tallest boy smiles.pretty girlyesterday.❑He went there last week.the day before.⏹This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure,and Paradigmatic Relations byHjemslev.❑To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.Relation of Co-occurrence⏹Words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a wordof another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.⏹What are the co-occurred word sets for nominal phrases?❑preceded by a determiner and adjective(s)❑followed by a verbal phrase.⏹Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly toparadigmatic relations.2. Constituents and Phrase Structure⏹Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form aconstruction:❑the girl (NP)❑ate the apple (VP)❑the girl ate the apple (S)Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis) by BloomfieldPhrase StructureTree diagramBracketing⏹Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representingthe constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))Comparing IC analysis and PS analysis⏹beautiful girl’s dress“They can fish” is ambiguous⏹IC analysis⏹What are the possible phrase structure trees?3. Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions⏹Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to thatof one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.⏹Which constructions are endocentric?❑noun phrases❑Intransitive verb phrases❑adjective phrases⏹Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where noneof the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head”.⏹Which constructions are exocentric?❑basic sentence❑prepositional phrase❑predicate (verb + object) construction❑connective (be + complement) construction⏹The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as awhole.)⏹He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)⏹He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)⏹John seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)4. Coordination and Subordination⏹Constructions can also be categorized into two main types, depending on the relationbetween constituents: Coordination and SubordinationCoordination⏹Coordination:❑grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or.❑Coordinated constituents have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally⏹Coordination of NPs:❑[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]⏹Coordination of VPs:❑[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]⏹Coordination of PPs:❑[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]⏹Coordination of APs:❑[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]⏹Coordination of Ss:❑[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination⏹Subordination：refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.❑The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head.Consequently, they can be called modifiers.⏹two dogsHead⏹(My brother) can drink (wine).Head⏹Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head⏹(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.HeadSubordinate clauses⏹Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types ofsubordinate clauses:❑complement clauses❑adjunct (or adverbial) clauses❑relative clauses⏹ 1. John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].(complementclause)⏹ 2. Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner]. (adverbial clause)⏹ 3. The woman [that I love] is moving to the south. (relative clause)IV. The Generative Approach⏹Phrase Structure Rules (PS Rules)❑smile❑the smile❑the beautiful smile❑the beautiful smile to meWhat about the possible VP structure?⏹laugh⏹play in the garden⏹often play in the garden⏹often happily play in the garden (happily)The AP structure?⏹polite⏹very polite⏹very polite to youThe PP structure?⏹about⏹mainly about⏹mainly about the storySentence structure?⏹The wind blows.⏹The cat ate the fish.⏹The man came with a stick.Exercises: Please draw the phrase structure tress of the following sentences⏹ 1. The jet landed.⏹ 2. A journalist wrote the article.⏹ 3. Jerome is tired of his job.⏹ 4. He gave the Red Cross some blood.⏹ 5. The customer asked for a cold beer.⏹ 6. John will play the trumpet and the drums in the orchestra.1.2.4.5.“The man came with a stick”Structural Ambiguity“The man killed the boy with a knife”“The man killed the boy with a knife”More examples of ambiguity⏹ 1. Flying planes can be dangerous.❑ Flying planes is dangerous. ❑ Flying planes are dangerous.⏹ 2. Visiting scholars can be interesting.❑ Visiting scholars is interesting. ❑ Visiting scholars are interesting.Modifier: specify optionally expressible properties of headsWhat are the possible PStrees?⏹The data:❑The dog ate the bone happily.❑The dog happily ate the bone.❑Probably the dog ate the bone.⏹How to represent them with tree diagrams?“The dog ate the bone happily.”“The dog happily ate the bone.”“Probably the dog ate the bone.”Transformational Rules⏹The boy is sleeping. Is the boy sleeping?⏹The boy has slept. Has the boy slept?⏹The boy will sleep. Will the boy sleep?⏹The boy can sleep. Can the boy sleep?⏹The Rule:❑Move Aux❑Move the Aux to adjoin to SExercise⏹What is your comment on the rule “move the Aux to adjoin to S”?❑ E.g. You know those women.❑ E.g. Sara should be going to Chicago.❑ E.g. Anyone that can lift 500 pounds is eligible for our club.“The boy can sleep.”“Can the boy sleep?”“The boy picked up the book.”“The boy picked the book up.”“Some people who were wearing boots came in.”“Some people came in who were wearing boots.”Chomsky’s Generative GrammarLanguageFacultyUniversal Grammar⏹ Plato ’s Problem⏹ Poverty of the Stimulus--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------⏹ Features of First Language Acquisition❑ Uniformity❑ Rapidity⏹ Chomsky ’s Innateness Hypothesis:❑ The course of language acquisition is determined by a biologically endowedinnate Language Faculty within the brain, which makes it possible for children to acquire a language on the basis of their linguistic experience .⏹ Language Faculty must incorporate a theory of Universal Grammar / UG whichenables the child to develop a grammar of any natural language on the basis of suitable linguistic experience.⏹ UG is composed of Principles and Parameters .⏹ Children ’s Task?❑ Parameter setting ❑ Lexical learning⏹ Principles and Parameters Theory:❑ Government & Binding Theory ❑ The Minimalist ProgramV . The Systemic Functional Approach⏹ Systemic Functional Grammar has its roots in the work of the British linguist J. R.Firth . The mastermind behind the systemic-functional perspective is M. A. K. Halliday .⏹ SF Linguists are interested in relating the various kinds of linguistic structures andpatterns to the functions that language serves and to the social settings in which it is used.Language functionsTheoretically speakingEmpirically speaking Grammar of L Experience of L⏹ Three metafunctions:❑ Ideational function ❑ Interpersonal function ❑ Textual functionIdeational function⏹ The function in which we conceptualize theworld for our own benefit and that of others is called ideational function.⏹ Conceptualization of the world:❑ representation of the world❑ The bringing of the world into being linguisticallyData⏹ A. The man kicked the dog.⏹ B. The woman hated the old clothes. ⏹ C. David is homeless. ⏹ D. The girl laughed.⏹ E. The visitor said “Hello ”. ⏹ F. There is a cat over there.1. The man kicked the dog.⏹ KICK is a material process . Material processes are characterized by “doing ” verbs,such as running , dressing , climbing , etc.⏹ Halliday describes the man as the actor (the person responsible for the action), andthe dog as the goal (the thing which is acted upon).2. The woman hated the old clothes.⏹ The predicator has something to do with feeling and thinking, which is internalrather than external, thus the name mental process .⏹ Verbs such as hate , love , know , think and understand belong to this category. ⏹ Halliday: sensor + phenomenon3. David is homeless.⏹ It is relational in that its main purpose is to relate the two participants together. ⏹ Relational verbs are be , become , appear , etc. ⏹ Halliday: carrier + attribute4. The girl laughed.⏹ The predicator falls into a category of verbs such as cough , yawn , and smile whichHalliday calls them as behavioral .⏹ The behavioral processes are similar to material processes in that they describephysical actions of some kind but they are different in that the action isnotperformed on anything. ⏹ Halliday: behaver.5. The visitor said “Hello ”.⏹ Halliday calls this category as the verbal process .⏹ Verbal processes include words like say , report , claim , question , and explain . ⏹ Halliday: sayer + target6. There is a cat over there.⏹ Existential process . ⏹ Hailliday: the existentInterpersonal function⏹ Language serves to set up and maintain social and personal relations , and to expressthe language user ’s own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance. This function is called interpersonal function. ⏹ The study of mood and modality.⏹ A. Pass the salt.⏹ B. Please pass the salt. ⏹ C. Can you pass the salt?⏹ D. Could you possibly pass the salt?⏹ E. You couldn ’t possibly pass the salt, could you? ⏹ A general rule:❑ The more indirect the demand, the more polite it is felt to be.Textual function⏹ If you find a bird outside the classroom window, which sentence would you use?❑ A. There is a bird on the tree. ❑ B. A bird is on the tree.⏹ Information structure:Transitivi ⏹ Material process(The man kicked the dog.) ⏹ Mental process (The woman hated the old clothes.) ⏹ Verbal process (The visitor said “Hello ”) ⏹ Behavioural process (The girl laughed) ⏹ Relational process (David is homeless.) ⏹ Existential process (There is a cat over there.)❑old information + new information⏹According to Halliday:❑theme + rheme⏹Theme: the first constituent, and it denotes the starting point of the clause—what itis going to be about.⏹Rheme: the rest of the clause; the information that is new.⏹1A. Gas explosion killed thousands.⏹1B. Thousands were killed by gas explosion.⏹2A. The rain came down.⏹2B. Down came the rain.⏹The propositional meaning is the same, but the thematic difference exists.❑1A. Theme: gas explosion—what the sentence is about❑1B. Theme: thousands—what the sentence is aboutVI. The Textual Approach⏹The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntaxbeyond the traditional sentence boundary.⏹Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraphor chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence o f text linguistics and discourse analysis.Sentential Connection⏹Hypotactic (cf. subordinate clauses):❑You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.❑We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.⏹Paratactic (cf. coordinate clauses):❑In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.❑He dictated the letter. She wrote it.❑The door was open. He walked in.Cohesion and cohesiveness⏹Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refersto relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.⏹Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:❑conjunction❑ellipsis❑lexical collocation❑lexical repetition❑reference❑substitution, etc.Some examples⏹“Did she get there at six?”“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”(Ellipsis)⏹“Shall we invite Bill?”“No. I can’t stand the man.”(Lexical collocation)⏹He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight. (Reference)⏹“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”“I don't have one.”(Substitution)⏹I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late. (Logical connection)Exercise-IProduce the surface structures from the following deep structures.❖ 1. Neg she past work last week❖ 2. policemen past be-en beat John❖ 3. Q the professor pres be angry SOME REASON❖ 4. Q he past do SOMETHING❖ 5. Imp you pres will wash you❖ 6. the girl [the girl pre be beautiful] pre be from ChinaReference Answer⏹ 1. She didn’t work last night.⏹ 2. The policemen were beaten by John.⏹ 3. Why is the professor angry?⏹ 4. What did he do?⏹ 5. Wash yourself.⏹ 6. The girl who is beautiful is from China.Exercise-IIComment on the following pair of sentences.❖ a. John is easy to please.❖ b. John is eager to please.Reference answer⏹The two sentences have similar surface structure, but the grammar of the two isdifferent. John has a different logical relationship to please in the two sentences.⏹The two sentences have different deep structures:❑ a. (Someone pleases John) is easy.❑ b. John is eager (John pleases someone).Exercise-IIIPlease draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.❖ 1. Maria never ate a brownie.❖ 2. That shelf will fall.❖ 3. The student lost the debate.❖ 4. The manager may offer a raise.❖ 5. A psychic will speak to this group.❖ 6. Mary could become quite fond of Larry.Exercise-IVThe following data are from Korean. You may ignore the nominative and accusative markers for the purposes of this question.❖ 1. Terry-ka ku yeca-lul coahanta.❖Terry-Nom that girl-Ac likes❖‘Terry likes that girl.’❖ 2. I noin-I hakkyo ey kassta.❖this man-Nom school to went❖‘This man went to school.’❖ 3. Sue-ka chinkwu eykey chayk-ul ilkessta.❖Sue-Nom friend to book-Ac read❖‘Sue read the book to a friend.’❖I. Based on this data, what is the XP rule for Korean?❖II. Draw the tree structure for each of the sentence.。
syntax评分系统方法及意义
08年长城会上听专家讲了Syntax score评分方法，这评分方法比较复杂，主要是依据冠脉造影的结果来判断。
在准备阅读之前，先要熟悉冠脉解剖的节段分布情况：（上图为左优势型冠脉解剖分布，下图为右优势型解剖分布）Figure 1. Definition of the coronary tree segments（冠脉束血管段的识别）1. RCA proximal: From the ostium to one half the distance to the acute margin of the heart.2. RCA mid: From the end of first segment to acute margin of heart.3. RCA distal: From the acute margin of the heart to the origin of the posterior descending artery.4. Posterior descending artery: Running in the posterior interventricular groove.16. Posterolateral branch from RCA: Posterolateral branch originating from the distal coronary artery distal to the crux.16a. Posterolateral branch from RCA: First posterolateral branch from segment 16.16b. Posterolateral branch from RCA: Second posterolateral branch from segment 16.16c. Posterolateral branch from RCA: Third posterolateral branch from segment 16.5. Left main: From the ostium of the LCA through bifurcation into left anterior descending and left circumflex branches.6. LAD proximal: Proximal to and including first major septal branch.7. LAD mid: LAD immediately distal to origin of first septal branch and extending to the point where LAD forms an angle (RAO view). If thisangle is not identifiable this segment ends at one half the distance from the first septal to the apex of the heart.8. LAD apical: Terminal portion of LAD, beginning at the end of previous segment and extending to or beyond the apex.9. First diagonal: The first diagonal originating from segment 6 or 7.9a. First diagonal a: Additional first diagonal originating from segment 6 or 7, before segment 8.10. Second diagonal: Originating from segment 8 or the transition between segment 7 and 8. 10a. Second diagonal a: Additional second diagonal originating from segment 8.11. Proximal circumflex artery: Main stem of circumflex from its origin of left main and including origin of first obtuse marginal branch.12. Intermediate/anterolateral artery: Branch from trifurcating left main other than proximal LAD or LCX. It belongs to the circumflex territory.12a. Obtuse marginal a: First side branch of circumflex running in general to the area of obtuse margin of the heart.12b. Obtuse marginal b: Second additional branch of circumflex running in the same direction as 12.13. Distal circumflex artery: The stem of the circumflex distal to the origin of the most distal obtuse marginal branch, and running along the posteriorleft atrioventricular groove. Caliber may be small or artery absent.14. Left posterolateral: Running to the posterolateral surface of the left ventricle. May be absent or a division of obtuse marginal branch.14a. Left posterolateral a: Distal from 14 and running in the same direction.14b. Left posterolateral b: Distal from 14 and 14 a and running in the same direction.15. Posterior descending: Most distal part of dominant left circumflex when present. It gives origin to septal branches. When this arteryis present, segment 4 is usually absent。
syntax：Empty categories & related theories-1
IP N I Tom Ø criticize him V I’ VP DP
Cf. the structures of the infinitival complements with particle ―to‖. I expect [him to win the game]. They reported [him to be missing]. I consider [her to have behaved badly]. I want [you to help me].
I have never known [Tom criticize him]. They heard [the teacher scold the lazy students]. The students watched [the acid turn the litmus paper red]. A reporter saw [Senator Sleaze leave Benny’s Bunny Bar].
What is the head of a simple Compare the following sentences: sentence? Is the head of a sentence always heard or seen?
Empty Infl
a. He will write a book. b. He wrote a book. c. He did write a book d.*He did wrote a book.
Empty Infl
Look at the tree diagram below:
IP DP I D He He He will ---did V write wrote write I’ VP DP
SPSS的syntax语法实例一
* SPSS的syntax语法实例一* 编写者彭昆靖（大部分内容使用了SPSS帮助文档）* 对于每一个做数据分析的人来说，数据整理是得到分析结果的基础，但是每个人都知道数据的整理是最枯燥和耗费时间的。
特别是对于要做月报表甚至日报表的人来说，从服务器下载数据后的整理只是机械的重复，虽然可以用excel的编程和批处理来进行处理，但是如果能在SPSS中进行数据的处理是更好的选择，并且不用重新学习VB或者VC。
Spss的也可以利用程序对数据进行处理，并且对使用者的编程能力要求更低，因为大部分的操作都可以直接得到程序代码，不用使用者自己编写。
因此本文只选择了几个不能直接得到的语法进行说明。
本文主要是以实例说明SPSS中语法的使用方法，使用我以前的一个工作结果来进行演示，看完之后，你会发现SPSS的数据处理编写真的是非常容易的事情。
本文中，左半部分是程序内容，右半部分斜体是我写的解释内容，由于不是专业书籍，只是简单的说明如何使用，因此不能像SPSS的Syntex英文说明书一样详尽。
有更多需要的同学，请查阅SPSS的syntex说明书。
在syntex文档中，每句程序是以大写的标准命令起头，以英文的句号.结尾。
而在命令行的前面加上*，表示此句为注释性语句，不会参与命令自行。
SET Printback命令语句输出开关SET Printback=Off. off表示以后的执行语句不会出现在结果窗口中。
SET Printback=On. On表示以后的语句会出现在结果窗口中GET DATA 读入数据文档。
GET DATA 读入数据，下面以/开头的语句是本命 /TYPE=TXT 令的的参数。
/FILE="D:\CARD.csv" 意思是读入D盘根目录下的 CARD.csv文档/DELCASE=LINE/DELIMITERS=","/ARRANGEMENT=DELIMITED/FIRSTCASE=2/IMPORTCASE=ALL/VARIABLES=卡片 A20 卡片字段采用字符型，有20位长度报告单位 F9.0 单位字段采用数字型，有9位长度，其中小数后有0位出生日期SDATE10 出生日期采用日期型，采用顺序号为10的格式。
血清可溶性肿瘤发生抑制蛋白2和SYNTAX积分与冠状动脉旁路移植术患者近期预后的关系
• 372•中华实用诊断与治疗杂志2021年4月第35卷第4期J Chin Pract Diagn Ther,Apr. 2021, Vol. 35, No. 4•论著•血清可溶性肿瘤发生抑制蛋白2和SYNTAX积分与冠状动脉旁路移植术患者近期预后的关系邢帅帅1,贾梦奇2,赵根尚11.郑州大学第二附属医院心血管外科，河南郑州4500M;2.郑州大学第二附属医院心血管内科，河南郑州450014摘要：目的观察急性冠状动脉综合征（acute coronary syndrome，ACS)患者冠状动脉旁路移植术（coronary artery bypass grafting, CABG)术前血清可溶性肿瘤发生抑制蛋白2( suppression of tumorigenicity-2，sST2 )水平和SYNTAX n积分，探讨其对A CS患者术后近期预后的预测价值。
方法行CABG治疗的A C S患者183例（CABG组）和体检健康者180例（对照组），采用E U S A法检测血清sST2、C反应蛋白（C-reactive protein. C R P)、B型利钠肽(B-type natriuretic peptide, BNP)水平，比较CABG组和对照组血清sS T2水平和SYN TA XII积分。
术后随访6个月.根据随访期间的预后情况，将患者分为预后不良组48例和预后良好组135例，比较2组患者临床资料及血清S ST2、CRP、B N P水平和SYNTAX n积分，采用多因素logistic回归分析A C S患者CABG术后预后不良的危险因素；绘制R O C曲线，评估术前血清sS T2水平、SYNTAXII积分对A C S患者CABG术后预后不良的预测效能。
结果CABG组 患者血清sST2 水平[(35. 24±6. AZVg/LLSYNTAXD 积分[(30. 24±6. 29)分]均高于对照组[(11. 24±2. 35 V g/L、0] (P<0. 05)。
syntax
Inflp
NP
Inflection Head
VP explain the term. explain the term?
The teacher will Will the teacher
Inflp=(S) NP Infl VP NP
Det
N
V Det
N term. will explain the e
X
(Complement)
补语
The XP Rule: XP
(Specifer) X (Complement)
XP
Specifier
X Head
Complement
The XP Rule: XP
(Specifer) X (Complement)
XP
Complement X Head the bag on the table The XP Rule: XP (Specifer) X (Complement) the bag on the table on the right
宁春岩教授，哈尔滨人，1942年6月 生，师从形式语言学创始人乔姆斯基，在 语言学重镇美国洛杉矶加州大学获得博士 学位。他对汉语的生成句法理论的研究著 述丰硕，享有很高声誉。现任天津师范大 学语言学研究所所长，教授，硕导。曾先 后任：广东外语外贸大学语言学研究所所 长，核心刊物《现代外语》执行主编，教 授，博导；湖南师范大学教授，博导；湖 南大学认知科学研究所所长，外国语学院 院长，教授，博导。他多次主持过国家社 科基金项目和教育部社科重点项目，也多 次组织过形式语言学的重要国际会议，为 生成语言学在中国的发展做出了重要贡献， 被誉为：中国形式语言的拓荒者。主要研 究方向为形式语言学、生物语言学、句法 学、自然语言处理、神经语言学、语言障 碍。
08-Classes2
Classes II
Warmup
Declare a class (.h part) named “Cup” It has a data member that says how full it is One method called “Drink” that removes some portion of the cup [portion is randomly decided] What should method return? What parameters? One method called “Fill” that fills the cup What should method return? What parameters? Create a main function that: Drinks the entire cup Fills the cup
Accessors, Mutators, Facilitators?
class DayOfYear { public: void Input( ); void Output( );
Facilitators
void Set( int newMonth, int newDay ); void Set( int newMonth );
Public
Any code can access this member
Only members of the class can access this member
Private Default? If nothing defined, members are private
DayOfYear Output
syntax评分系统方法及意义
08年长城会上听专家讲了Syntax score评分方法，这评分方法比较复杂，主要是依据冠脉造影的结果来判断。
在准备阅读之前，先要熟悉冠脉解剖的节段分布情况:（上图为左优势型冠脉解剖分布，下图为右优势型解剖分布）Figure 1。
Definition of the coronary tree segments（冠脉束血管段的识别)1。
RCA proximal: From the ostium to one half the distance to the acute margin of the heart。
2. RCA mid: From the end of first segment to acute margin of heart.3. RCA distal: From the acute margin of the heart to the origin of the posterior descending artery.4。
Posterior descending artery：Running in the posterior interventricular groove。
16。
Posterolateral branch from RCA: Posterolateral branch originating from the distal coronary artery distal to the crux.16a. Posterolateral branch from RCA: First posterolateral branch from segment 16.16b. Posterolateral branch from RCA：Second posterolateral branch from segment 16。
16c。
Posterolateral branch from RCA: Third posterolateral branch from segment 16.5. Left main: From the ostium of the LCA through bifurcation into left anterior descending and left circumflex branches.6. LAD proximal：Proximal to and including first major septal branch。
SYNTAX评分计算方法
SYNTAX 评分体系一、冠状动脉树注：1. 右冠状动脉近段11. 盘旋支近段2. 右冠状动脉中段12. 中间支3. 右冠状动脉远段12a. 第一钝缘支4. 右冠-后降支12b. 第二钝缘支16. 右冠-后侧支13. 盘旋支远段16a. 右冠-后侧支第一分支14. 左后侧支16b. 右冠-后侧支第二分支14a. 左后侧支a 16c. 右冠-后侧支第三分支14b. 左后侧支b5. 左主干15. 盘旋支-后降支6. 前降支近段7. 前降支中段8. 前降支心尖段9. 第一对角支9a. 第一对角支a10. 第二对角支10a. 第二对角支a二、各节段的权重因数冠脉节段右优势型冠脉左优势型冠脉1. 右冠状动脉近段 1 02. 右冠状动脉中段 1 03. 右冠状动脉远段 1 04. 右冠-后降支 1 /16. 右冠-后侧支0.5 /16a. 右冠-后侧支第一分支0.5 /16b. 右冠-后侧支第二分支0.5 /16c. 右冠-后侧支第三分支0.5 /5. 左主干 5 68. 前降支心尖段 1 19. 第一对角支 1 19a. 第一对角支a 1 112. 中间支 1 112a. 第一钝缘支 1 112b. 第二钝缘支 1 114. 左后侧支0.5 114a. 左后侧支a 0.5 114b. 左后侧支b 0.5 115. 盘旋支-后降支/ 1三、病变不良特征评分血管狭窄-完全闭塞×5-50-99%狭窄×2完全闭塞-大于3个月或闭塞时间不祥+1-钝型残端+1-桥侧枝+1-闭塞后的第一可见节段+1/每一不可见节段-边支-边支小于1.5mm +1三叉病变-1个病变节段+3-2个病变节段+4-3个病变节段+5-4个病变节段+6分叉病变-A、B、C型病变+1-E、D、F、G型病变+2-角度小于70°+1开口病变+1严重扭曲+2长度大于20mm +1严重钙化+2血栓+1弥漫病变/小血管病变+1/每一节段四、SYNTAX评分系统SYNTAX积分通过计算机程序计算得出。
08 使用Abaqus-Explicit
Introduction to Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
© Dassault Systèmes, 2008
显式动力学过程概述
• 应力波的传播 • 应力波传播的例子说明了显 式动力学方法的求解过程： 没有迭代，或求解线性方程 。
• 考虑应力波沿着三个杆单元 传播问题。在时间增加的过 程中，研究杆的状态。
• 在大多数的Abaqus/Explicit分析中，用户只需提供总时间步长。时间增量 的大小由程序自动确定，这样总可以满足稳定时间增量的限制。
*STEP *DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT , 70.E-3
• 对特殊情况，可以人为的控制时间增量大小。
Introduction to Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
Introduction to Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
© Dassault Systèmes, 2008
Abaqus/Explicit句法
• Abaqus/Explicit独有的一些选项 • 下面的模型定义和历程选项只对Abaqus/Explicit有效（没有列出输出和控 制选项）： 分析 过程 *DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT: 该过程指定动力学分析步 Abaqus/Explicit将作为求解器。 *DYNAMIC TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT, EXPLICIT: 该过程指定热固耦合分析步。 *ANNEAL: 该过程将所有的节点速度和状态变量，比 如应力和塑性应变设置为零。
第三个增量步开始时杆的构型
Introduction to Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
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Sentences are formed by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.
For example, (5) Mary told Jane [that John liked linguistics]. (6) Mary saw [John reading a linguistics book]. (7) Mary asked [John to buy her a linguistics book]. (8) Mary wondered [if John would buy her a linguistics book]. (9) [That John likes linguistics] puzzles everyone.
The Structures of a Sentence
Lecture One on Syntax
Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. For example,
3. Types of sentences
Sentences can be classified along the intersecting dimensions of structure and function. 1) The structural approach 2) The functional approach
1
1) The structural approach
Traditionally, three major types of sentences are distinguished based on their structures. (1) The simple sentence (2) The coordinate or compound sentence (3) The complex sentence (1) John reads extensively. (2) Mary decided to take a linguistics class the next semester.
1) The linear word order of a sentence
(4) Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal +nominal; e.g., Mother fed Dad breakfast. (5) There + existential +nominal; e.g., There is time. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence; and they are heard or read as arranged one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear. For example,
(3) John is reading a linguistics book, and Mary is preparing for her history exics, but Mary is interested in history.
2
The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentences; neither is subordinate to the other. Each clause in a coordinate sentence is separable from the others and can stand on its own as a structurally independent sentence.
4
3) Tree diagrams of sentence structure
(1) The student likes the new linguistics professor. (2) John, Mary and Susan went to the linguistics lecture. (3) John suggested that Mary take the linguistics class. Let's observe an example first.
4. The linear and hierarchical structure of sentences
2. Based on word classes, Bolinger(1969) reports five basic sentence types: (1) Nominal + intransitive verbal; e.g., Mother fell. (2) Nominal + copula + complement; e.g., Mother is young. (3) Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal; e.g., Mother loves Dad.
(10) [For John to like linguistics] quite puzzled Mary. (11) Mary didn't like linguistics [until John gave her a lecture]. (12) Mary showed interest in linguistics [after John gave her a lecture]. (13) [Before John gave her a lecture,] Mary showed no interest in linguistics.
The subordinator does not merely mark the beginning of an embedded clause but more importantly, indicates the grammatical function of the embedded clause in the sentence; Fourthly, an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.
A finite clause refers to a clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. A simple sentence satisfies the structural requirements of a finite clause. For example,
(3) The complex sentence A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated clause is called an embedded clause; the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.
(2) The coordinate or compound sentence A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example,
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2) The functional approach
1. Based on the communicative function of utterances, sentences can be labeled as the following four types: (1) declarative sentences (2) interrogative sentences (3) imperative sentences (4) exclamatory sentences