Argument题库谬误统计
argument 逻辑错误模板
各个逻辑错误攻击模板1.Survey/Study：(1)ProcedureA. Selective sampleThis survey fails to consider all the possibilities of samples, which results in an inadequate emphasis on ……without recognizing the fact that ……were actually excluded from the survey.B. Quantity of the sampleUnless the survey investigated a sufficient number of interviewees and did so randomly across the entire spectrum, the survey results are not dependable to represent the general population. Therefore the number of respondents/samples in itself does not ensure representativeness. For example, if the sample included only , then the results would always suggest . Otherwise, the specimen would account for only a small percentage and would render the result of the survey meaningless.(2)Result of the surveyA. Do the statistics make any meaningfulness?Actually, in the absence of data concerning/regarding the total amount of garbage sites and population in the neighborhood, the argument suffers from an absence of proof that the current system of garbage sites will pose some extent of health hazard as constituting a sufficient evidence that it will not pose any significant health hazard.B. Are the statistics misleadingly vague?①攻击“无相对比值”The argument tells us that “many” (anumber of ) _____. However, the speaker fails to indicate the percentage of_____, so this evidence is far too nebulous to be meaningful.②攻击“无绝对数值”The author fails to provide information regarding the absolute number of ____.C. RespondentsThe respondents must be statistically significant in number and representative of the overall population.(3)Who conducted the survey?The surveyor should be nonaligned可以机动使用不必须(4)When was the survey conducted?A threshold problem is that the editorial neglects to indicate how recent the survey was conducted. All we know in this editorial is that the survey was recently published. The arguer's inference that ...rests on the luricrous assumption that during the interval of all conditions upon which ...depend have remained constant. However this is not the case. The arguer fails to consider the time span during which all conditions may vary drastically. The less recent the survey itself, the less reliable the results to indicate current interest levels.2.Sufficient Evidence and Necessary Condition(1)Sufficient Evidencea.The argument assumes too hastily that ____will naturallyresult in the phenomenon predicted by the arguer.However, it is entirely possible that……b.The fact that A is not adequate for the prediction thatB .(2)Necessary ConditionThe editor’s recommendation depends on the unwarranted assumption that no factors other than A caused B . However, commonsense indicates that this assumption is logically erroneous. Numerous other factors, including _C_or _D_, might just as likely be the cause of _B_. To be specific,if C or D then____. Without eliminating other possible causes, the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only by ____ can____.3.Cause and Effect Fallacies(1) Non sequiturThe arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between the fact that ____and the claim that____. This argument is unacceptable unless there is compelling evidence to support the cause-and-effect coherence between these two events. Perhaps, for example, ____results from_____.(2) Post hoc, ergo proper hoc (after this, therefore because of this)Based on the fact that ____ occurred after _____, the editor infers that ____should contribute to _____. However, the sequence of these events does not suffice to prove that earlier happening caused the later one. Many other possibilities may claim responsibility for the happening. Without ruling out scenarios such as these, the editor cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship between______ and _______ upon which the editor’s recommendation depends.(3) ConcurrenceThe argument concludes a correlation between A and B , then infers that the former is responsible for the latter. However, the argument fails to rule out other possible factors. For example, _____. Any of these factors might lead to B . Without taking these factors into consideration it is unfair to conclude that A is solely responsible for B.(4) Confuse the cause and effectIt is possible that the mayor has confused cause with effect respecting the recent developments in Ocean View. Perhaps A was a response to B. Since the mayor has failed to account for this possibility, the claim that _____ iscompletely unwarranted.4.Changing Scope Fallacies(1)Different conceptsA threshold problem involves the definition of A . The arguer fails to define this critical term. If A is defined asB , then howC , is irrelevant to whether____. In short, without a clear definition of A , it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.(2)What is true for a member is also true for the groupThe argument relies on the assumption that a sample represents nationwide population. If this is not the case, then it is entirely possible that the occurrence will not be the same in another place. Thus, lacking more detailed information about the nationwide factors, it is difficult to assess the merit of the memo’s recommendation.(3)Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to each group memberOne problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide (characteristics of a group apply to everymember of that group) statistics about _____ applies equally to every individual member. Yet this might not be the case, for a variety of possible reasons. Perhaps ______; or perhaps ______ . Without ruling out such possibilities, the author cannot justifiably conclude that _____.(4)Average5.Incomplete Thought(1)Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughlyIn addition, the author fails to consider the possible negative impacts brought about by .(2)ProfitThe author’ conclusion that _____ is unwarranted. Profit is determined by not only revenue, but also costs. It’s entirely possible that the costs of_________ , or other costs associated with ________,will outweigh the revenue. Besides, numerous other possible occurrences, such as unfavorable economic conditions, might prevent ______ from being as profitable in the foreseeable futures as the argument predicts.6.All things remain unchanged over time(1)Past conditions remain unchanged in the present and futureThe author claims that ______, because _____ . The author unfairly assumes that the background conditions have remained the same at different time. The assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended periods of time. There are likely all kinds of differences between A and B . For example, A_______; however, B______. Any of these scenarios, if true, would serve to undermine the claim that ______(2)Present Conditions will remain unchanged into the future7.Vague evidence8.Analogy and comparison(1)False analogyThe arguer’s recommendation relies on what might be a poor analogy between A and B. The analogy falsely depends on the assumption that ______ in both A and B are similar. However, it is entirely possible that great divergence exists between A and B. In short, without accounting for important possible differences between A and B, the arguer cannotreasonably prove the proposed method will help A_____ .(2)Incomplete or selective comparisonThe arguer unfairly employs a selective comparison as specious criteria and draws a conclusion that A surpassesB without comprehensive consideration, whichsignificantly weakens this argument.(3)Comparison and Variation9.False dilemmaEven assuming A is not the reason for the B , the author falsely assumes that the B must be attributable to C. This “either-or ” argument is fallacious in that it ignores ot her possible causes of the B . For example, perhaps other possibilities may also account for the occurrence.10.Unwarranted AssumptionThe author falsely depends on gratuitous assumption that ______. However, no evidence is provided in the argument to support this assumption. For example, it is most likely that ______. Therefore, the argument is unwarranted without ruling out such possibility.11. Hasty generalizationIn addition, the arguer commits a fallacy of hasty generalization. Even if A , it does not necessarily follow that B . It is highly possible that other factors may have contributed to B. For instance, __________ . Besides, the arguer does not provide any solid information concerning B. Without ruling out these and other possible factors that give rise to B, the author cannot confidently conclude that ______.。
解读GRE作文中的统计类逻辑错误
统计类错误统计类错误，从字面上看就是文中所给出的有效数据存在着一些问题，有待进一步去分析研究。
而在GRE的argument作文中，统计类错误有着很明显的标志性词语，如study, report, survey, poll等表示“调查”意思的词语。
在argument的作文题目中，都用调查的结果来充当证据，但是，作者并没有考虑调查结果是否具有代表性，仅仅通过这一个调查的情况得出所有的结论，这样的文章肯定没有说服力。
对于统计类错误，我们可以从几个方面去攻击作者的调查存在问题，如调查采用什么样的抽样程序、样本有多大、数据是否有意模糊、数据是否完整、数据是否重要、调查在何时进行的等等。
下面主要针对这些调查存在的问题进行具体的介绍。
一、调查采用什么样的抽样程序调查的结果是否具有代表性，首先取决于样本的选择是否遵循了随机性原则。
随机性原则要求调查者在抽样时确保被调查对象的全体成员有同样的机会被抽到，不能事先把一部分成员排除在外。
例如：The Department of Education in the state of Attra recommends that high school students be assigned homework every day. Yet a recent statewide survey of high school math and science teachers calls the usefulness of daily homework into question. In the district of Sanlee, 86 percent of the teachers reported assigning homework three to five times a week, whereas in the district of Marlee, less than 25 percent of the teachers reported assigning homework three to five times a week. Yet the students in Marlee earn better grades overall and are less likely to be required to repeat a year of school than are the students in Sanlee. Therefore, all teachers in our high schools should assign homework no more than twice a week, if at all.【太傻译文】Attra州的教育部建议高中学生应该每天都被布置家庭作业。
GRE-Arguement 七种常见错误-个人总结
精心整理一．经不起推敲的类推（false analogy）This argument relies on what might be a false analogy between A and B C.（开头）In order for BC to serve as models that A should emulate,causal relationship with correlation ）The argument concluded based on a known correlation between A and B.Yet the correlation alone is only a scant evidence of theclaimed “cause-and –effect” relationship. Perhaps…..Moreover, the argument overlooks the fact that….The arguer has not accounted for the possibility that…. If this is the case, than the conclusion would lack any meritWithout considering and ruling out these and other alternative means of…., the arguer cannot confidently conclude that…..must do…in order to achieve the goal.（收尾）b)The recommendation depends on the additional unsubstantiated assumption that…..would by itself improve……(指出不一定能达到目标)Absent evidence that this is the case, it is equally possible that…..It is unreasonable to draw any conclusions about….based on statistics about….（指出数据不可依赖）The arguer fails to make clear the exact number of….If only small portions of the whole population are…..then the case might be that …（数据太小）Even if the sample size chosen from….is large enough, the statistics might also be incredible.Depending on the total number of….., it is entirely possible that…..are not representative of….For example, perhaps…..are particularly….were anonymous, or even confidential.If they were not, then respondents might have provided responses that they believed their superiors would approve of, regardless of whether the responses were truthful.In either event, the survey results would be unreliable for thepurpose of drawing any conclusions about….., let alone about…..七认为一切事情是永恒不变的a) 使用以前的数据证明当下This claim unfairly infers from….in the past that…..this yearstatistics and the….., the greater the possibility thatthe …..has changed over this time span, and the less justifiable the arguer’s reliance on the statistics to support the claim that…..攻击假设可以说The arguer simply assumes that ….. but he does not provide any evidence that……The recommendation depends on the assumption that …. Yet no evidence is offered to substantiate this assumption.In order for …… the arguer must assume that …..However,In either event, the survey results would be unreliable for the purpose of drawing any conclusions about….., let alone about…..(2 ×)Any of these scenarios, if true, would serve to undermine the claim that…..（3×）让步句Therefore, even though….., there is no guarantee that….. Even assuming that…., the arguer provides no clear evidence that…..Even if we accept the arguer’s assumption that….thecredibilitylogically acceptable persuasive concrete 【证明】relies on substantiate infer justifyreveal demonstrate。
GRE考试Argument写作任务逻辑漏洞(1)3页word文档
GRE考试Argument写作任务逻辑漏洞（1）考试分析GRE中文名称为美国研究生入学考试，其考试内容涵盖了三个部分，即分析性写作、文字推理以及数量推理。
其中，分析性写作部分包括两个写作任务，即Issue和Argument。
根据考试要求，考生在Argument中需要阅读已给的短文，找到其中的逻辑漏洞并通过写作进行论证驳斥。
短文中逻辑漏洞的设置考察了考生的批判性思维及逻辑思维能力，而以论证驳斥为目的的写作则考察了考生的英语语言表达能力及其逻辑驳斥能力。
考试主办方已对考生公开Argument部分的题库，通过对题库中174道题目的整理，可以发现虽然题库中题目数量较大，但是题目中设置的逻辑漏洞类型则较为单一。
在熟悉各类逻辑漏洞及其分析技巧后，考生通过一定量的练习便能在考试中更快速地识破逻辑漏洞并展开逻辑驳斥写作。
下文将细述Argument部分常设的两大逻辑漏洞，并结合具体题目对漏洞进行分析，探讨考生写作时的分析论证思路。
逻辑漏洞一：因果关系这一逻辑漏洞是指题目短文中某两个事件之间似是而非的因果关系。
在题目短文中，通常出题人会指出恰好同时发生或者先后发生的事件一和事件二之间的因果关系，然而这两个事件实际上可能并无此关系。
这一逻辑漏洞在题库题目中非常常见，且伴随这一逻辑漏洞一起出现的是表示事件间因果关系的“due to”、“therefore”等词。
因此，只要熟知这一规律及其标志词，这一逻辑漏洞对于考生而言并不难辨别。
在分析这一漏洞时，考生除了需要首先指出两个事件之间错误的因果关系外，还需要指出事件二的发生恐怕另有其因，并就他因做一步的列举。
逻辑漏洞二：类比关系这一逻辑漏洞是指题目短文中的某人将两个或以上并不具备可比性的对象被进行了比较。
通常情况下，在题目短文中会有某人提议将曾在对象一身上实施的成功措施照搬到对象二上，以期后者能够复制前者的成功。
在这类情境中，虽然两个对象往往具有相似之处，但是两者环境条件却不同，并且措施的实施时间通常也不同，因此两者并不具备可比性，在此情况下即便是将前者的措施应用到后者，后者恐怕也难以达到如前者般的成功。
辩论逻辑错误大全
逻辑错误一览,全了！无论你是打辩论赛，还是想提高自己的逻辑思维，甚至是更想有水平地骂人～~～这个必看啊～～～* 当你与别人讨论，尝试获得答案或解释时，你可能会遇到一些人犯上逻辑谬误.这样的讨论是无意义的。
你可能尝试向对手要求证据或提供其他假设，令你获得更好或更简单的解释。
如果都失败,可以尝试指出你讨论对手的问题。
你可辨认他的逻辑问题以免深究，以及可告知讨论对手关於他的谬误.以下是简单介绍其中最常见的谬误：人身攻击（ad hominem）o 拉丁语「向着人」的意思.辩者用人身攻击来攻击对手，而不是在讨论议题。
当辩者不能用证据、事实或理由去维护他的立场，他可能透过标签、稻草人、骂人、挑衅及愤怒的人身攻击方式来攻击对手.诉诸无知(appeal to ignorance / argumentum ex silentio）o 以诉诸无知作为某些证据。
（例如：我们没有证据说神不存在，所以祂一定存在。
又例如：由於我们没有关於外星人的知识,这表示他们并不存在。
）对某些东西的无知，是与它的存在与否无关。
全知论据（argument from omniscience）o （例如：所有人都相信某些东西,每个人都知道的。
) 辩者需要有全知能力以清楚每个人的信仰、怀疑或他们的知识。
小心如「所有」、「每个人」、「每种东西」、「绝对」等词语。
诉诸信心（appeal to faith）(例如：如果你不相信，是不能清楚明白的。
）如果辩者倚仗信心作为他论据的根基,那麽你在以後的讨论所能得到的将不多。
根据定义，「信心」是倚靠相信，并非靠逻辑或证据支持。
信心倚赖非理性的思想，并会产生不妥协。
诉诸传统（appeal to tradition）（类似主流思想谬误）（例如：占星、宗教、奴隶）只因为人们以此为传统，与它本身的存活能力无关.诉诸权威（argument from authority / argumentum ad verecundiam）* 以「专家」或权威的说话作论据的根基，而不是用逻辑或证据来支持该论据。
Argument+第二种类型错误+因果错误+第六次课
Argument 第二种类型错误因果错误错误推理源头:1 两件事情总是一起出现(关联性)2 两件事情的出现有时间先后性(时间性)如: 经济危机是大学生找不到工作的原因.( 有关联, 经济危机出现时往往不好找工作, 但除了经济环境不好之外还涉及到许多其他原因可能导致找不到工作, 比如专业, 行业现状, 个人性格, 运气等)如: 逻辑不好是不能当上新东方GRE 老师的原因.(有关联, 但当不上新东方GRE老师未必一定是由于逻辑不好而导致的, 比如新东方不缺GRE老师等)例题分析3 法学院毕业生就业倾向与大型事务所就业人员数量下降未必有因果关系. (比如职位有限)19. 乐队在Megalopolis的成功可能与Ad Lib的广告活动无因果关系. (比如DR乐队的歌曲最近又变的流行, 又比如DR乐队的某位歌手最近的媒体曝光率很高, 吸引了潜在的观众)26. 钢铁城市高中的乐队获得的三次地区奖项未必一定和谢德, 音乐指挥, 有必然的因果关系. (比如前人的基础和帮助使得谢德一上任时乐队就获得了奖项, 又或者乐队的获奖和演奏者的节目表演有更大的关系, 又或者是由于器械的改善而使得乐队获奖)攻击策略: 指出关联关系未必是因果关系, 同时必须给出别的潜在原因来驳斥题目中的信息不是结果出现的原因)1 The author attempts to establish a causal correlation between the fact that A…and the claim that…B. this argument is unacceptable if there isno compelling evidence to support the connection between these two events.2 The author fails to establish the causal relationship between A and B. The author fails to convince us that A contributes to B.The author provides no convincing/compelling/persuasive/we ll-reasoned evidence that A is the reason for B.3 Moreover, the author has not shown any correlation, let alone/not tomention a cause-and-effect relationship between A and B.4 In short, without ruling out the possible explanations for B(result), sb cannot/fails to justifiably conclude that A is the cause of /reason for B.5. The fact that …might be explained by a large variety of reasons/factors.6. I can not accept the fact that A is responsible for B.7. A correlation between A and B doesnot necessarily infer a causal relation. It is entirely possible that there are some other important factors contributing to B, such as …..8. While a high correlation is a piece of strong evidence of a causal relationship, it is in itself not sufficient; therefore, the author has to account for some other possible facts like …9. a direct correlation between A and B does not necessarily prove that the former causes the latter.10. Lacking evidence to confirm this assumption, it is entirely impossible that A is the reason of B11. Since the article fails to account for this alternative explanation for B, the article’s author cannot make any sound conclusion that A is accredited as the reason of B.题号3, 19, 26, 142, 156, 173, 220, 224,第三种逻辑错误过去推将来错误推理源头:1 认为过去的经验会带来现在或未来的必然推论2 认为现在的肯定不会改变如: 冯导的贺岁电影在过去五年间一直位居票房榜首, 那么相信明年的票房榜首一定是冯氏电影.( 冯导电影过去好, 但是未来未必好, 因为可能人们的审美习惯会变, 大家也许看腻了老优的台词, 看腻了冯女郎的妖娆, 和大团圆的结尾而去选择别的电影, 同时冯导的竞争者陈导, 张导有可能拍出更好的电影, 做出更好的宣传, 请出更大的腕儿, 那冯导的电影过去的优势未必可以保持到将来.如: 观众现在喜欢小沈阳, 未来一定也会喜欢么?(杨仔的山寨版? 小长春? 小西安?)例:1 Plainsville的居民现在的喜好和习惯在将来可能改变.161 第一次的居民读书习惯调查和第二次的读书习惯调查之间的时间差不清楚, 导致由现在的调查结论去推断以前的调查结果一定不是真实的是错误的.1 The past experience is not the mere fact which can definitely lead to the certain future results. For example, ….. If the author fails to substantiate the assumption, then the predictableconsequence would be more unconvincing.2. During a sufficiently long interim period, …will have changed. Therefore, what is predicted, based on the previous experience, is definitely not the case.3 The author’s projection also ignores the possibility that…will change/increase/decrease in the future days. Without taking into account these possibilities, the authorcannot render his conclusion convincing by stating that …(作者结论).4 The author’s inference that …was …in the past will also be …in the future rests on poor assumption that…题号236, 208, 161, 1第四种逻辑错误错误类比错误推理源头A事物和B事物具有某种相似特征,那么他们在其他方面也一定相似. 如: 最近北京的一项调查表示大学生的信用卡还款率很低, 很多银行都限制了给大学生发放信用卡, 那么西安地区的银行也应该限制本市的大学生信用卡发放.如: 最近北京的电影院推出了看电影送可乐的活动, 结果使得北京的电影院的票房收入出现了大幅度的飙升, 那么西安地区的电影院也应该推出送可乐的活动来提高上座率.例题19. Ad Lib的推广成功在Megalpolis 的成功未必会在其他地方成功.152. 在Tria照搬Badia的例子未必成功.156. 其他公司未必会像MEGA一样从DKCKENS的课程中受益.1, it is entirely possible that the experiences/measures/policy in A would not suffice to ensure similar result in B—due to the some other facts existing on the scene.2. the author assumes without justification that the background conditions in A have remained the same in B in that the author ignored that many implicit factors keepchanging at different time and at different locations.3. The mere fact that case A is scant/insufficient evidence that case B by following A’s example.4. the argument by analogy is wholly/thoroughly/entirely unconvincing for the author ignores the possibility that the specific conditions in either case vary a great deal, like…5. The autho r unfairly assumes thatthe result of case A applies specifically to case B.6. A threshold problem with the argument is that it assumes that what happens in A will also take place in B.题号214, 210, 168, 162, 160, 155, 152, 19第五种逻辑错误整体规律用于个体错误推理源头整体的特征一定也可以适用于个人如: 整个新东方的男教师的收入是高于女教师的, 那么周湘作为一个女人一定挣钱挣的比周围的…少.?如: 全国现在都对山寨文化产品很感兴趣, 所以西安地区应该寻找山寨名人来拍摄一部电视剧或电影.例题23 对于双收入家庭饮食习惯的全国性调查结果不一定适用于Bay City的情况.148 全国性的选举行为倾向并不一定说明MANROE镇的居民也会这么投票选举.驳斥方法: 证明个体的特殊性1 The nationwide study showingthat…does not necessarily apply to …(个体名称). It is quite possible that…2 The author unfairly assumes that the nationwide tendency applies specifically to个体名称. Lacking evidence that个体名称reflects this general tendency,it is entirely possible that 具体论据题号23, 148第六种逻辑错误单个事例说明整体错误推理源头个体性的特征使用与整体如: 叶问获得了巨大的成功, 所以所有爱国的由甄子丹主演的电影都会获得成功.如: 南二环的新东方外语学校招生人数还不错, 受益颇丰, 所以其他人要开外语学校也应该在南二环附近.驳斥方法: 证明个体的独特性不能延展到整个整体上.1 it is unlikely to say that case A can be repeated elsewhere in that it is not supposed to be the representative of all cases and there are somedistinctive features in each case.2. Even if…(sample A 是有道理的)this single/individual/specific sample is insufficient to draw any general conclusion about….(整体结论)题号19, 150, 176第七种逻辑错误忽视其他因素(几乎都有)1 The argument overlooks the strongpossibility that (factor one) is not the only factor affecting 结果. Other factors might include….2. Without considering and ruling out these and other factors that might have served to结果,the author cannot justifiably conclude that 结果3. A problem with the argument is that it assumes that 已给因素are the only significant factors affecting 结果. Common sense and experience tell us this is not the case, and a variety of other factors, such as A, B and C, alsoplay major roles.4. t he article fails to consider any other course of action that might help 结果. Perhaps by doing A and doing B can the same goal be achieved.题号236, 224, 221, 168, 162, 160, 156, 150, 19, 18, 11第八种逻辑错误非此即彼错误错误逻辑源头思维过于简单, 把本来具有多种解释的事件简单化为只有两种对立选择的可能.如: 调查发现许多想出国读研究生的同学不想去考GMAT了, 所以他们一定会选择GRE, 那么GRE课程的开设就非常必要了.例题148 Monroe 居民反对布朗的减税方案未必就说明他们一定支持Green的增税方案.The argument suffers from “either-or” reasoning. Based on the fact that A, the author unfairly concludes that B.However, the author overlooks the possibility that other factors or conditions may exist and function in this event/argument.题号148第九种逻辑错误非充要条件逻辑错误源头如: 吃饭是活着的充分条件.例题19. Ad Lib的广告宣传对于乐队在其他地区的成功可能不是必要的. 192. 合并政府只是消除混乱的必要条件而不是充分条件. Although…A might be necessary to B…….overlooks the possibility that A will not in itself suffice to B第十种逻辑错误大杂烩自相矛盾192 The editorial seems to make two irreconcilable claims. One is that the merger will result in the elimination of certain duplicative jobs; the other is that no current municipal employee will become unemployed as a result of the merger.比例与总量混淆23, 203, 214赢利问题赢利涉及的成本支出收入.In short, without more information about supply, demand, and production costs, it is impossible to determine whether the company can earn a profit from…23, 176忽视其他因素11, 18, 19, 150, 156, 160, 162, 168, 221, 224, 236GRE argument的结尾写法1 in conclusion, the recommendation the author made relies on certain doubtful assumptions that render it unconvincing as it stands. To bolster the recommendation, …must provide clear and compelling evidence that…(前文的逻辑批判论据简述)2 in sum, the argument i s logically flawed and therefore unconvincing as it claims. To strengthen it the…must either modify the evidence or list more compelling data such as…(前文…)3 in a summary, …cannot justify his or her recommendation that…(结论重述) on the basis of the scant evidence provided in theargument/editorial/memorandum.4 in conclusion, the recommendation/assumption/suggest ion/presumption is not well-reasoned and well-supported. To convince me that ….(结论重述) …needs/needed to provide clearer statistical evidence that (论据重述)…Meanwhile, tobetter evaluate the recommendation, I would be informed of more information with reference to …(论据重述)5 in conclusion, … fails to convince me that …(结论重述). To strengthen the argument, …should account for all other potential factors like…(论据重述). And undoubtedly, more statistical information concerned/involved, to better assess the conclusion, is needed. …(论据重述)6 in sum, the scant evidence the …cites/quotes is the fairly loose and weak evidence to support his conclusion that…. To better assess the argument the author should….(具体论据)7 in sum, the argument is weak on several grounds./in several facets. First, …(论据重述). Second, …(论据重述). Third, …(论据重述)8 in conclusion, the assertionthat …(结论) isuntenable/unconvincing/indefensible in light of a variety of alternativeexplanations ignored. For example, …(论据重述). Therefore, such evidence, if listed by the … as the tangible evidence, would be most appropriate to bolster the assumption.。
解读GRE作文中的因果关系逻辑错误
Argument主要是要找到原⽂论断的逻辑错误（漏洞），然后，通过说出其它可能性，来攻击这些逻辑漏洞。
argument 的结构⽐较固定，易于掌握。
argument 每题由两个部分构成。
第⼀部分是⼀句介绍性的话，⽤来提供论述的背景，这句话并没有逻辑错误可⾔。
第⼆部分是论述的本⾝，是⼀段完整的逻辑分析，其中肯定包含逻辑错误，这部分也正是考⽣在阅读和攻击时的重点所在。
写好这种模式的⽂章的关键是抓住逻辑错误，这是拿⾼分的第⼀点，也是最重要的⼀点。
下⾯主要介绍⼀下argument作⽂中常见的逻辑错误。
因果关系错误（causal relationship oversimplification）因果关系错误，顾名思义，就是在做因果推理时，太过于简单⽽忽略了因果关系的复杂性。
在现实⽣活中，⼀个结果可能是多个原因同时发挥作⽤⽽带来的，或者⼀个原因既可能导致A结果，也可能导致B结果。
题⽬中所给的因果关系推理，不能说是不正确的，但是，所犯的错误就是还可能有其他的原因会导致这种结果，⽽这些其他⽅⾯的原因正是我们需要找到的，⽤这些其他的原因去攻击作者最后的结论是不全⾯的。
下⾯就以⼀个具体的因果关系错误来说明：The following appeared in a letter sent by a committee of homeowners from the Deer haven Acres to all homeowners in Deer haven Acres."Seven years ago, homeowners in nearby Brookville community adopted a set of restrictions on how the community's yards should be landscaped and what colors the exteriors of homes should be painted. Since then, average property values have tripled in Brookville. In order to raise property values in Deer haven Acres, we should adopt our own set of restrictions on landscaping and house painting."【太傻译⽂】“七年前，附近的Brookville社区的业主实施了⼀系列关于该社区的庭院应如何布置以及房屋应涂何种颜⾊的规定。
英语考试作文-【高分必备】GRE写作Argument部分的6种逻辑错误汇总
英语考试作文【高分必备】GRE写作Argument部分的6种逻辑错误汇总新GRE写作包括Argument和Issue两部分，这两部分都比较重视逻辑思维，而这恰恰是中国学生容易错的地方。
今天给大家整理了新GRE写作Argument部分常犯的7种逻辑错误，希望小伙伴儿们在平时的备战练习中注意避免这些问题。
1、结论无据(gratuitous assumption)The author falsely depends on gratuitousassumption that.... However, no evidence is stated in the argument to supportthis assumption. In fact, this is not necessarily the case. For example, it ismore likely that.... Therefore, this argument is unwarranted without ruling outsuch possibility.2、无因果联系The author commits a fallacy of causaloversimplification. The line of the reasoning is that because A occurred beforeB, the former event is responsiblefor the latter. (The author uses thepositive correlation between A and B to establish causality. However, the factthatA coincides withB does not necessarily prove that A causedB.) But thisis fallacious reasoning unless other possible causal explanations have beenconsidered and ruled out. For example, perhaps C is the cause of these eventsor perhaps B is caused by D.3、样本不足(insufficient-sample)The evidence the author provides isinsufficient to support the conclusion drawn from it. One example is logicallyunsounded to establish a general conclusion (The statistics from only a fewrecent years are not necessarily a good indicator of future trends), unless itcan be shown that A1 is representative of all A.4、二者择一(Either-Orchoice)The author assumes that AA and BB aremutually exclusive alternatives and there is no room for a middle ground.However, the author provides no reason for imposing an either-or choice. Commonsense tells us that adjusting both AA and BB might produce better results.5、错误类比(based on a false analogy )The argument rests on the assumptionthat A isanalogous to B in all respects. This assumption is weak, sincealthough there are points of comparison between A and B, there is muchdissimilarity as well. For example, A..., however, B.... Thus, it is likelymuch more difficult for B to do....6、时地全等(all thingsare equal)The author commits the fallacy of “all things are equal”. The fact thathappened two years ago is not a sound evidence to draw a conclusion that....The author assumes without justification that the background conditions haveremained the same at different times or at different locations. However, it isnot clear in this argument whether the current conditions at AA are the same asthey used to be two years ago. Thus it is impossible to conclude that....TIPS：GRE写作两部分权重相同由于AA的写作不牵涉自己观点的展开，只须指出作者逻辑上的漏洞，因此在经过训练以后，写起来并不困难;而AI的写作需要自己展开自己设立的观点，不但需要逻辑上的洞察能力，还需要论证观点的能力，语言组织的能力，因此对于中国考生来讲比较困难，难以短期内有较大提高。
GRE Argument中常见的一些误区和问题-杜昶旭
GRE Argument中常见的一些误区和问题在GRE和GMAT考试中，作文部分都包括了ISSUE和ARGUMENT两个部分，说的简单一点，就是“立论”和“驳论”两种类型的议论文写作。
长时间以来，很多中国同学在准备这两种作文的过程中都认为ISSUE比较困难，而ARGUMENT比较简单，因而很明显地呈现出一种“重ISSUE，轻ARGUMENT”的状态。
然而，我在统计最近几年中国同学的GRE作文成绩时发现，如果大家的ARGUMENT成绩还不错的话，那最后的总分应该不会低到现在的地步。
于是，我到网上仔细阅读了一些同学作文，并看了大多数大家所“膜拜”或“参考”的提纲，发现同学的ARGUMENT分数低是完全可能的，因为很多人写的ARGUMENT，都不符合ETS官方说明的要求（要求具体可以参考我的日志文章），主要问题有如下的几个方面。
第一，很多同学对题目的理解本身有问题。
很多同学在准备ARGUMENT的过程中，没有仔细阅读ETS官方发布的题库，而是大量参考网上流传的或者一些参考书上给出的中文翻译，甚至完全不看题目的英文原文。
但是，这些翻译有一些和原题实际表达的意思是不一致的，这就会造成同学们在分析题目论证错误的过程中出现问题。
比如，有一道题目原文是：The following appeared in the editorial section of Monroetown's local newspaper."Mayor Brown was recently re-elected by a clear majority of 52 percent of Monroetown's voters.Her re-election, however, does not show that most people in our town favored Mayor Brown'sproposal for tax reduction over that of her opponent, Mr. Greene, who proposed raising taxes to improve education. It has been shown that voters nationwide tend to re-elect people already in office, regardless of candidates' proposals. In fact, a local survey after the election showed most people in Monroetown disagreed with Mayor Brown's proposal. Clearly most people inMonroetown favor improving education and therefore approve of Mr. Greene's proposal despite the fact that they did not vote for him."网上流行的翻译是：Brown市长最近获得了Monroetown全体选民52％的票而再次当选市长。
【Argument高频题目剖析--】(蓝色重点版)
Argument中几种常见的错误类型：1.以前的好坏没说，说现在怎么怎么样，没用！2.不公平，只说一方，对另一方从不提及，或极少提及！3.时过境迁，没用！4.地域不同，没用！5.情况不同，没用！6.这个调查、报告、研究结果合理吗？7.无理推测，没有证据表明这个推测是成立的！8.是不是由于其他原因引起的？9.时间在变，中间可能发生很大的变化！10.结论武断，没有考虑全面，忽视了其他的问题！11.能盈利？不一定吧？12.这个是唯一的方法吗？13.部分不能代表整体！14.会不会适得其反？15.同时发生，或者随后发生不一定构成因果关系！16.错误的把原因归结到一个人身上！Argument出题频率及重点题剖析（蓝色字体标注版）Hot！Common51.secondary infections,muscle strain 论断：要建议有肌肉拉伤的病人服用抗生素。
因为医生最近证实二次感染会防碍病人快速康复。
在一项对两组病人的研究中，第一组病人由专门从事体育药品的医生治疗，并在整个治疗中服用抗生素，他们比一般的病人快40%康复；第二组病人由普通医生治疗，尽管病人以为服用的是抗生素，但实际吃的是糖片，他们的康复时间没有明显下降。
·论断的前提不一定成立。
前提是二次感染一定会发生。
但是论者没有提供任何资料证明二次感染会发生在肌肉拉伤的病人身上，或是这种病人容易发生二次感染。
·论断引用的论据没有说服力。
论断引用了一项分组研究。
但是首先论者没有提供任何有关两组病人的资料。
有关他们的年龄、性别以及其他生理特征。
有可能服用抗生素的一组病人比较年轻，或是本身生理机能好，而不服用的一组病人可能都是体质弱的人。
这样就不能说明是抗生素而不是其他原因使得病人康复快。
另外两位医生的经验和水平也会影响病人康复的速度，一般来说运动医生会比普通医生更了解肌肉的问题，所以由他治疗的病人康复快，就不能排除是因为他的水平高或是治疗有针对性造成，这样也不能说明是抗生素使得病人康复快。
英语考试作文-GRE写作ARGUMENT5大常见逻辑错误分析 实例讲解驳论文正确写法思路
英语考试作文
GRE写作ARGUMENT5大常见逻辑错误分析实例讲解驳论文正确写法思路
GRE写作中ARGUMENT是两种题型中相对更容易得分的题型，不少中国考生拿到4分以上的GRE写作成绩也往往离不开ARGUMENT部分更高的得分。
所以GRE写作想要提分，从ARGUMENT入手来提升显然是一条更为便捷的快车道。
下面就结合GRE 写作ARGUMENT写法实例来分析作文高分写法套路。
GRE写作ARGUMENT5大常见逻辑错误分析
想要写好GRE写作的ARGUMENT作文，考生首先要对ARGUMENT作文题目中存在的常见逻辑错误漏洞攻击点有比较全面清晰的认识，以下5种逻辑问题几乎每道GRE写作ARGUMENT的题目中都存在：
基本概念常识出错
虽然GRE考试本身出于公平的原则并没有对各类学科的高深专业知识提出要求，但考生还是需要具备一定的相关基础常识，比如GRE考试中经常涉及的社会、文化、经济、科技等常见主题的基本概念，都应该有所了解。
因为GRE作文中，常常会出现一些涉及这些
基本知识的逻辑漏洞。
如果考生能够对这些知识有所了解，就能在文章题目中发现。
gmatArgument常见逻辑错误攻击
gmatArgument常见逻辑错误攻击g m a t A r g u m e n t常见逻辑错误攻击集团标准化小组：[VVOPPT-JOPP28-JPPTL98-LOPPNN]A r g u m e n t22(20个常见逻辑错误与攻击方法)1.开头段：In this argument…reaches the conclusion that…The basis for this recommendation is the expectation that…An additional reason given in support of this recommendation is that…While this argument has some merit, there are a few assumption that deserve attention. (At first glance, the author’s appears to be somewhat convincing, but further reflection reveals that it is based on some dubiousassumptions.)2.结尾段：In sum, the arguer fails to validate (the conclusion) that…To solidify the argument, the arguer should supply more concrete evidence to demonstrate tha t…In addition, the arguer would have to rule out the above-mentioned possibility that may undermine the arguer’s claim(conclusion).3.选择性样本：信号词：A、名词单复数B、表示整体和部分的词C、表示多、少的词D、表示范围的词“多不够多，少不够少，大不够大，小不够小。
argument 错误分析
1.N ature’s Way 论断：在Plainsville开店会赚钱。
·赚钱的前提是收益高出成本，论断没有提供关于在此地开店的成本计算问题·那些参加健身活动的人不一定关心饮食健康，所以不必然地成为他们的顾客。
·就算他们关心饮食健康，那么当地相同商家没有被考虑进去，竞争以及品牌忠实度的问题·他们在关心健康的地区赢利的原因没有说，健康也许不是他们的卖点，而是其它的东西结论：论断仅凭一个似是而非的经验和该地的一些表面现象就匆忙做出结论，缺乏说服力。
在投资前，该机构应该做充分的市场调查，准确找出自己的优势，并分析当地投资环境、竞争对手、消费习惯等问题。
2.D eerhaven Acres homeowners 论断：统一外观就能提高地价·这是他人经验，尽管离得近，但是否适用于该地很可疑。
论断没有就两地间在交通、功用以及住户特点等问题比较异同。
做出结论显得匆促。
·他地区地价提高并不一定是因为统一了外观。
七年可发生很多变化，交通，商业区，社区内部设施提高了。
论断显得片面(undue/one-handed)。
·地价要提高得有更多人愿意住进来。
统一外观抹杀个性，会引人反感。
且不论统一的外观能不能得到所有人满意，这种做法本身有强制性。
论断危险。
结论：论断没有提供两地的异同，以及他地区统一外观后的七年里的变化就匆忙做出决定，必招致起住户的反对。
他们应该做更多的调查研究，最主要的是听取住户的意见，以保证最起码不会有人因此而搬出去。
w firms in the city of Megalopolis 论断：大公司向毕业生提供更多福利、激励并减少工作时间，就能吸引毕业生前来工作。
该论断的前提是与小公司相比，大公司虽然有高工资但不能提供高的工作满意度，从而失去了毕业生。
·论断的前提可疑。
即进大公司工作的毕业生少了15%是否是毕业生选择的问题，而不是大公司在录用时的问题。
argument错误
调查问题11.The mayor provides no evidence that the survey’s respondents are representative of the overall group of people whose... [被调查者的代表性]Lacking such evidence, it is entirely possible that people inclined to ... were more willing to respond to the survey than other people were.In short, without better evidence that the survey is statistically reliable[调查的统计是可靠的] the mayor cannot rely on it to draw any firm conclusions about....28. The number of participants, 100, might constitute an insufficiently small sample to draw any reliable conclusions about...Also, the sample might be unrepresentative of district studnets as a group.142.The author provides no evidence that the study’s results are statistically reliable.In order to establish a strong correlation between dietary iron and heart diseases, the study’s sample must be sufficient in size[样本大小] and representative of the overall population of[样本代表性] heart-disease victims.Lacking evidence of a sufficiently representative sample, the author cannot justifiably rely on the study to draw any conclusion whatsoever.144.The author’s conclusions about...depend on the assumption that the poll results are statistically reliable.Yet, the author offers no evidence to substantiate this assumption. The author must show that ... polled constitute a sufficiently large sample of ...[样本大小], and this sample is representative of all such ....[代表性]Otherwise, the author cannot confidently draw any general conclusions about...158.The Council has not convinced me that ... in the survey are representative of ...—in terms of ...It is entirely possible that...The 300 people in the study are not necessarily representative of the state’s general population—in terms of ...For example, perhaps...Or perhaps...In short, lacking evidence that... the Council cannot convince me that...174.The memo provides no evidence that the results of either of the two surveys are statistically reliable.Besides, the memo provides no information about what percentage of ... responded to the surveys[参加调查的人数比例，也是样本大小]; the lower the percentages, the less reliable the results of the surveys.181.A final problem with the argument involves the two studies themselves. The letter provides no information about how either study was conducted[调查是如何进行的].Without konwing whether the sample of ... was representative of[代表性] the overall ... population ..., it is impossible to confidently apply the studies’ results to that population.Moreover, we are not informed about the size of the sample[样本大小] in either study; the smaller the sample, the less reliable the study’s conclusion.186.A threshold problem with the argument involves the statistical reliability of the survey.The director provides no evidence that the number of respondents is statistically significant[ 样本大小]or that the respondents were representative of ... in general[代表性].Lacking information about the randomness and size of the survey’s sample, the director cannot make a convincing argument based on that survey.Even if the survey’s respondents are representative of the entire population of ..., the argument relies on the assumption that the responses themselves are reliable[被调查者的可信性].Yet the director ignores the possiblility that...Lacking evidence that the respondents’reports were both truthful and meaningful, the director cannot confidently draw any conclusions about ...from them.188.One problem with the argument is that since the study involved only 48 people it is impossible to confidently draw any conclusions about the general population from it.201.The survey must be shown to be reliable before I can accept any conclusions based upon it.Specifically, the responses must be accurate, and the respondents must be statistically significant in number and representative of the overall [样本大小和代表性]...in terms of ...Without evidence of the survey’s reliablity, it is impossible to draw any firm conclucions about ... based on the survey.220.The article’s author has not shown the study upon which the argument denpends to be statistically reliable.The people studied must be representative of the overall population of people who...; otherwise the author cannot draw any firm conclusions about ... based on the study’s results.221.The survey that the argument cites is potentially problematic in three respects.First, we are not informed whether the survey’s respondents wererepresentative of the overall population of . The smaller the sample, the greater the possiblity for biased results, and the less reliable the survey.Second, ... ; yet it is entirely possible that...Third, we are not informed that ...; however, if... , then the survey results would be less reliable than if the survey embraced a wider range of ... The smaller the range the less reliable any general conclusions drawn from the survey.错误因果3.The 15% decline that the author cites is not necessarily due to the vocational preferences of new law-school graduates. It is entirely possible that the number of new graduates preferring to work for large firms has not declined, but that during the last three years Megalopolis’large firms have had fewer job openings for these graduates. Since the article fails to account for this alternative explanation for the 15% decline, the article’s author cannot make any sound recommendations to law firms based on that decline.19.Assuming that the Megalopolis success was in fact due to DR’s popularity there, the manager overlooks the possibility that Ad Lib’s campaign had nothing to do with that popularity. Perhaps the band recently became overwhelmingly popular due to a new hit song or a revival of the type of music DR plays. Either scenario, if true, would serve to undermine the manager’s claim that Ad Lib’s efforts are to be credited for the Megalopolis success.26.The chairperson unfairly assumes that the three band awards were attributable to Schade’s abilities and efforts. Lacking evidence to confirm this assumption, it is entirely possible that Schade was not the school’s band instructor when the band won these awards. Or, perhaps the band won all three awards early in Schade’s tenure, and his predecessor is to be credited.For that matter,perhaps it was the improved quality of the band’s musical instruments that should be credited for the awards.After all, the chairperson provides no evidence that Schade was actually responsible for this improvement. Without considering and ruling out other possible reasons why the band won the awards the chairperson cannot convince me of Schade’s abilities or, in turn, that he should be appointed to the district job.142.Even assuming that the study is statistically reliable, a direct correlation between a high-iron diet and heart disease does not necessarily prove that the former causes the latter. While a high correlation is a strong evidence of a causal relationship, in itself it is not sufficient.The author must also account for all other possible factors leading to heart disease, such as genetic propensity, amount of exercise, and so forth. Lacking evidence that the heart-disease sufferers whom the study observed were similar in all such respects, the author cannot justifiably conclude that a high-iron diet is the primary cause, or even a contributing cause, of heart disease.Similarly, a correlation between a diet that includes large amounts of red meat and heart disease does not necessarily infer a causal relationship. It is possible that red-meat eaters are comparatively likely to incur heart disease due to factors that have nothing to do with the amount of red meat in their diet. Perhaps red-meat eaters are the same people who generally overeat, and it is obesity rather the consumption of red meat specifically causes heart attacks. The author must consider and eliminate this and other possible reasons why red-meat eaters are more likely than other people to suffer from heart disease. Otherwise, I cannot accept the author’s implicit claim that eating red meats is any more likely to cause heart disease than eating other food.156.The ad relies on the unsubstantiated assumption that the Mega employees attending the seminar are positioned to influence Mega’s sales and its customer relations. Perhaps these new employees were hired for production, editorial, personnel positions that have nothing to do with customer relations and that have only an indirect and negligible impact on sales. Without providing evidence that these new employees directly influence Mega’s customer relations and sales, I cannot accept the argument that the Dickens seminar was responsible for any of Mega’s sales or customer-relations improvements subsequent to the seminar. 173.The fact that the magazine’s poorest-selling issues were the ones with international cover stories might be explained by a variety of factors.Perhaps international events themselves were not as interesting during those periods.If so, it might be a mistake to refrain from emphasizing international events when those events are interesting enough to stimulate sales. Or perhaps the news magazine is seasonal, or cyclical, and those particular issues would have sold more poorly regardless of the cover story. In short, without ruling out other possible explanations for the relatively poor sales of those particular issues the publisher cannot justifiably conclude that international cover stories were the cause of the relatively poor sales.220.Even if the statistics cited accurately reflect the amount of television people watch compared to the number of fiction, it would be hasty to infer based merely on this fact that the television industry is more profitable than the book-publishing industry. To begin with, the study’s results excluded any data about nonfiction books—a category that might very well constitute book’s publishers’ main profit source. Moreover, the author has not showm any correlation, let alone a cause-and-effect relationship, between the number of hours a person spends watching television and that industry’s profits. In any event, lacking financial statistics about the profitability of the two industries the editorial’s author cannot convince me that writers should follow the author’s recommendation.224.One problem with the argument is that the letter’s author might beassigning a false cause to these statewide trends. The author provides no evidence that Riedeburg’s policies and actions as governor were indeed the reason for these developments. Without such evidence, it is equally possible that other factors are instead responsible for the trends.For instance, perhaps the crime rate has declined due to legislative or judicial action over which Riedeburg had no control. Perhaps the rise in the state’s population is the result of sociological trends that have nothing to do with Riedeburg’s policies as governor. Or perhaps people are moving to the state for other reasons, such as the state’s climate. Moreover, the argument assumes that an increase in population is a positive development in the first place; yet it is entirely possible that the state’s residents properly view this trend as a negative one. If so,and if Riedeburg’s policies have contributed to this trend, then the author cannot reasonably conclude based on this evidence that Riedeburg is the best-qualified candidate.The author fails to establish the causal relationship between A and B. The author fails to convince us that A contribute B.The author provides no evidence that A is the reason for B.差异概念1.Strong sales of exercise apparel do not necessarily indicate that Plainesville residents would be interested in NW’s products, or that these residents are interested in exercising. Perhaps exercise apparel happens to be fashionable at the moment, or inexpensive compared to other types of clothing. For that matter, the stronger-than-usual sales are due to increasing sales to tourists. In short, without ruling out other possible reasons for the strong sales the vice president cannot convinced me on the basis of them that Plainesville residents are exercising regularly, let alone that they would be interested in buying the sorts of food and other products that NW sells.3.The author faslely equates the proposed tangible incentives with job satisfaction, which is an intangible reward based on the nature of one’s work. Moreover, enhanced job benefits can be tantamount to an enhanced salary, and the shorter working hours amount to a higher hourly wage. Thus if new law-school graduates seeking jobs in Megalopolis are less interested in monetary rewards than in job satisfaction, then the proposed incentives are not likely to entice these graduates.10.The author assumes that an increase in milk prices results in increased profits. However, this is not necessarily the case.It is entirely possible that the costs associated with producing and delivering milk have increased as well over the last ten years. Thus, the strength of the author’s claim of excessive milk-sale profits depends on a cost benefit analysis that the author does not provide.Based on the fact that the number of dairy farms has increased the author infers that the supply of milk has also increased. However, this is not necessarily the case.It is possible that dairy farm production has shifted away from milk to otherdairy products, and that the supply of milk has actually declined over this time period. To the extent that this is the case, then the author’s supply-and-demand argument that milk prices are excessive is unconvincing.141.(定义不清)Even assuming CCC’s planed mining activities in West Fredonia will cause pollution and will endangered animal species, it is nevertheless impossible to assess the author’s broader contention that CCC’s activities will result in “environmental disaster”, at least without an agreed-upon definition of that term. If by“environmental disaster”the author simply means some pollution and the extinction of several animal species, then the claim would have merit; otherwise, it would not.Absent either a clear definition of the term or clear evidence that CCC’s activities would carry grave environmental consequences by any reasonable definition, the author’s contention that CCC’s activities will result in environmental disaster is simply unjustified.166.（定义不清）A threshold problem involves the definition of insomnia. The speaker fails to define this critical term.If insomnia is defined as an inability to fall asleep, then how soundly or long a person sleeps, or how tired a person feels after sleep, is irrelevant to whether the person suffers from insomnia. In short, without a clear definition of insomnia it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.220.The author’s argument depends on the assumption that the frequency with which a person refers in conversation to television, or to fiction books,is a good indication of how much television a persion watches, or how many fiction books a person reads. Yet this is not necessarily the case. Perhaps people tend to refer many times in daily conversation to the same television show. If so, then the statistics cited would overstate the amount of television people watch compared to the number of fiction books they read.过去推将来1.Even assuming that Plainesville residents are strongly interested in eating health foods and health-related products, the recommendation rests on two additional assumptions: (1) that this interest will continue in the foreseeable future, and (2) that Plainesville residents will prefer NW over other mechants that sell similar products. Untill the vice president substantiates both assumptions I remain unconvinced that a NW store in Plainesville would be profitable.161.The argument does not indicate how much time passed between the two studies. During a sufficiently long interim period the demographic makeup of Leeville might have changed, or the reading habits of the first study study’s respondents might have changed. In other words, the longer the time between studies the less reliable the conclusion that respondents in the first study misrepresented their reading habits.208.The author’s projection also ignores the possibility that the number of area residents will increase in the future,thereby resulting in an increase in electricity usage regardless of whether more efficient appliances are used in area homes. Without taking into account these possibilities, the author cannot persuade me that total demand for electricity will not increase in the future.A final problem involves the assertion that no new electric power plants are needed because the three existing plants, which are 20 years old, have always been adequate for the area’s electric needs. The author fails to account for the possibility that the old plants are themselves less energy efficient than a new plants using new technology would be, or that the old plants need to be replaced due to their age, or for some other reason. Besides, this assertion ignores the possible influx of residents or businesses in the future, thereby increasing the demand for electricity beyond what the three existing plants can meet.236.The author’s inference that incentives which were effective in the past will also be effective in the future rests on poor assumption that during the last 18 months all conditions upon which their effectiveness depend have remained unchanged. Perhaps the general economy is expected to turn down. Or perhaps other cities have recently begun to provide similar incentives. Indeed, the fact that Dillton is already providing these incentives might actually portend failure for Beauville, which might need to devise even stronger incentives to convince businesses to move to Beauville rather than Dillton.错误类比19.(错误类比或草率推广)Even if Ad Lib’s serves are necessary to chieve the manage’s goal, it is entirely possible that[the experiences/measures/policy in A]Ad Lib’s service would not suffice to ensure similar [the result in B] sucess elsewhere—due to the sort of factors mentioned above that might have contributed to[the result in A] the Megalopolis success but would not come into play in other cities.152.The mere fact that on nearby Batia replenishing beach sand has served to protect shore-line buildings is scant evidence that Tria would achieve its goals by following Batia’s example. Perhaps the same course of action would be ineffective on Tria due to geological differences between the two islands. Or perhaps Batia is in a far better position than Tria financially to replenish its sand on a continual basis. In short, lacking evidence that conditions on the two islands are relevantly similar, the author cannot convince me on the basis of Batia’s experience that the proposed course of action would be effective in attaining Tria’s goals.155.The editorial continues by claiming that listening to audiocassettes will make children better readers beacuse when parents read aloud to their children these children become better readers. This argument by analogy is wholly unpersuasive.The latter allows for interaction between parent and child, while the former does not. The latter allows for the child to view written words as the parent reads—that is, to read—while the former does not. Besides, common sense and experience tell us that audiocassettes, which provide for passive listening, are likely to serve as crutches that dissuade children from active reading—instead of encouraging them to read.160.A threshold problem with the argument is that it assumes that what improves memory and learning in rats will also improve memory and learning in humans. Although this is entirely possible, the argument provides no evidence to support this assumption. Without such evidence the argument can be rejected out of hand.162.The argument assumes that the difference in soy consumption is the only possible explanation for this disparity in the occurrence of fatigue and depression. Yet the argument fails to substantiate this assumption. Common sence informs me that any one of a myriad of other differences—environmental, dietary, and genetic—might explain why North Americans suffer from these problems to a great extent than asians do. Without considering and ruling out alternative reasons for this disparity, the argument’s conclusion that soy is the key to the disparity is indefensible.168.Even assuming that the survey data accurately reflect the auto industry, the argument unfairly assumes that supervision affects worker productivity similarly at PPC. Perhaps PPC employs certain unique equipment or processes that require close worker supervision—even for older, more experienced workers. For that matter[同样] pehaps youth or inexperienced is an advantage in working productively at PPC, whereas in the auto industry either is a disadvantage. In short, without accounting for possible differences between PPC and auto manufacturers the director cannot convince me that his recommendation for PPC is sound.210.The argument depends on the hasty assumption that the kinds of tasks robots perform in space are similar to the ones they would perform in factories, and that there are no differences between the two environments that would render robots less effective in factory jobs than in space missions. Perhaps the effectiveness of robots in space missions is due largely to the weightless environment of space. Or perhaps the average space-mission robot performs less work than a typical factory robot would be required to work. In either case, the fact that robots are effective in space would amount to scant support for the author’s argument.214.(错误类比及总量和比例混淆)A Third assumption upon which the argument rests is that the percentage of residents who attend public schools is about the same in both cities.The argument indicates only that the total population of the two cities is about the same.If a comparatively small percentage of Blue City residents attend public schools, then the comparatively small amount of money Blue City devotes to those schools might be well justified despite an equal level of concern about the quality of public-school education among residents in the two cities.整体规律不一定使用于个体23.The nationwide study showing clear trends among two-income families toward dining out and eating healthily does not necessarily apply to Bay City. It is quite possible that Bay City’s two-income families do not follow these gereral trends. For that matter, in Bay City the trend might be just the opposite.Thus, the nationwide trends that the argument cites amount to scant evidence that Bay City residents in particular would frequent a new seafood restaurant in their city.148.The author unfairly assumes that the nationwide tendency applies specifically to Monroetown residents. Lacking evidence that Monroetown voters reflect this general tendency, it is entirely possible that Monreotown residents vote strictly according to their position on the issues.For that matter(同样),it is possible that Monreotown voters tend strongly to vote against incunbent, in which case the author’s claim that Monreotown residents oppose Brown’s proposal would more flagrantly fly in the face of the election results.单个事例不能说明整体问题19.Even assuming that either DR’s popularity or AD Lid’s campaign, or both, were responsible for the Megalopolis success, the manager’s calim that this success can be repeated elsewhere might nevertheless be unwarranted. Megalopolis might not be representative of most cities in which DR plans to appear—in any one of various ways that would adversely impact ticket sales in other cities. For instance, perhaps DR hails from Megalopolis and has far more fans in Megalopolis than any other city. Or, perhaps the kind of ad campaign that is Ad Lib’s specialty, although effective in Megalopolis, would not be effective in most cities.150.Even if I were to concede that pollution caused Yosemite’s amphibian decline,this single sample is insufficient to draw any general conclusion about the reason for a worldwide amphibian decline. It is entirely possible that the cause-and-effect relationship in Yosemite are not typical of the world in general. Without additional samples from diverse geographic locations, I cannot accept the author’s sweeping generalization about the decline of amphibian and global pollution.176.The memo unfairly assumes that since Venadial is popular in Alta it will also be popular in other countries. Consumer tastes in foods like margarine, as well as concerns about health matters such as cholesterol level, vary widely from country to country. It is quite possible that consumers in Alta enjoy the taste of Venadial more than other consumers would, or that consumers in Alta are more concerned than the average person about cholesterol level and heart attack.Since the memo provides no evidence tha t tastes and health concerns of Alta consumers are representative of those of people generally, the sale’s director’s conclusion that Venadial will be popular elsewhere is unjustifiable, at least based on the memo.没有考虑其他相关因素11.The argument overlooks the strong possibility that the recycling habits of West Egg residents are not the only factor affecting how quickly the landfill will reach capacity. Other such factors might include population and demographic shifts, the habits of people from outside West Egg whose trash also feeds the landfill, and the availability of alternative disposal methods such as burning. Thus, regardless of the recycling efforts West Egg residents the landfill might nevertheless reach full capacity by the date originally forecast.18.The argument assumes that all other factors affecting highway accident rates have remained unchanged since the county lowered its speed limit. Yet the author fails to provide evidence to support this assumption. It is entirely possible that the lower speed limit does in fact serve to reduce the accident rate, while some other factor, such as unseasonably poor weather, reduced law enforcement measures, or even an influx of teenage drivers to the area, has served to increase the accident rate.Without considering and ruling out these and other factors that might have served to increase the accident rate since the speed limit was lowered, the author cannot justifiably conclude that this safety effort has failed.19.The manager also overlooks the possibility that one or more factors other than Ad Lib’s efforts or DR’s popularity were instead responsible for the Megalopolis success. For instance, perhaps DR shared the bill at the concert with another band, whose appearance was the actual reason for the concert’s success. If so, this fact would seriously weaken the manager’s claim that the Megalopolis success is attributable to Ad Lib’s efforts and to DR’s popularity in Megalopolis—whether or not that popularity resulted form Ad Lib’s campaign.150.Even if I concede that the introduction of trout was not the cause of Yosemite’s amphibian decline, the author provides no evidence that the decline was caused by pollution—rather than some other phenomenon. Perhaps some other environmental factor was instead the cause. Without ruling out all other possible explanations the author cannotconvince me that pollution is the cause of the worldwide amphibian decline—or even the decline in Yosemite alone.156.Even if Mega’s attendees are involved in sales and customer relations, the ad unfarily assumes that the improvement in Mega’s sales must be attribute to the seminar.Perhaps the improvement in sales was the result of increasing product demand, new pricing policies, decreased competition, or any one of a myriad of other possible developments. For that matter, perhaps Mega’s new employees as a group already possessed exceptional interpersonal skills, and therefore Mega’s sales and customer relations would have improved during the ensuring months regardless of the seminar. Since the ad fails to consider and rule out these and other alternative explanations for the improvements at Mega, I find the ad’s claim that the Dickens seminar should receive credit unconvincing.160.A third problem with the argument is that it assumes that learning and memory are the only significant factors affecting performance in school. Common sense and experience tell us this is not the case, and a variety of other factors, such as motivation and natural ability, also play major roles. Thus, the compounds might very well turn out to be largely ineffective.162.The argument assumes that the difference in soy consumption is the only possible explanation for this disparity in the occurrence of fatigue and depression. Yet the argument fails to substantiate this assumption. Common sense informs me that any one of a myriad of other differences—environmental, dietary, and genetic—might explain why North Americans suffer from these problems to a greater extent than Asian do. Without considering and ruling out alternative reasons for this disparity, the argument’s conclusion that soy is the key to the disparity is indefensible.168.The argument also overlooks many other possible explanations for the comparatively low incidence of hip fractures among this group of women.For example, perhaps these women were more physically fit than average to begin with. Or perhaps the nursing homes where the group resided provided special safeguards against accidental injuries that are not ordinarily for most elderly people. Or perhaps French people are less susceptible to bone loss than other people are—due perhaps to cultural dietary habits or genetic predisposition. For that matter, perhaps women are genetically less disposed to lose bone mass than men are. Any of these scenarios, if ture, would undermine the conclusion that the lower incidence of hip fractures was attribute to the additional vitamin D and calcium.221.A third problem with the argument is that it unfairly infers that the proposed course of cation is the only means of achieving the desired result. The letter’s author overlooks other possible means of ensuring。
英语考试作文-GRE写作ARGUMENT逻辑漏洞怎么找？这5种明显问题不能放过
英语考试作文
GRE写作ARGUMENT逻辑漏洞怎么找？这5
种明显问题不能放过
GRE写作ARGUMENT难度比ISSUE低，因为写作要求驳论其实就是挑错找茬，显然是要比立论更好写的，但前提是考生需要能够快速发现题目中存在的各类漏洞才行。
下面就为大家详细介绍GRE写作ARGUMENT中比较常见的各种逻辑漏洞问题。
GRE作文ARGUMENT逻辑漏洞汇总分析
首先，为大家介绍一些在argument作文题目中比较常见的标志性逻辑漏洞。
假如大家在读完题目第一时间没有发现逻辑问题，那么考虑一下这些逻辑漏洞可能会为大家带来不少写作灵感。
基本常识基础知识缺失
虽然GRE考试本身出于公平的原则并没有对各类学科的高深专业知识提出要求，但考生还是需要具备一定的相关基础常识，比如GRE考试中经常涉及的社会、文化、经济、科技等常见主题的基本概念，都应该有所了解。
因为GRE作文中，常常会出现一些涉及这些基本知识的逻辑漏洞。
如果考生能够对这些知识有所了解，就能在文章题目中发现。
2022GRE写作argument哪些逻辑错误最常见
2022GRE写作argument哪些逻辑错误最常见GRE写作中大部分中国考生都是ARGUMENT部分的得分更高，这是由于ARGUMENT作为驳论在写作思路的难度上还是较低的下面我就和大家共享GRE写作ARGUMENT高分写法思路实例解读，来观赏一下吧。
GRE写作argument哪些规律错误最常见?想要写好GRE习作ARGUMENT作文，大家首先需要了解在argument作文题目中存在哪些比较常见的标志性规律错误和漏洞：基本概念常识虽然GRE考试本身出于公正的原则并没有对各类学科的高深专业学问提出要求，但考生还是需要具备肯定的相关基础常识，比如GRE考试中常常涉及的社会、文化、经济、科技等常见主题的基本概念，都应当有所了解。
由于GRE作文中，经常会消失一些涉及这些基本学问的规律漏洞。
假如考生能够对这些学问有所了解，就能在文章题目中发觉更多问题。
极端态度观点假如大家读过一些专业性较强的原版杂志报纸，比如《纽约时报》、《华尔街日报》或《经济学人》，就会发觉其中许多文章都具备GRE 作文考试最喜爱的特质：思索全面，观点平衡，有理有据。
极端的观点和结论在GRE作文中鲜少有正确的时候，也往往会是最主要的攻击论点。
因此，假如考生在题目的结论中看到了诸如“must”或者“undoubtedly”之类的用词，那么这就是极端结论的最好证明。
不清晰的表述用词在GRE写作的题目中，诸如“few”, “many”, “more”, “less”, and“some”之类的用词常可以看到，这些词虽然在肯定程度上具备数字含义，本身却并无法表达出详细的数字，可以说是含义相对模糊不清的用词。
假如题目中的论述，特殊是涉及数据的部分是建立在这些模糊表达上而得出的结论，那么这个论述本身就存在问题，经常能成为可攻击的规律漏洞。
忽视个例的特别性有些题目，常会依据一个较小的例子来得出一个很大的结论。
这种以小见大的做法看似很好，但其实经常存在问题。
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Argument题库谬误统计调查1, Selective sample:样本选择，一部分被排除在外One major problem is about the sample the author studied in the survey. the author considers only...(selective sub-groups) although (the sub-groups the author studied) do constitute a significant part of (the whole general population), however, (many other sub-groups) are actually excluded from the survey. Perhaps...or...without ruling out all the possibilities above, the author could not make any general conclusion about...merely based on (selective sub-groups).4，14，16，45，63，65，67，80，84，88，90，97，123，146，154，156，168，179，185，193，196，207，227，231，232，236，238，2392, Quantity of the sample样本数量( pointing out that the current sample is too small in its size)(the fact cited by the author) could hardly illustrate the assumption that... because the author provides only N samples of (the general population),however, (the limited sample) might not be representative of the whole general group. th us we cannot accept the author’s conclusion that...before he/she could provide more statistic data about (the situation of other sub-groups).10，14，33，40，53，69，95，115，123，132，139，150，154，158，167，179，180，188，191，2393, Who conducted the survey:结果扭曲，调查者为了自己的利益The reliability of the survey is also open to doubt due to the organization who conducted the survey. (the organization) has vested interest in the final decision/conclusion which was based on the result of the survey, and thus might distort the actual answers of the respondents. (the institution/individuals may benefit greatly from the result if the result was interpreted as was currently ) Thus, the author should cite a survey which is conducted by an independent institution to convince us that (the assumption).115，1564, When was the survey conducted:时间变化The effectiveness of the result of the survey cited by the author as main evidence is also open to doubt.The survey was conduct (during a special period, or a long time ago), thus may not reflect the current situations accurately. It is true that ( the survey may reflect the opinions or situations of respondents at the time when it was conducted), but people’s opinion toward (the subject surveyed) may have changed greatly during the past time (or, while this fact could not sufficiently illustrate that (the general group) will also...all the time)(many factors that could influence the validity of the survey will change in the future, or respondents may act differently during the period when the survey was conducted, thus the result of the survey could not represent the all-time situation. )Thus, a more recent survey, if a survey is needed at all, should be provided to sufficiently illustrate the author’s assumption that...5, Vague data:数据模糊—没有基数The information concerning ...is not accurate enough for us to evaluate the actual condition of ...The author only informs us that (the percentage/fraction of sub-groups which...but we do not know the base amount of (the general group) (if the base amount or corresponding fractions vary, the conclusion would be different. ) For lack of detailed information about ( the base amount / fraction of) ... we can hardly assess ...4，5，8，9，11，12，14，16，20，22，23，25，27，31，32，39，42，44，49，52，55，68，70，71，73，77，79，87，89，100，103，120，122，124，130，133，134，135，141，143，144，145，155，159，165，175，177，182，183，189，194，196，199，200，203，204，206，211，212，214，216，222，223，231，236，2386,Incomplete information:数据不完整The author does not provide complete information concerning ...in illustrating that ...The author only informs us that... but what we care more about is that... which is not provided by the author. (some other substantial information are needed for us to assess the soundness of the argument, and the conclusion would vary greatly when other conditions varied. ) For lack of detailed information about ... we can hardly evaluate ...6，7，8，10，14，15，17，18，20，21，24，27，29，30，32，35，36，38，39，42，43，44，46，49，52，54，64，65，66，68，70，71，73，77，79，81，82，83，84，85，87，88，89，90，91，92，94，95，96，97，98，99，100，103，104，105，107，108，116，117，119，120，127，130，135，137，141，143，144，145，147，150，152，155，161，165，166，167，168，169，170，171，172，174，175，179，180，181，183，184，185，191，192，193，198，199，200，203，205，206，211，212，213，214，215，216，217，218，219，221，222，224，225，226，228，229，231，232，233，235，237，238，239，240，241，2427, Are the respondents forthright when answering the questions:回答者不真实The reliability of the respondents...answers to the survey’s question is not sufficiently justified to support the conclusion... There is possibility that the respondents may not tell the truth about.. (answering the questions honestly may lead to some undesirable consequences for the respondents, thus they may evade the crucial point, or even lie in their answers. ) Under such circumstances, it is almost impossible for us to expect the respondents to provide accurate information about their opinion toward...92，199，211，2428, Are the respondents representative:回答者没有代表性We should also notice that the respondents studied in the survey may not represent the general group of ...We all know that in many cases, people who are interested in ...might be generally more likely to respond to the survey than other people are, or are more willing to express their own opinions and positions on the issue of ...(other people who did not respond may hold a totally different position toward the issue studied, and the author should include those people in the study to present a more convincingresult. )Without considering the situation of other groups of people, the result of the survey in itself could not justifiably illustrate that ...11，15，17，28，34，40，43，52，55，57，62，65，76，95，102，111，115，117，153，154，161，167，168，174，194，201，206，212，218，224，235比较9, False analogy:错误类比AB，A适合BIn the argument the author recommends A to carry out same (policies, actions, solutions on ... as B, but the analogy between them might be unsubstantiated. The author fails to illustrate that A and Bare similar enough at every aspect and are indeed comparable. While it is true that A and B share some common ground on ...there are still some obvious differences between them. (many differences exist between A and B and these differences may well render the policies(actions, solutions, etc) proved to be effective for A might not have the same effectiveness for B )Before A decide to copy B’s experiences, the author should take these differences into account and make careful study on the comparability of the two (cities, companies, schools, etc).2，4，9，12，13，16，18，20，25，26，28，29，31，35，38，39，41，42，43，44，55，56，67，72，89，91，92，94，97，99，102，108，109，110，116，119，124，125，131，132，133，149，152，155，160，162，169，177，180，182，186，187，192，198，204，205，209，210，211，212，218，226，230，232，235，236，237，238，23910, Incomplete comparison /selective comparison /ex parte information:错误对比AB，A不一定比B好The author hastily implies that A is superior to B in ... but the comparison between A and B is incomplete.The author only compares ... however, there are myriad of factors which, if differ in these cases, would bring about totally different result for the comparison. (many other factors would influence the result while ignored by the author in the argument ) Without any further consideration about these factors, the author could not convince us that (A is better than B in certain aspect) merely based on an incomplete comparison.11, Confusing comparison and variation:只对比了一部分的变化or vice versa.In the argument the author provides the variation in ...to illustrate that ...Although the variationin ...could partly prove that ... however, we all know that to demonstrate ...the comparisonbetween A and B is actually more convincing and necessary.:(the comparison between those entities could be more convincing in illustrating the conclusion ) Lacking comparison between ... we could not assess if ...23，48，63，85，106，132，135，168，173，179，180，186，188，206，216，224，240Incomplete comparison/exparte information:2，4，17，24，34，49，51，57，60，63，64，77，81，82，85，93，96，98，101，103，105，109，114，126，129，131，132，139，151，159，162，166，167，172，173，179，186，187，188，193，200，203，211，212，214，216，220，222，231，233，234，238，24112, Different concepts:偷换概念In illustrating the assumption that ...the author commits a fallacy of hasty generalization.: The author cites A to prove B, however, A is not a good indication of B. (there are basic differences between A and B, thus A could not be properly used to illustrate B ) The author ought to make careful and clear differentiation between A and B before we could evaluate if the inferencethat ...is justified.1，3，4，10，11，16，20，23，29，31，34，35，36，38，40，44，48，49，53，55，58，63，67，68，72，77，80，81，85，87，88，89，91，93，96，101，105，106，107，114，120，121，124，130，132，133，134，139，140，143，146，153，155，156，160，161，166，167，172，173，175，181，183，187，188，190，193，194，196，198，199，200，201，Hasty generalization: 38，54，56，59，61，66，81，89，98，137，140，154203，212，214，215，216，217，218，220，221，223，231，233，234，235，239，241 13, Different scopes:偷换范围The fact that ...could sufficiently substantiate the conclusion that...since the argument is based only on (some special cases) and the author does not differentiate between the ...of (different subjects).Although the author’s inference that ...might be true for some cases, forexample, ...Unfortunately, this is not true of every individual (in the general group). (other subjects may have totally different situation thus the author’s inference could not be properly applied to them. ) Unless the author can demonstrate that (the condition of other subjects is similar to that of the case studied), the general conclusion cannot be reached merely basing on these special and limited cases.3，6，8，10，19，22，23，28，29，40，41，44，45，49，51，60，70，80，83，84，87，90，91，93，94，95，96，97，98，113，115，116，117，118，119，121，126，129，130，131，134，135，145，147，148，150，154，156，158，165，171，172，175，176，180，185，187，188，193，194，195，203，205，206，207，211，213，217，218，220，223，230，233，234，24214, Inferring a future condition from a past condition:过去不能推未来In the argument the author suggests that we can (solve current problems or achieve current goals) through methods which have successfully solved the same kind of problems in the past.There is a hidden assumption assumed by the author that all conditions and factors upon which the effectiveness of (the method) depend have remained unchanged during the past (Nyears).However, many factors could have been changed during the past years. (many conditions and factors could have varied, which might render the solutions which were proved to be effective in the past might not have the same effectiveness in current days or in the future. )Without taking into account all these constantly changing factors, the author could not convince us that the proposed solution could be used to solve current problems successfully.1，2，4，5，8，11，13，15，18，20，21，22，23，25，30，32，36，37，48，52，61，62，65，67，68，73，78，85，87，93，94，95，100，116，119，130，134，136，138，140，146，151，158，161，167，168，171，183，190，201，204，208，209，213，216，218，219，225，226，230，237，240，24115, Lack of controlled experiment/ comparison:没考虑其他变量The author unfairly assumes that it is ...that resulted in ... The causal relationship is convincing only if the author could demonstrate that all other factors that might affect ...remained constant during the same period.(pointing out that corresponding controlled experiment is needed, or explaining how the experiment should be conducted.)Specifically, we need to know (the experiment result of one group of the subjects), Without appropriate comparison between A and B, the assumption that ...is unwarranted.18，23，41，59，75，76，85，103，122，128，153，167，168，175，176，180，206，207，224，236，237，241，242问题解决16, Sufficiency and necessity of a solution:解决办法不够有力The author assumes that the proposed actions are both sufficient and necessary for (achieving certain goal).To solve the problem successfully, many other fundamental requirements must be fulfilled. (many other important works must be done. ) Furthermore, many other available methods besides (the author’s proposal) could also be used to achieve the same purpose. (many other effective methods could also be adopted. )Before the author make a careful and thorough comparison between the effectiveness of his own proposal and other possible methods, the author’s proposal should not be hastily carried out.3，7，8，9，10，12，18，19，20，24，25，26，28，30，39，41，42，43，48，52，54，59，60，64，65，68，69，74，79，80，82，83，85，86，87，90，91，94，96，97，98，99，100，102，104，105，106，107，108，110，111，112，115，116，117，122，123，124，125，127，128，129，131，134，135，136，137，139，140，141，145，146，147，149，152，153，155，157，159，161，162，163，164，166，168，169，170，172，173，175，177，178，181，183，185，187，188，189，190，191，192，194，195，196，197，200，201，204，205，206，208，209，211，212，213，215，217，219，222，224，225，226，227，228，229，230，232，236，237，238，239，240，24217, Failing to consider the feasibility of the conclusion:解决办法没有可行性The feasibility of the arguer’s proposal can also be cast doubt on. The proposal relies on an assumption that (the proposal could be successfully carried out)however, the assumption might be unwarranted due to some critical obstacles. (possible obstacles to the effectiveness of the solution. )Unless the author could demonstrate that those obstacles could be effectively overcome, the proposal might be practically unfeasible.2，24，28，29，39，42，43，51，64，71，86，90，99，102，125，129，132，137，139，141，143，155，163，164，169，172，175，176，178，187，189，191，194，195，204，208，209，210，211，212，217，226，228，230，232，23318, Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly:没考虑解决方法带来的坏处In claiming that ... the author needs to do more comprehensive research on both positive and negative effects of the proposal. Although the proposal could be adopted to (solve the problem) to a certain degree, however, carrying out the proposal may actually bring about more harmful effects. (possible harmful effects ignored by the author. )Under such scenario, adopting the author’s proposal would harm, rather than benefit, (the author’s purpose).Incomplete thought:1，10，11，15，17，24，27，29，31，32，34，35，37，47，49，50，51，52，53，54，58，59，66，69，71，73，78，84，86，87，90，95，97，98，100，104，107，108，110，111，120，123，124，125，126，128，130，134，136，142，143，144，145，147，151，169，177，193，202，236，239Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly:1，2，5，9，13，14，21，22，23，24，38，39，40，43，44，52，55，60，62，63，65，67，69，71，72，76，80，82，84，86，89，92，94，96，98，101，102，104，105，107，108，111，112，114，118，119，122，124，125，127，128，129，133，136，151，152，157，160，163，164，168，169，170，172，173，174，176，178，180，181，182，184，185，186，188，189，191，192，193，200，201，204，206，208，210，213，215，217，218，221，224，226，227，228，229，230，231，232，234，237，24219, False dilemma:两者选一，没考虑其他解决办法In explaining ... the author is presenting a false dilemma. The author simply assumes that (the situation would be either A or B), while the two...are not necessarily mutually exclusive. (many other solutions/explanations could be more justifiable.) Before ruling out all the possibilities above, the author could not convince us that there are only those two possible explanations for us to accept.5，33，41，47，82，93，108，113，138，148，150，166，175，182，184，185，190，195，196，202，204，205，213，218，220，233因果关系20, Non-causal relationship:没有因果关系，其他因素的影响The author unfairly assumes that it is ...that resulted in ...: But we can find no concrete evidence to substantiate the inevitable relationship between ...and ... (many other factors could also lead to the result/the author should conduct controlled study to demonstrate the causal relationship ) In short, the author could not hastily conclude that ...is the only possible reason for ...before taking above factors into account.1，3，4，6，7，9，12，15，18，19，20，22，26，27，28，33，35，38，39，42，43，44，45，47，48，49，54，55，56，62，63，64，69，70，74，76，77，78，79，80，81，85，88，90，94，96，97，98，106，109，110，112，113，116，119，120，121，122，124，125，131，132，133，135，136，137，139，141，144，145，147，149，150，156，158，159，160，162，167，168，169，171，172，176，181，187，190，192，193，194，199，201，207，209，212，218，220，221，222，223，224，225，228，231，232，235，236，24121, Confusing the cause and the effect:不是A导致B，而是B导致AIn the process of reasoning the author assumes that A is the reason for B.However, the author may confuse the cause and the effect. (there is possibility that it is B that actually causes A )The author fails to rule out the possibility that (B results in A). Since the author has not adequately take this possibility into account, the assumption that ...is untenable.34，72，79，88，105，114，126，129，133，145，153，154，211，227，23222, Confusing concurrence with causality:同时发生不为因果The most important problem is the underlying assumption that it is ...that resulted in ... The author only points out that the two events occurred during the same period, however, we all know that merely a coincidence of two events could not sufficiently demonstrate a causal relationship between them. (many other factors could also lead to the result/the author should conductcontrolled study to demonstrate the causal relationship )Many other factors could also lead to ... which might include ... Without ruling out such factors, we could not be convinced that ...is the actual cause of ...1，53，59，60，72，75，90，91，101，105，129，142，153，173，23823, Post hoc, ergo propter hoc:前后发生不为因果The author concludes that ...is responsible for ... the assumption is based on the mere factthat ...occurred after ...however, the sequence of the two events, in itself, does not sufficiently prove that the former caused the later one.(many other factors could also lead to the result/the author should conduct controlled study to demonstrate the causal relationship )...might has resulted from other factors, such as ...Without ruling out these possible scenarios, the author could not establish a causal relationshipbetween ...and ...2，9，16，25，30，92，99，102，110，119，123，170，180，195，205，215，218，230，237，239，242证据24, Insufficient evidence:证据不足The author claims that...by showing that....however, but this piece of information in itself is far from sufficient to demonstrate the assumption that...Although (the information provided by the author) may has some relation with ... (we need more critical important information about the case studied. ) More solid evidence are needed before we could be convinced that ...5，6，7，14，18，23，24，27，29，31，33，36，37，40，44，46，47，52，54，56，57，58，61，67，69，70，73，74，81，93，94，110，111，115，117，130，131，136，138，143，148，150，155，157，165，171，179，190，193，198，201，202，204，211，213，223，231，236，237，238，241Failing to consider the credibility of the evidence:46，47，66，72，76，88，118，136，151，176，22625, Unwarranted assumption/credibility of the evidence:无证据假设，攻击背景The assumption that ...is open to doubt, since the author does not provide any single evidence to substantiate the assumption. (many other possibilities might render the assumptionsuspect. )Given other possibilities about... the author could not hastily assumes that...6，8，11，12，13，14，15，17，21，22，23，25，28，33，50，53，56，62，64，66，67，74，75，78，83，84，86，87，88，89，90，91，92，95，100，101，102，104，105，108，110，112，113，114，118，120，121，122，125，126，127，128，129，130，132，134，136，137，140，142，144，145，146，148，151，152，156，157，160，161，163，164，169，170，172，174，177，178，179，181，191，192，194，195，197，202，204，205，206，208，210，212，216，218，219，221，222，223，225，228，231，235，236，239，242。