Carnap-Testability and Meaning(1936)

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我国大学生体育锻炼投入:测量、前因与后效

我国大学生体育锻炼投入：测量、前因与后效董宝林【摘要】以积极心理学为框架,运用文献资料法、半结构式访谈、质性研究的开放性问卷、心理测量法和数理统计法等方法,探讨我国大学生体育锻炼投入的测量、前因与后效等问题.结果显示:体育锻炼投入是大学生对体育锻炼持有一种自主、积极、持久、沉浸的心理情境和快乐体验,体现了个体对锻炼行为的合理认知和角色认同,其内涵应包含个体既有的锻炼认知、角色认同、目标导向,锻炼践行的精力、活力、兴趣水平、自主性,以及勇于挑战并沉浸其中的参与状态;编制的大学生体育锻炼投入自评量表包括了活力坚持度、专注满足感、价值观认知和参与自主性共4个维度20个题项,量表具有较好的信度和效度,符合心理测量学的要求,可以作为研究大学生体育锻炼投入状态的自评测量工具;自我效能感和社会支持是大学生体育锻炼投入的两个前因变量,其中,社会支持在自我效能感影响大学生体育锻炼投入时具备了调节效应;锻炼效果和积极情感是大学生体育锻炼投入的两个后效变量,其中,锻炼效果在体育锻炼投入一下大学生积极情感时具备了部分中介效应.【期刊名称】《天津体育学院学报》【年(卷),期】2017(032)002【总页数】9页(P176-184)【关键词】大学生;体育锻炼投入;积极心理学;体育锻炼投入量表【作者】董宝林【作者单位】上海杉达学院体育教研室,上海201209【正文语种】中文【中图分类】G804.85;G806大学生对体育锻炼的积极态度和沉浸体验对其身心健康发展、幸福指数提升皆具举足轻重的作用。

20世纪末，积极心理学领域形成了一个全新研究主题——投入（Involvement），用以考察个体从事社会行为时在认知、情感和体验上的卷入状态。

学者对投入的思辨源于日常生活与生产实践，其概念界定始于工作投入的探讨，而在体育领域有关投入的探讨尚属概念引入阶段，至今对体育锻炼投入的定义莫衷一是，对其内涵、测量、前因与后效等问题的探讨相对薄弱，导致锻炼投入研究深化发展受阻。

专八人文知识：语言学部分精选试题

专八人文知识：语言学部分精选试题本文是根据最新专八考试大纲针对人文知识的要求，从语言学内容精选出的考前自测试题。

1.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true? A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic1C. Animals also have languageD. Language is arbitrary2.Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language? A. Symbolic B. Dual2 C. Productive D. Arbitrary3.What is the most important function of language? A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative3 D. Metalingual4.Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole? A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous45.According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user’s internalized knowledge of his language? A. competence5 B. parole C. performance D. langue6.The function of the sentence A nice day, isn’t it? is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative7.Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. theproduction of sounds8.The distinction between vowels6 and consonants7 lies in . A. the place of articulation8 B. the obstruction9 of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips9.Which is the branch of linguistics10 which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription? A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics10.Which studies the sound systems in a certain language? A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics11.Minimal11 pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive12 features of a language B. find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of languageually, suprasegmental features include,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables14 D. stress13.Which is an indispensable part of a syllable13? A. Coda B. Onset15 C. Stem D. Peak14.Which is the smallest unit of language in terms ofrelationship between expression and content? A. Word B. Morpheme C. Allomorph D. Root 15.Which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed?A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. PhonologyD. Semantics16.Lexeme is . A. a physically16 definable unit B. the common factor underlying17 a set of forms C. a grammatical unit D. an indefinable unit17.Which of the following sounds does not belong to the allomorphs of the English plural18 morpheme ? A. [s] B. [iz]C. [ai]D. [is]18.All words contain a . A. root morpheme B. bound morpheme C. prefix19 D. suffix2019.The relationship between fruit and apple is A. homonymy21 B. hyponymy C. polysemy D. synonymy20.The part of the grammar that represents a speaker’s knowledge of the structure of phrases and sentences is called .A. lexicon22B. morphologyC. syntaxD. semantics21.Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns? A. gender23 B. number C. case D. voice22.The pair of words lend and borrow are A. gradable opposites B. converse24 opposites C. co-hyponyms D. synonyms2523. Big and Small are a pair of opposites. A. complementary B. gradable C. complete D. converse24.According to C. Morris and R. Carnap, which is studies the relationship between symbols and their interpreters? A. syntax B. semantics C. pragmatics D. sociolinguistics25.There are deixis in the sentence she has sold it here yesterday. A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 626.In the following conversation: - Beirut is in Peru, isn’t it? - And Rome is in Romania, I suppose. The second person violates the A. Quantity Maxim26 B. Quality Maxim C. Relation Maxim D. Manner Maxim27.The maxim of requires that a participant’s contribution be relevant to the conversation. A. quantity B. quality C. manner D. relationIt is symbolic of the fighting spirit of modern womanhood.它象征着现代妇女的战斗精神。

统计学专业英语词汇

log-linear model 对数线性模型
log-log 对数
log-normal distribution 对数正态分布
longitudinal 经度的，纵的
loss function 损失函数
M
Mahalanobis\' generalized distance Mahalanobis广义距离
drop out 脱落例
Durbin-Watson statistic（ratio） Durbin-Watson统计量（比）
E
efficient, efficiency 有效的、有效性
* Engel\'s coefficient 恩格尔系数
entropy 熵
epidemiology 流行病学
* error 误差
item 项
J
Jacknife 刀切法
K
Kaplan-Meier estimate Kaplan-Meier估计
* Kendall\'s rank correlation coefficients 肯德尔等级相关系数
Kullback-Leibler information number 库尔贝克-莱布勒信息函数
model, -ing 模型（建模）
moment 矩
moving average 移动平均
multicolinear, -ity 多重共线（性）
multidimensional scaling（MDS）多维换算
multiple answer 重复回答
multiple choice 多重选择
multiple comparison 多重比较
* histogram 直方图

主观社会地位与身心健康评述

主观社会地位的致，
的
难。而
的
，对社会、
对主观社
会地位的影响知
，先的
SSS与
身心健康相关的。此，先的
对少数
,
其
,可能
其
。因此，主观社会地位是否一定与个体的身心健
康有关，能下。
2.2青年SSS的
主观社会地位和社会经济地位
是青年心理健康问题的重要决因，
对它如何
相互作用的
。
，这2个与心理健康问
题存独立的联系，对它青年心理健康问题中
以促进
长期 -
更的研究来了解SSS与长期
间
的在制,以
地
以促较 SSS 吸
者的 -
1.4 SSS与心理健康的关系：心理健康困扰是低SSS的潜在
结果-SSS考虑了 SES法解释的社会和心理因-如果考
虑客观数据，社会弱势对健康的影响可能会
-研
究合表 ,与其他人相比, 不的社会地位的认
可能会导致相对的 , 致
衡量方法所的心理社会果和社会-例与经
有的社会心理因可能会对他的主观社会地位产生
影响,
受 , 社会 , 以及对生活的期
望未到等-
主观社会地位可能导致抑郁性思维-在对拉丁裔年轻
人的一项研究中冋，与高主观社会地位的情况下相
比,参与者
，在主观社会地位的况下，自心和力
量显下降-可能反映了主观社会地位与心理健康关系
的
质量
在
的
观社会阶 ( 高，中 ) ，个人
的质量
会主观社会地位的
教育也
的
势
些具高ses 主观社会地位的人比， ,

套磁信模板

在一个80后被房子绑架的时代，这些前90后以及90后，只好把自己的眼睛放到了海外，寄望于外面的天空给自己一个逃出**的机会。

因此只要是能让我们逃出这无望的循环的方法，都被人们无限的放大。

“留学”被放大，“富二代”被放大，“成名”被放大。

都TM被逼的！套磁本是一个结识对方的方式，但是现在也被无限的放大。

可以说这种方式在上世纪末，还算是一个申请的秘籍，但是慢慢的，当我们获得的信息信息越来越多的时候，也慢慢被人熟知。

其实现在国内的留学界还有很多错误的信息在蔓延，但是我们只有靠时间的积累来冲刷这些信息，大浪淘沙之后，才能有真相大白的一天，但是这一天什么时候能到来？由于某些不良留学中介的出现，使得这一天被大大推迟了。

至于套磁，很多留学中介也是大包大揽的，“帮”我们解决了，但是实际上很多都是用一些现成的模板，完全没有取得套磁的效果，甚至这些模板还会让导师讨厌我们，换句话说也就是取得了坏的结果。

那么，这些模板有没有用呢？其实作用还是有的，也就是这些套磁信模板可以让我们了解，到底怎样写套磁信，套磁信该是什么样的，为我们自己写套磁信指明一个方向。

因此今天无老师就为大家展示出一些套磁信的模板或者说样本。

【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【Dear Professor Smith:I am a college graduate from ABC University, with a degree in Computer Science, currently working full time as a computer programmer with Bank of China, but interested in applying for a Research Assistantship at your school. Dr. Song provided me with your e-mail address and suggested that I write you about a possible position.I attended the Special Class of Gifted Use at ABC University when I was 14 years old and earned my Bachelor’s Degree in computer science there in 1996. Since graduation, I have been working with the Technology Department, Bank of China. My responsibility at the Bank is to develop application software for internal usage and help managing the Bank’s database and network. I led or took part in several key projects such as Foreign Exchange Savings Accounts Networking System, the State Dragon Card Networking System and the Dragon Card-Stock Funds Transferring System. With my hardworking and continuous learning, I have gained tremendous practical experiences and knowledge in my field and also learned to be an excellent team player and a good communicator. I am quite proficient in Unix operating system, Windows NT, computer programming (using C/C++/ESQL C, and Visual Basic), and Informix database system. In addition, I have had solid hands-on experience in TCP/IP network design and implementation.As stated earlier, I have always been interested in both computer science and biology as both disciplines are at the forefront of rapid development. Health Informatics seems a perfect subject for me as I can learn more about the healthcare discipline while using my skills in computer, especially in database and network, to make contribution to health informatics. I am convinced that with my strong technical background, diligence and intelligence, and my enthusiasm for health informatics, I will be an excellent student in this field and a good Research Assistant to you.I would greatly appreciate it if you would grant me an opportunity for application. You may reply to me through this email address. Thank you very much for your consideration.Sincerely yours,Mei Wong 】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【Knowing where one is heading during navigation brings assured happiness. As a student majoring in Computer Software, I began my odyssey four years ago. Now, after the initial mysticism wasgradually unveiled, my curiosity remains the same. Indeed, having entered this splendid computer world, I am more than greedy for something new.From the beginning of my study, my endeavor was fixed on the underlying branches of Computer Science, particularly System Software develop ment. Novel applications on other’s platform may be fruitful, but I think it’s more appealing to act as an independent “manager”. In fact, mathematics, OS, DBMS and modern compiler are all the examples, any breakthrough of which would push forward the whole industry. Individuality is achieved in this unique position.My paces toward this goal are always steady. As mathematics permeates to the every corner of Computer Science, I am eager to see how it functions. I took courses offered by the Mathematics Department including Mathematical Analysis and Advanced Algebra. The curriculum also covered Discrete Mathematics, Probability & Statistics and Theoretical Computer Science. As supplement to my scope of knowledge, I learn by myself Combination Mathematics and the Science of Programming. This really made a hard period of time, but the harvest was rewarding. I come to understand that even the most irrelevant software disciplines have the origins in common.The importance of Fractured Geometry in Computer Graphics is already obvious. What if a step furthers toward TSP or Bin Packing? Immeasurable. Then came my favorite topics: Operating System, Compiler and Database. I worked hard and derived bits of my own insight. In fact, I was greatly encouraged to find some of my ideas successfully implemented in the corresponding course projects. My final grade is straight “As” in these coursed. In short, although my experience in Computer Science is still limited, I believe its depth is well accessible. As my advisor, Prof. Fang Yu, put it figuratively in one of his lectures: “ It makes no difference whether a hunter captures 5 or 7 rabbits. What counts is he knows how to use his gun.”I think I can be the qualified shooter now. in my undergraduate years, I have earned various kinds of scholarships, among which were “Peking University Fellowship” and “Excellent Academic Scholarship”. My overall GPA ranks upper 10% among 48 students of the same grade. Because of my satisfactory performance, I was granted the honor of entering the graduate program at Peking University directly, waived of the admission test. In retrospect, my workload is always heavy but it is worth my time of effort. Presently, I have both adequate theoretical understanding and rich programming experience. READY I AM.Of all the sub-areas of Computer Science, my major interest is parallel processing and the related compiler construction. The terminology of parallel processing came to me when I read an artic 】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【Dear #######:Thank you again for your email. From the sounds of your scores and grades, you should have no problem entering Princeton. I am quite familiar with the program that you are in and have had several close friends that have been there at Beijing University. In fact, ####### was in graduate school with me and she was in the accelerated program. She has done extremely well in the . and after graduation went on to do some first rate science at a university in California. Since 2001 is your target date, I can begin to arrange funding for a research assistantship for you. These are nicer than teaching assistantships because they allow you to focus only on your research. Naturally, you will not be obligated to accept should you find other options. However, I believe that you will be most welcomed here in my group.You had asked about some of my publications, if you send me your address I can send preprints. They may take some time to get to China. You can find some of our work listed on our web site under my cv. This is an incomplete list but the PRL of last year is there and the latest hasnt yet been released from the publishers.We have been doing some interesting things lately with topological defects on tube manifolds that you might like. We have recently imaged nanotubes which exhibit a change in chirality along the tube! Tunneling spectra show that this produces subtle changes in the LDOS as predicted in some of X. Blase’s work. We have also begun optical studies on individual nanotubes using near-field scanning optical microscopy and spectroscopy. We are particualry interested in how the surface plasmon resonances (governed by tube topology) effects the third order nonlinear susceptability in these objects. Thank you again for your interest in our group. May I suggest that we keep in contact over the year. Let me know your progress and I will try to help with the application procedures should you decide to join us.Sincerely**】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【Dear Professor #######:Thank you very much for your kind reply. I am sorry that during the summer vacation I cannot read and reply your email in time.As stated in my first letter, my desired entrance date is in Fall of 2000. And I would like to provide my test scores. My TOEFL test score is 647 (Oct. 1997) with a TWE score of . My GRE test score is 2340 (Oct. 1996, V770 M800 A770). My GRE Subject score is 920 (Oct. 1998, Physics). And I will take the TSE test in the coming August. And my undergraduate and graduate GPA are both about in , about top 10%-20% in my class.I wish to make a note that during my undergraduate study I was quite young, and during my graduate study I take many efforts to study the basic courses in Physics by myself, which may be the reason my GPAs are not in the top 5%. But now I believe that I have been quite familiar in the knowledges of Physics, both the courses and the researches. So I hope that my test scores and grades are acceptable to Priceton with financial supports.As to the research, I am very glad to learn the research background you provided in your letter. I am quite familiar with the works of X. Blase published in PRL and APL. I also know that J-C Charlier is a famous specialist in this field. So perhaps I could do theoretical research works in your group. Also, I am very glad to know that you have the needed main instruments for carbon nanotubes in your group, so that both theoretical and experimental works can be done.I am puzzled at the “MRS meeting in Boston” you mentioned in your letter. What is the full-name of MRS? Is it a meeting specialized in nano-systems? I do research works on carbon nanotubes almost totally by myself, and perhaps are not familiar with such fixed terms. Would you please explain the contents of this meeting? Thanks. And you mentioned that your latest publications will come out in next months in PRL. Would you please send me the page number of this paper in PRL, and if possible, the full text of this paper? The journal PRL reaches to China very late, usually several months to half a year after published, and I don’t have the account to find the full-texts of PRL on-line.I am looking forward to receiving your warmhearted reply. Thanks.Yours sincerely###########】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【Dear ######:Thank you for the email and your interest in our research program.I am very intersted in your application and would like to hear more. Are you interested in Fall 2000 or fall 2001? Certianly for 2001 there should be no problem getting research support, provided that your test scores, grades, etc. are acceptable to the university. For 2000, it would be a little tougher because of the short notice, but might be arranged under special circumstances.You asked about the nature of research here. In the laboratory, students generally couple calculations with experiment. We specialize in spectroscopic determinations of transport and electronic structure using scanning probes (STM and NSOM). To gain a detailed understanding of this, ab initio calculations must be compared with data. We have worked closely with J-C Charlier in Belgium, A. Rubio in Spain, and X. Blase in France using a varietyof theoretical techniques including tight binding for structural information and LDA of DFT for electronics calcs.Our tunneling microscope is a low temperature Besoke design copied from the Julich group. We are capable of running at LHe temperatures for good energy resolution. We are in the process of constructing a near-field scanning optical microscope and a photon scanning tunneling microscope. These two new instruments should be on line around Dec.Our group focus is to understand the quantum dynamics and optical response of individual nano-systems like carbon nanotubes, B-doped nanotubes and filled nanotubes. Look for our latest publications coming out in the next months in PRL, JMR, and Advanced Materials. The entire group will also be at the MRS meeting in Boston.We would be pleased to consider your application for this year or next.########Professor of PhysicsPrinceton University 】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【【Dear Professor ####:I am very sorry to bother you and send this e-mail, but I really wish to contact you. I am a graduate student majoring in Condensed Matter Physics Theory in the Department of Physics, Beijing University (Beijing). I wish to pursue a doctoral degree in Physics at your University. My desired date of entrance is Fall, 2000. I have visited the homepage of the “Laboratory for Nanotech”. I am writing this letter to you to introduce myself and query about the graduate programs at NCCNM. Thank you very much for reading this email.Born on SEP 10, 1979, I entered Huazhong Univ. of Science and Technology (HUST) when I was 15 years old. I finished the four-year undergraduate program in three years and achieved my degree of B. Eng. (Optoelectronic Engineering) in June 1997 with the honor of “Outstanding Graduate”. Then, I was admitted to the Graduate School of Beijing University at the Department of Physics. I will obtain my degree of M. S. (Physics) in June 2000. I have done much research work on the topics of mesoscopic physics, such as carbon nanotubes, persistent currents, Aharonov-Bohm geometric phase effects, electronic transport phenomena, etc. Such modern researchtopics attract me very much in that they are associated with both Condensed-Matter Physics and microelectronics, respectively my detail majors for M. S. and B. Eng.I wish to say that I am indeed interested in the graduate programs at Physics Dept. of Princeton University, and I eagerly wish that I can join your research group. As I have also strong research interests on carbon nanotubes, I do believe that thedoctorate-oriented study under your direction will be of great help to me. I wonder, however, whether you do theoretical or experimental research works? I wish to state that, although my current research topics on carbon nanotubes are theoretical, I can also do experimental research works, especially optical studies, due to my undergraduate major in Optics. I hope my solid background in both physics and engineering can meet your general requirements of entrance to Physics Department as a graduate with financial supports.I deem it a great honor to become a graduate of Princeton, if admitted.Would you please consider my application and tell me whether it is possible for me to be enrolled as your graduate with financial supports? Thank you very much for your kind assistance. I am looking forward to receiving your reply.My current address is:#######Building RoomUniversityBeijing 100080People’s Republic of ChinaThanks!Yours Sincerely#########】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】】那么当我们现在看完这几封推荐信之后，应该来回顾一下这些套磁信的共性，只有发现他们的共性之后，我们才知道怎么展开自己的套磁信，这个工作显然是“套磁季”的核心环节，因此无老师决定，下次再写^_^在美国留学研究生申请过程中套磁很重要。

RECSIT1[1].1中英文对照全文

New response evaluation criteria in solid tumours: Revised RECIST guideline (version 1.1)新版实体瘤疗效评价标准：修订的RECIST指南（1.1版本）Abstract摘要Background背景介绍Assessment of the change in tumour burden is an important feature of the clinical evaluation of cancer therapeutics: both tumour shrinkage (objective response) and disease progression are useful endpoints in clinical trials. Since RECIST was published in 2000, many investigators, cooperative groups, industry and government authorities have adopted these criteria in the assessment of treatment outcomes. However, a number of questions and issues have arisen which have led to the development of a revised RECIST guideline (version 1.1). Evidence for changes, summarised in separate papers in this special issue, has come from assessment of a large data warehouse (>6500 patients), simulation studies and literature reviews.临床上评价肿瘤治疗效果最重要的一点就是对肿瘤负荷变化的评估：瘤体皱缩（目标疗效）和病情恶化在临床试验中都是有意义的判断终点。

心理学专有名词中英对照表

心理动力------psycho-dynamics心理分析------psychoanalysis行为论-------behaviorism心理生物观---psycho-biological perspective 认知---------cognition临床心理学家-clinical psychologist谘商--------counseling人因工程-------human factor engineering组织--------organization潜意识---------unconsciousness完形心理学---Gestalt psychology感觉------------sensation知觉--------perception实验法--------experimental method独变项-------independent variable依变项--------dependent V.控制变项------control V.生理------------physiology条件化---------conditioning学习------------learning比较心理学---comparative psy.发展-------------development社会心理学---social psy.人格--------------personality心理计量学—psychometrics受试(者)---------subject实验者预期效应—experimenter expectancy effect 双盲法-----double—blind实地实验--------field experiment相关-----------correlation调查-------------survey访谈-----------interview个案研究-------case study观察-----------observation心理测验-------psychological test纹理递变度-----texture gradient注意------------attention物体的组群---grouping of object型态辨识—pattern recognition形象-背景----figure-ground接近律--------proximity相似律--------similarity闭合律-------closure连续律--------continuity对称律-------symmetry错觉-----------illusion幻觉----------delusion恒常性--------constancy大小----------size形状-----------shape位置---------- location单眼线索-----monocular cue线性透视----linear- perspective双眼线索-----binocular cue深度---------depth调节作用-----accommodation重迭----superposition双眼融合-----binocular fusion辐辏作用-----convergence双眼像差-----binocular disparity向度--------- dimension自动效应-----autokinetic effect运动视差----- motion parallax诱发运动---- induced motion闪光运动----- stroboscopic motion上下文、脉络-context人工智能------artificial intelligence A.I. 脉络关系作用-context effect模板匹配------template matching整合分析法---analysis-by-synthesis丰富性---------redundancy选择性---------selective无意识的推论-unconscious inferences 运动后效---motion aftereffect特征侦测器—feature detector激发性---excitatory抑制性----inhibitory几何子---geons由上而下处理—up-down process由下而上处理---bottom-up process连结者模式---connectionist model联结失识症---associative agnosia脸孔辨识困难症---prosopagnosia意识--conscious（ness）意识改变状态---altered states of consciousness无意识----unconsciousness前意识---------preconsciousness内省法---introspection边缘注意---peripheral attention多重人格-----multiple personality2 心理学专有名词中英对照表午餐排队(鸡尾酒会)效应—lunch line(cocktail party) effect 自动化历程----automatic process解离----dissociate解离认同失常----dissociative identity disorder快速眼动睡眠----REM dream非快速眼动睡眠—NREM dream神志清醒的梦----lucid dreaming失眠---insomnia显性与隐性梦---manifest & latern content心理活动性psychoactive冥想------meditation抗药性---- tolerance戒断----withdrawal感觉剥夺---sensory deprivation物质滥用----substance abuse成瘾--------physical addiction物质依赖----sub. dependence戒断症状----withdrawal symptom兴奋剂--stimulant幻觉（迷幻）剂----hallucinogen镇定剂---sedative，抑制剂--depressant酒精中毒引起谵妄—delirium tremens 麻醉剂---narcotic催眠-------hypnosis催眠后暗示----posthypnotic suggestion 催眠后失忆posthypnotic amnesia超心理学---parapsychology超感知觉extrasensory perception ESP 心电感应---telepathy超感视---clairvoyance预知---precognition心理动力—psycokinesis PK受纳器-----receptor绝对阈----absolute threshold差异阈----------difference threshold恰辨差------- -JND韦伯律---------Weber’s law心理物理-----psychophysical费雪纳定律---Fechner’s law频率-----frequency振幅----------amplitude音频-------pitch基音----------fundamental tone 倍音-----overtone和谐音-------harmonic音色------timbre白色噪音----white noise鼓膜-----eardrum耳蜗----------cochlea卵形窗—oval window圆形窗-------round window前庭-----vestibular sacs半规管-------semicircular canals 角膜-------cornea水晶体-------lens虹膜------------iris瞳孔----------pupil网膜---------retina睫状肌-------ciliary muscle调节作用---accommodation脊髓---------spinal cord反射弧--------reflex arc脑干---------brain stem计算机轴性线断层扫描-- CAT 或CTPET---正子放射断层摄影MRI-----磁共振显影延脑----medulla桥脑-----pons小脑----cerebellum网状结构---reticular formation RAS----网状活化系统视丘----thalamus下视丘----hypothalamus大脑----cerebrum脑（下）垂体（腺）—pituitary gland脑半球---cerebral hemisphere皮质---cortex胼胝体----corpus callosum边缘系统------limbic system海马体----hippocampus杏仁核--------amygdala中央沟---central fissure侧沟-----------lateral fissure脑叶------lobe同卵双生子----identical twins异卵双生子—fraternal twins古典制约--classical conditioning操作制约---operant conditioning非制约刺激—(US unconditioned stimulus非制约反应—(UR)unconditioned R.制约刺激---(CS) conditioned S.制约反应----(CR)conditioned R.习(获)得-----acquisition增强作用------reinforcement消除(弱)------extinction自(发性)然恢复----spontaneous recovery前行制约—forward conditioning同时制约--simultaneous conditioning回溯制约---backward cond.痕迹制约——trace conditioning延宕制约—delay conditioning类化(梯度)---generalization (gradient)区辨------discrimination次级)增强物-------(secondary) reinforcer嫌恶刺激---aversive stimulus试误学习---trial and error learning效果率-----law of effect正(负)性增强物—positive (negative) rei.行为塑造—behavior shaping循序渐进-----successive approximation自行塑造—autoshaping部分(连续)增强—partial (continuous)R定比(时)时制—fixed ratio (interval) schedule FR或FI变化比率(时距)时制—variable ratio (interval) schedule VR或VI 逃离反应---escape R.回避反应—avoidance response习得无助----learned helplessness顿悟--------insight学习心向—learning set隐内(潜在)学习---latent learning认知地图---cognitive map生理回馈------biofeedback敏感递减法-systematic desensitization普里迈克原则—Premack’s principle洪水法----flooding观察学习----observational learning动物行为学----ethology敏感化—sensitization习惯化---habituation联结---association认知学习----cognitional L.观察学习---observational L.登录、编码----encoding保留、储存-----retention提取------retrieval回忆----free recall全现心像、照相式记忆---eidetic imagery、photographic memory . 舌尖现象（TOT）—tip of tongue再认---------recognition再学习--------relearning节省分数----savings外显与内隐记忆--explicit & implicit memory记忆广度---memory span组集--chunk序列位置效应---serial position effect起始效应---primacy effect新近效应-----recency effect心(情)境依赖学习---state-dependent L.无意义音节—nonsense syllable顺向干扰---proactive interference逆向干扰---retroactive interference闪光灯记忆---flashbulb memory动机性遗忘----motivated forgetting器质性失忆症—organic amnesia阿兹海默症---Alzheimer”s disease近事（顺向）失忆症—anterograde amnesia旧事（逆向）失忆—retrograde A.高沙可夫症候群—korsakoff”s syndrome凝固理论—consolidation th.感觉记忆（SM）—sensory memory短期记忆（STM）—short-term M.长期记忆（LTM）—long-term memory复诵---rehearsal预示(激发)----priming童年失忆症---childhood amnesia视觉编码（表征）---visual code (representation) 听觉编码—acoustic code运作记忆---working memory语意性知识—semantic knowledge记忆扫瞄程序—memory scanning procedure竭尽式扫瞄程序-exhaustive S.P.自我终止式扫瞄—self-terminated S. .程序性知识—procedural knowledge命题（陈述）性知识--propositional（declarative）knowledge 情节（轶事）性知识—episodic K.讯息处理深度—depth of processing精致化处理—elaboration登录特殊性—coding specificity记忆术—mnemonic位置记忆法—method of loci字钩法—peg word（线）探索（测）(激发)字—prime关键词---key word命题思考----propositional thought心像思考---imaginal thought行动思考---motoric thought概念---concept原型----prototype属性----property特征---feature范例策略--exemplar strategy语言相对性（假说）—linguistic relativity th.音素---phoneme词素---morpheme(字词的)外延与内涵意义—denotative & connotative meaning（句子的）表层与深层结构—surface & deep structure 语意分析法---semantic differential全句语言—holophrastic speech过度延伸---over-extension电报式语言—telegraphic speech关键期----critical period差异减缩法---difference reduction方法目的分析---means-ends analysis倒推---working backward动机---------motive自由意志------free will决定论------determinism本能-----------instinct种属特有行为-----species specific驱力----drive诱因------incentive驱力减低说---drive reduction th.恒定状态（作用）—homeostasis原级与次级动机—primary & secondary M.功能独立—functional autonomy下视丘侧部（LH）—lateral hypothalamus脂肪细胞说----fat-cell theory.下视丘腹中部（VMH）—ventromedial H定点论---set point th. CCK———第一性征---primary sex characteristic第二性征---secondary sex characteristic自我效能期望—self-efficiency expectancy内在（发）动机—intrinsic motive外在（衍）动机—extrinsic motive成就需求---N. achievement需求层级—hierarchy of needs自我实现---self actualization冲突----conflict 多项仪---polygraph肤电反应----------GSR（认知)评估---cognitive appraisal脸部回馈假说---facial feedback hypothesis(生理)激发----arousal挫折-攻击假说---frustration-aggression hy.替代学习----vicarious learning发展------development先天-----nature后天-----nurture成熟-------maturation(视觉)偏好法-----preferential method习惯法-----habituation视觉悬崖-----visual cliff剥夺或丰富(环境)---deprivation or enrichment of env. 基模----schema同化----assimilation调适-----accommodation平衡----equilibrium感觉动作期----sensorimotor stage物体永久性----objective permanence运思前期----preoperational st.保留概念----conservation道德现实主义---moral realism具体运思期-----concrete operational形式运思期----formal operational st.前俗例道德---pre-conventional moral俗例道德----conventional moral超俗例道德----post-conventional moral气质----temperament 依附---attachment 性别认定---gender identity性别配合----sex typing性蕾期---phallic stage恋亲冲突—Oedipal conflict认同-----identification社会学习----social learning情结---complex性别恒定----gender constancy青年期----adolescence青春期-- -puberty第二性征---secondary sex characteristics 认同危机---identity crisis定向统合---identity achievement早闭型统合---foreclosure未定型统合---moratorium迷失型统合---identity diffusion 传承---generativity。

临床心理专有名词中英文对照表完整版

美国精神医学会 American Psychiatric Association
美国心理学会 American Psychological Association（APA）
美国整型外科医师协会 American Society of Plastic Surgeons
美国脊髓损伤协会 American spinal injury association (ASIA)
性慾初发期 appetitive phase
应用行为分析 applied behavior analysis
评估 appraisal
言语失用症 apraxia of speech, verbal dyspraxia
性向测验 aptitude test
独断推论、武断推论 arbitrary inference
3 -甲氧基-4羥基3-methoxy-4-hydroxy phenylglycol (MHPG)
5-羥色胺酸5-hydroxindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA)
5-氢氧靛基醋酸（5TH的代谢物） 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA)
匿名者戒酒协会AA (Alcoholics Anonymous)
酒精使用 alcohol use
酒精成癮者 alcoholics
酗酒 alcoholism
阿德勒 Alder, Alfred
治疗者期望效应 allegiance effect
对偶（基因） alleles
过敏性鼻炎 allergic rhinitis
过敏 allergy
治疗同盟 alliance
复本信度 alternate-form reliability

APA格式参考文献指导应用清单制作简明规则

APA格式参考文献清单制作简明规则一、总的说明1. 各个条目均不用给出文献标记类型（因为不是给国期刊投稿），也不用。

2. 各个条目的后续行缩四个字符，即两个汉字的空间。

3. 英文的参考文献在上，中文的参考文献在下。

4. 中英文的条目均用字母升序排列，不用多余地以方括号括住的阿拉伯数字排列（因为不是给国期刊投稿）。

5. 结合本规则里的第一至第三部分，一一读懂本规则里的第四部分的实例，将大有裨益。

6. 第四部分里的实例不能涵盖全部的情况，所以碰到本规则外的未尽情况时，要多查阅权威参考书。

二、条目的制作1.1.1 姓在前，名在后，中间加逗号。

1.2 名字一律缩略，以缩略点结束。

缩略点也就是结束点。

1.3 两个作者之间用&或and连接（前后保持一致），第一个作者的缩略名之后用逗号。

第二个作者也是颠倒，中间用逗号。

1.4 三个作者时，头两个作者的缩略名后面均用逗号，第三个作者前用&或and。

第二个和第三个作者的也颠倒，中间用逗号。

1.5 四个或四个以上的作者时，第一个作者的处理方法如第1条，其余作者只用斜体的et al.代替。

1.6 没有作者但有机构名称时，用该机构名代替作者。

1.7 既没有作者名又没有机构名时，则顺延将文章名或书名代替（即条目的第一部分是文章名或书名）1.8 对书籍的篇章的条目而言，书籍本身的编者的不颠倒。

2. 出版年份2.1 放在作者名的后面，用圆括号。

以句点结束。

2.2 杂志、报纸等出版物的文章除了提供年份之外，需要提供月份或月份加日子。

3. 出版物名称3.1 书、期刊、报纸、长诗、长篇小说等用斜体。

3.2 书、长诗、长篇小说等用句子格式，但是名称的专有名词和形容词仍需大写。

期刊、杂志、报纸等的文章用句子格式，但期刊、杂志和报纸等的名称用标题格式。

3.3 上述名称如有副标题，则副标题后的首字母需要大写（即冒号后的首字母要大写）。

3.4 文章不斜体，也不加引号。

4. 所在的城市4.1 凡是书籍的条目，一定要给出所在的城市名。

Becoming a Scientist The Role of Undergraduate Research in Students ’ Cognitive, Personal,

Becoming a Scientist:The Roleof Undergraduate Research in Students’Cognitive,Personal, and Professional DevelopmentANNE-BARRIE HUNTER,SANDRA URSEN,ELAINE SEYMOUR Ethnography&Evaluation Research,Center to Advance Research and Teaching in the Social Sciences,University of Colorado,Campus Box580,Boulder,CO80309,USAReceived9November2005;revised2May2006;accepted2June2006DOI10.1002/sce.20173Published online12October2006in Wiley InterScience().ABSTRACT:In this ethnographic study of summer undergraduate research(UR)expe-riences at four liberal arts colleges,where faculty and students work collaboratively on aproject of mutual interest in an apprenticeship of authentic science research work,analysisof the accounts of faculty and student participants yields comparative insights into thestructural elements of this form of UR program and its beneﬁts for parison ofthe perspectives of faculty and their students revealed considerable agreement on the nature,range,and extent of students’UR gains.Speciﬁc student gains relating to the process of “becoming a scientist”were described and illustrated by both groups.Faculty framed these gains as part of professional socialization into the sciences.In contrast,students emphasizedtheir personal and intellectual development,with little awareness of their socialization intoprofessional practice.Viewing studyﬁndings through the lens of social constructivist learn-ing theories demonstrates that the characteristics of these UR programs,how faculty practiceUR in these colleges,and students’outcomes—including cognitive and personal growth and the development of a professional identity—strongly exemplify many facets of these theo-ries,particularly,student-centered and situated learning as part of cognitive apprenticeshipin a community of practice.C 2006Wiley Periodicals,Inc.Sci Ed91:36–74,2007Correspondence to:Anne-Barrie Hunter;e-mail:abhunter@Contract grant sponsor:NSF-ROLE grant(#NSF PR REC-0087611):“Pilot Study to Establish the Nature and Impact of Effective Undergraduate Research Experiences on Learning,Attitudes and Career Choice.”Contract grant sponsor:Howard Hughes Medical Institute special projects grant,“Establishing the Processes and Mediating Factors that Contribute to Signiﬁcant Outcomes in Undergraduate Research Experiences for both Students and Faculty:A Second Stage Study.”This paper was edited by former Editor Nancy W.Brickhouse.C 2006Wiley Periodicals,Inc.BECOMING A SCIENTIST37INTRODUCTIONIn1998,the Boyer Commission Report challenged United States’research universities to make research-based learning the standard of students’college education.Funding agencies and organizations promoting college science education have also strongly recommended that institutions of higher education provide greater opportunities for authentic,interdis-ciplinary,and student-centered learning(National Research Council,1999,2000,2003a, 2003b;National Science Foundation[NSF],2000,2003a).In line with these recommen-dations,tremendous resources are expended to provide undergraduates with opportunities to participate in faculty-mentored,hands-on research(e.g.,the NSF-sponsored Research Experience for Undergraduates[REU]program,Howard Hughes Medical Institute Science Education Initiatives).Notwithstanding widespread belief in the value of undergraduate research(UR)for stu-dents’education and career development,it is only recently that research and evaluation studies have produced results that begin to throw light on the beneﬁts to students,faculty,or institutions that are generated by UR opportunities(Bauer&Bennett,2003;Lopatto,2004a; Russell,2005;Seymour,Hunter,Laursen,&DeAntoni,2004;Ward,Bennett,&Bauer, 2002;Zydney,Bennett,Shahid,&Bauer,2002a,2002b).Other reports focus on the effects of UR experiences on retention,persistence,and promotion of science career pathways for underrepresented groups(Adhikari&Nolan,2002;Barlow&Villarejo,2004;Hathaway, Nagda,&Gregerman,2002;Nagda et al.,1998).It is encouraging toﬁnd strong convergence as to the types of gains reported by these studies(Hunter,Laursen,&Seymour,2006).How-ever,we note limited or no discussion of some of the stronger gains that we document,such as students’personal and professional growth(Hunter et al.,2006;Seymour et al.,2004) and signiﬁcant variation in how particular gains(especially intellectual gains)are deﬁned. Ongoing and current debates in the academic literature concerning how learning occurs, how students develop intellectually and personally during their college years,and how communities of practice encourage these types of growth posit effective practices and the processes of students’cognitive,epistemological,and interpersonal and intrapersonal de-velopment.Although a variety of theoretical papers and research studies exploring these topics are widely published,with the exception of a short article for Project Kaleidoscope (Lopatto,2004b),none has yet focused on intensive,summer apprentice-style UR experi-ences as a model to investigate the validity of these debates.1Findings from this research study to establish the nature and range of beneﬁts from UR experiences in the sciences,and in particular,results from a comparative analysis of faculty and students’perceptions of gains from UR experiences,inform these theoretical discussions and bolsterﬁndings from empirical studies in different but related areas(i.e.,careers research,workplace learning, graduate training)on student learning,cognitive and personal growth,the development of professional identity,and how communities of practice contribute to these processes. This article will presentﬁndings from our faculty andﬁrst-round student data sets that manifest the concepts and theories underpinning constructivist learning,development of professional identity,and how apprentice-style UR experience operates as an effective community of practice.As these bodies of theory are central tenets of current science education reform efforts,empirical evidence that provides clearer understanding of the actual practices and outcomes of these approaches inform national science education pol-icy concerns for institutions of higher learning to increase diversity in science,numbers of students majoring in science,technology,engineering,or mathematics(STEM)disci-plines,student retention in undergraduate and graduate STEM programs and their entry 1David Lopatto was co-P.I.on this study and conducted quantitative survey research on the basis of our qualitativeﬁndings at the same four liberal arts colleges.Science Education DOI10.1002/sce38HUNTER ET AL.into science careers,and,ultimately,the production of greater numbers of professional scientists.To frame discussion ofﬁndings from this research,we present a brief review of theory on student learning,communities of practice,and the development of personal and professional identity germane to our data.CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING,COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE,AND IDENTITY DEVELOPMENTApprentice-style URﬁts a theoretical model of learning advanced by constructivism, in which learning is a process of integrating new knowledge with prior knowledge such that knowledge is continually constructed and reconstructed by the individual.Vygotsky’s social constructivist approach presented the notion of“the zone of proximal development,”referencing the potential of students’ability to learn and problem solve beyond their current knowledge level through careful guidance from and collaboration with an adult or group of more able peers(Vygotsky,1978).According to Green(2005),Vygotsky’s learning model moved beyond theories of“staged development”(i.e.,Piaget)and“led the way for educators to consider ways of working with others beyond the traditional didactic model”(p.294).In social constructivism,learning is student centered and“situated.”Situated learning,the hallmark of cultural and critical studies education theorists(Freire,1990; Giroux,1988;Shor,1987),takes into account students’own ways of making meaning and frames meaning-making as a negotiated,social,and contextual process.Crucial to student-centered learning is the role of educator as a“facilitator”of learning.In constructivist pedagogy,the teacher is engaged with the student in a two-way,dialog-ical sharing of meaning construction based upon an activity of mutual ve and Wenger(1991)and Wenger(1998)extended tenets of social constructivism into a model of learning built upon“communities of practice.”In a community of practice“newcomers”are socialized into the practice of the community(in this case,science research)through mutual engagement with,and direction and support from an“old-timer.”Lave and Wenger’s development of the concept and practice of this model centers on students’“legitimate pe-ripheral participation.”This construct describes the process whereby a novice is slowly,but increasingly,inducted into the knowledge and skills(both overt and tacit)of a particular practice under the guidance and expertise of the master.Legitimate peripheral participation requires that students actively participate in the authentic practice of the community,as this is the process by which the novice moves from the periphery toward full membership in the community(Lave&Wenger,1991).Similar to Lave and Wenger’s communities of practice, Brown,Collins,and Duguid(1989)and Farmer,Buckmaster,and LeGrand(1992)describe “cognitive apprenticeships.”A cognitive apprenticeship“starts with deliberate instruction by someone who acts as a model;it then proceeds to model-guided trials by practition-ers who progressively assume more responsibility for their learning”(Farmer et al.,1992, p.42).However,these latter authors especially emphasize the importance of students’ongoing opportunities for self-expression and reﬂective thinking facilitated by an“expert other”as necessary to effective legitimate peripheral participation.Beyond gains in understanding and exercising the practical and cultural knowledge of a community of practice,Brown et al.(1989)discuss the beneﬁts of cognitive ap-prenticeship in helping learners to deal capably with ambiguity and uncertainty—a trait particularly relevant to conducting science research.In their view,cognitive apprenticeship “teaches individuals how to think and act satisfactorily in practice.It transmits useful, reliable knowledge based on the consensual agreement of the practitioners,about how to deal with situations,particularly those that are ill-deﬁned,complex and risky.It teachesScience Education DOI10.1002/sceBECOMING A SCIENTIST39‘knowledge-in-action’that is‘situated”’(quoted in Farmer et al.,1992,p.42).Green(2005) points out that Bowden and Marton(1998,2004)also characterize effective communities of practice as teaching skills that prepare apprentices to negotiate undeﬁned“spaces of learning”:“the‘expert other’...does not necessarily‘know’the answers in a traditional sense,but rather is willing to support collaborative learning focused on the‘unknown fu-ture.’In other words,the‘inﬂuential other’takes learning...to spaces where the journey itself is unknown to everyone”(p.295).Such conceptions of communities of practice are strikingly apposite to the processes of learning and growth that we have found among UR students,particularly in their understanding of the nature of scientiﬁc knowledge and in their capacity to confront the inherent difﬁculties of science research.These same issues are central to Baxter Magolda’s research on young adult development. The“epistemological reﬂection”(ER)model developed from her research posits four categories of intellectual development from simplistic to complex thinking:from“absolute knowing”(where students understand knowledge to be certain and view it as residing in an outside authority)to“transitional knowing”(where students believe that some knowledge is less than absolute and focus onﬁnding ways to search for truth),then to“independent knowing”(where students believe that most knowledge is less than absolute and individuals can think for themselves),and lastly to“contextual knowing”(where knowledge is shaped by the context in which it is situated and its veracity is debated according to its context) (Baxter Magolda,2004).In this model,epistemological development is closely tied to development of identity. The ER model of“ways of knowing”gradually shifts from an externally directed view of knowing to one that is internally directed.It is this epistemological shift that frames a student’s cognitive and personal development—where knowing and sense of self shift from external sources to reliance upon one’s own internal assessment of knowing and identity. This process of identity development is referred to as“self-authorship”and is supported by a constructivist-developmental pedagogy based on“validating students as knowers, situating learning in students’experience,and deﬁning learning as mutually constructed meaning”(Baxter Magolda,1999,p.26).Baxter Magolda’s research provides examples of pedagogical practice that support the development of self-authorship,including learning through scientiﬁc inquiry.As in other social constructivist learning models,the teacher as facilitator is crucial to students’cognitive and personal development:Helping students make personal sense of the construction of knowledge claims and engagingstudents in knowledge construction from their own perspectives involves validating thestudents as knowers and situating learning in the students’own perspectives.Becoming socialized into the ways of knowing of the scientiﬁc community and participating in thediscipline’s collective knowledge creation effort involves mutually constructing meaning.(Baxter Magolda,1999,p.105)Here Baxter Magolda’s constructivist-developmental pedagogy converges with Lave and Wenger’s communities of practice,but more clearly emphasizes students’development of identity as part of the professional socialization process.Use of constructivist learning theory and pedagogies,including communities of practice, are plainly evident in the UR model as it is structured and practiced at the four institutions participating in this study,as we describe next.As such,the gains identiﬁed by student and faculty research advisors actively engaged in apprentice-style learning and teaching provide a means to test these theories and models and offer the opportunity to examine the processes,whereby these beneﬁts are generated,including students’development of a professional identity.Science Education DOI10.1002/sce40HUNTER ET AL.THE APPRENTICESHIP MODEL FOR UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH Effective UR is deﬁned as,“an inquiry or investigation conducted by an undergraduate that makes an original intellectual or creative contribution to the discipline”(NSF,2003b, p.9).In the“best practice”of UR,the student draws on the“mentor’s expertise and resources...and the student is encouraged to take primary responsibility for the project and to provide substantial input into its direction”(American Chemical Society’s Committee on Professional Training,quoted in Wenzel,2003,p.1).Undergraduate research,as practiced in the four liberal arts colleges in this study,is based upon this apprenticeship model of learning:student researchers work collaboratively with faculty in conducting authentic, original research.In these colleges,students typically underwent a competitive application process(even when a faculty member directly invited a student to participate).After sorting applications, and ranking students’research preferences,faculty interviewed students to assure a good match between the student’s interests and the faculty member’s research and also between the faculty member and the student.Generally,once all application materials were reviewed (i.e.,students’statements of interest,course transcripts,grade point averages[GPA]), faculty negotiated as a group to distribute successful applicants among the available summer research advisors.Students were paid a stipend for their full-time work with faculty for 10weeks over summer.Depending on the amount of funding available and individual research needs,faculty research advisors supervised one or more students.Typically,a faculty research advisor worked with two students for the summer,but many worked with three or four,or even larger groups.In most cases,student researchers were assigned to work on predetermined facets of faculty research projects:each student project was open ended,but deﬁned,so that a student had a reasonable chance of completing it in the short time frame and of producing useful results.Faculty research advisors described the importance of choosing a project appropriate to the student’s“level,”taking into account their students’interests,knowledge, and abilities and aiming to stretch their capacities,but not beyond students’reach.Research advisors were often willing to integrate students’speciﬁc interests into the design of their research projects.Faculty research advisors described the intensive nature of getting their student re-searchers“up and running”in the beginning weeks of the program.Orienting students to the laboratory and to the project,providing students with relevant background information and literature,and teaching them the various skills and instrumentation necessary to work effectively required adaptability to meet students at an array of preparation levels,advance planning,and a good deal of their time.Faculty engaged in directing UR discussed their role as facilitators of students’learning.In the beginning weeks of the project,faculty advisors often worked one-on-one with their students.They provided instruction,gave “mini-lectures,”explained step by step why and how processes were done in particular ways—all the time modeling how science research is done.When necessary,they closely guided students,but wherever possible,provided latitude for and encouraged students’own initiative and experimentation.As the summer progressed,faculty noted that,based on growing hands-on experience,students gained conﬁdence(to a greater or lesser degree)in their abilities,and gradually and increasingly became self-directed and able,or even eager, to work independently.Although most faculty research advisors described regular contact with their student researchers,most did not work side by side with their students everyday.Many research advisors held a weekly meeting to review progress,discuss problems,and make sure students(and the projects)were on the right track.At points in the research work,facultyScience Education DOI10.1002/sceBECOMING A SCIENTIST41 could focus on other tasks while students worked more independently,and the former were available as necessary.When students encountered problems with the research,faculty would serve as a sounding board while students described their efforts to resolve difﬁculties. Faculty gave suggestions for methods that students could try themselves,and when problems seemed insurmountable to students,faculty would troubleshoot with them toﬁnd a way to move the project forward.Faculty research advisors working with two or more student researchers often used the research peer group to further their students’development.Some faculty relied on more-senior student researchers to help guide new ones.Having multiple students working in the laboratory(whether or not on the same project)also gave student researchers an extra resource to draw upon when questions arose or they needed help.In some cases,several faculty members(from the same or different departments)scheduled weekly meetings for group discussion of their research monly,faculty assigned articles for students to summarize and present to the rest of the group.Toward the end of summer, weekly meetings were often devoted to students’practice of their presentations so that the research advisor and other students could provide constructive criticism.At the end of summer,with few exceptions,student researchers attended a campus-wide UR conference, where they presented posters and shared their research with peers,faculty,and institution administrators.Undergraduate research programs in these liberal arts colleges also offered a series of seminars andﬁeld trips that explored various science careers,discussed the process of choosing and applying to graduate schools,and other topics that focused on students’professional development.We thus found that,at these four liberal arts colleges,the practice of UR embodies the principles of the apprenticeship model of learning where students engage in active,hands-on experience of doing science research in collaboration with and under the auspices of a faculty research advisor.RESEARCH DESIGNThis qualitative study was designed to address fundamental questions about the beneﬁts (and costs)of undergraduate engagement in faculty-mentored,authentic research under-taken outside of class work,about which the existing literature offers fewﬁndings and many untested hypotheses.2Longitudinal and comparative,this study explores:•what students identify as the beneﬁts of UR—both following the experience,and inthe longer term(particularly career outcomes);•what gains faculty advisors observe in their student researchers and how their view of gains converges with or diverges from those of their students;•the beneﬁts and costs to faculty of their engagement in UR;•what,if anything,is lost by students who do not participate in UR;and•the processes by which gains to students are generated.This study was undertaken at four liberal arts colleges with a strong history of UR.All four offer UR in three core sciences—physics,chemistry,and biology—with additional programs in other STEMﬁelds,including(at different campuses)computer science,engi-neering,biochemistry,mathematics,and psychology.In the apprenticeship model of UR practiced at these colleges,faculty alone directed students in research;however,in the few2An extensive review and discussion of the literature on UR is presented in Seymour et al.(2004). Science Education DOI10.1002/sce42HUNTER ET AL.instances where faculty conducted research at a nearby institution,some students did have contact with post docs,graduate students,or senior laboratory technicians who assisted in the research as well.We interviewed a cohort of(largely)“rising seniors”who were engaged in UR in summer2000on the four campuses(N=76).They were interviewed for a second time shortly before their graduation in spring2001(N=69),and a third time as graduates in 2003–2004(N=55).The faculty advisors(N=55)working with this cohort of students were also interviewed in summer2000,as were nine administrators with long experience of UR programs at their schools.We also interviewed a comparison group of students(N=62)who had not done UR. They were interviewed as graduating seniors in spring2001,and again as graduates in 2003–2004(N=25).A comparison group(N=16)of faculty who did not conduct UR in summer2000was also interviewed.Interview protocols focused upon the nature,value,and career consequences of UR experiences,and the methods by which these were achieved.3After classifying the range of beneﬁts claimed in the literature,we constructed a“gains”checklist to discuss with all participants“what faculty think students may gain from undergraduate research.”Dur-ing the interview,UR students were asked to describe the gains from their research experience(or by other means).If,toward the end of the interview,a student had not mentioned a gain identiﬁed on our“checklist,”the student was queried as to whether he or she could claim to have gained the beneﬁt and was invited to add further com-ment.Students also mentioned gains they had made that were not included in the list. With slight alterations in the protocol,we invited comments on the same list of possi-ble gains from students who had not experienced UR,and solicited information about gains from other types of experience.All students were asked to expand on their an-swers,to highlight gains most signiﬁcant to them,and to describe the sources of any beneﬁts.In the second set of interviews,the same students(nearing graduation)were asked to reﬂect back on their research experiences as undergraduates,and to comment on the rel-ative importance of their research-derived gains,both for the careers they planned and for other aspects of their lives.In theﬁnal set of interviews,they were asked to of-fer a retrospective summary of the origins of their career plans and the role that UR and other factors had played in them,and to comment on the longer term effects of their UR experiences—especially the consequences for their career choices and progress, including their current educational or professional engagement.Again,the sources of gains cited were explored;especially gains that were identiﬁed by some students as arising from UR experiences but may also arise from other aspects of their college education.The total of367interviews represents more than13,000pages of text data.We are currently analyzing other aspects of the data and will reportﬁndings on additional topics, including the beneﬁts and costs to faculty of their participation in UR and longitudinal and comparative outcomes of students’career choices.This article discussesﬁndings from a comparative analysis of all faculty and administrator interviews(N=80),withﬁndings from theﬁrst-round UR student interviews(N=76),and provides empirical evidence of the role of UR experiences in encouraging the intellectual,personal,and professional development of student researchers,and how the apprenticeship modelﬁts theoretical discussions on these topics.3The protocol is available by request to the authors via abhunter@.Science Education DOI10.1002/sceBECOMING A SCIENTIST43METHODS OF DATA TRANSCRIPTION,CODING,AND ANAL YSISOur methods of data collection and analysis are ethnographic,rooted in theoretical work and methodological traditions from sociology,anthropology,and social psychol-ogy(Berger&Luckman,1967;Blumer,1969;Garﬁnkel,1967;Mead,1934;Schutz& Luckman,1974).Classically,qualitative studies such as ethnographies precede survey or experimental work,particularly where existing knowledge is limited,because these meth-ods of research can uncover and explore issues that shape informants’thinking and actions. Good qualitative software computer programs are now available that allow for the multiple, overlapping,and nested coding of a large volume of text data to a high degree of complexity, thus enabling ethnographers to disentangle patterns in large data sets and to reportﬁndings using descriptive statistics.Although conditions for statistical signiﬁcance are rarely met, the results from analysis of text data gathered by careful sampling and consistency in data coding can be very powerful.Interviews took between60and90minutes.Taped interviews and focus groups were transcribed verbatim into a word-processing program and submitted to“The Ethnograph,”a qualitative computer software program(Seidel,1998).Each transcript was searched for information bearing upon the research questions.In this type of analysis,text segments referencing issues of different type are tagged by code names.Codes are not preconceived,but empirical:each new code references a discrete idea not previously raised.Interviewees also offer information in spontaneous narratives and examples,and may make several points in the same passage,each of which is separately coded.As transcripts are coded,both the codes and their associated passages are entered into“The Ethnograph,”creating a data set for each interview group(eight,in this study). Code words and their deﬁnitions are concurrently collected in a codebook.Groups of codes that cluster around particular themes are assigned and grouped by“parent”codes.Because an idea that is encapsulated by a code may relate to more than one theme,code words are often assigned multiple parent codes.Thus,a branching and interconnected structure of codes and parents emerges from the text data,which,at any point in time,represents the state of the analysis.As information is commonly embedded in speakers’accounts of their experience rather than offered in abstract statements,transcripts can be checked for internal consistency;that is,between the opinions or explanations offered by informants,their descriptions of events, and the reﬂections and feelings these evoke.Ongoing discussions between members of our research group continually reviewed the types of observations arising from the data sets to assess and reﬁne category deﬁnitions and assure content validity.The clustered codes and parents and their relationships deﬁne themes of the qualita-tive analysis.In addition,frequency of use can be counted for codes across a data set, and for important subsets(e.g.,gender),using conservative counting conventions that are designed to avoid overestimation of the weight of particular opinions.Together,these frequencies describe the relative weighting of issues in participants’collective report. As they are drawn from targeted,intentional samples,rather than from random samples, these frequencies are not subjected to tests for statistical signiﬁcance.They hypothesize the strength of particular variables and their relationships that may later be tested by random sample surveys or by other means.However,theﬁndings in this study are un-usually strong because of near-complete participation by members of each group under study.Before presentingﬁndings from this study,we provide an overview of the results of our comparative analysis and describe the evolution of our analysis of the student interview data as a result of emergentﬁndings from analysis of the faculty interview data.Science Education DOI10.1002/sce。

orsk包的中文名字：卧底比率与相对风险的转换 - 部分数据信息说明书

Package‘orsk’June25,2023Type PackageTitle Converting Odds Ratio to Relative Risk in Cohort Studies withPartial Data InformationVersion1.0-8Date2023-06-24Author Zhu Wang<https:///0000-0002-0773-0052>Maintainer Zhu Wang<******************>Description Convert odds ratio to relative risk in cohort studies with partial data informa-tion(Wang(2013)<doi:10.18637/jss.v055.i05>).Imports BB,BHH2Suggests setRNGLicense GPL(>=2)LazyLoad yesNeedsCompilation yesRepository CRANDate/Publication2023-06-2503:00:02UTCR topics documented:orsk (2)zy (4)Index512orskorsk Converting Odds Ratio to Relative Risk in Cohort Studies with PartialData InformationDescriptionConverting Odds Ratio to Relative Risk in Cohort Studies with Partial Data InformationUsageorsk(nctr,ntrt,a=NA,al=NA,au=NA,level=0.95,type="two-sided",method=c("grid","optim"),d=1e-4)##S3method for class orskplot(x,type=c("RR","OR"),digits=2,factor=1,amount=NULL,...)##S3method for class orskprint(x,...)##S3method for class orsksummary(object,nlist=1:5,...)Argumentsnctr sample size of control group from a published studyntrt sample size of treatment group from a published studya estimated odds ratio from a published studyal lower bound of conﬁdence interval from a published studyau upper bound of conﬁdence interval from a published studylevel level of conﬁdence interval with default95%method method for converting the odds ratio to the relative risk with default value"grid"d threshold value(delta in the vignette)toﬁlter out solutions if sum of squares>d.Only used with method="grid"type type of the objective function with default value"two-sided";or the type of risk to be plotted.For type="RR",distribution of relative risk among scenariosfor which the calculated odds ratio and conﬁdence interval coincide with thepublished values.For type="OR",distribution of risk of the outcome amongscenarios for which the calculated odds ratio and conﬁdence interval coincidewith the published values.x object of class orskobject object of class orsknlist maximum number of solutions displayeddigits rounding accuracy for all the numbers given in the published study,with default value2factor,amount arguments for scatter plot,see?jitter function...additional arguments for print,summary.orsk3 DetailsInvestigators of medical and epidemiological studies are often interested in comparing a risk of a binary outcome between a treatment and control group,or between exposed and unexposed.Such an outcome can be an onset of a disease or a dichotomized length of labor duration.From a published study,suppose we are given the information on sample size of control group nctr, sample size of treatment group ntrt,estimated odds ratio a,and conﬁdence interval(al,au),how to estimate the relative risk,when the original2by2contingency table is not directly available?Two methods are proposed to estimate the cells of the contingency table,and to estimate the relative risk.ValueAn object of class orsk is returned.The algorithm estimates the number of outcome in control group ctr_yes,number of outcome free in control group ctr_no,number of outcome in treatment group trt_yes and number of outcome free in treatment group trt_no.Also the results include the corresponding estimated odds ratio with conﬁdence interval,and relative risk and conﬁdence interval,based on the estimated contingency table.Author(s)Zhu WangReferencesWang,Zhu(2013).Converting Odds Ratio to Relative Risk in Cohort Studies with Partial Data Information.Journal of Statistical Software,55(5),1–11.doi:10.18637/jss.v055.i05Morris,J.A.and Gardner,MJ(1988).Calculating conﬁdence intervals for relative risks(odds ratios) and standardised ratios and rates.British Medical Journal,296(6632),1313–1316.Examples##Not run:res1<-orsk(nctr=1636,ntrt=2601,a=2.61,al=2.25,au=3.03,method="grid")summary(res1)res2<-orsk(nctr=1636,ntrt=2601,a=2.61,al=2.25,au=3.03,method="optim")summary(res2)res3<-orsk(nctr=1636,ntrt=2601,a=2.61,al=2.25,type="lower",method="grid")summary(res3)res4<-orsk(nctr=1636,ntrt=2601,a=2.61,au=3.03,type="upper",method="grid")summary(res4)res5<-orsk(nctr=1636,ntrt=2601,a=2.61,al=2.25,au=3.03,type="ci-only",method="grid")summary(res5)##End(Not run)4zy zy Estimating the Relative Risk Based on the Odds RatioDescriptionEstimating the relative risk based on the(adjusted)Odds Ratio from multiple logistic regression or other multiple regression models.The method was based on Zhang and Yu(JAMA,1998)Usagezy(risk,oddsratio)Argumentsrisk the risk rate of having a positive outcome in the control or unexposed group oddsratio odds ratio estimated from multiple logistic regression or other multiple regres-sion modelsDetailsPrimarily for the adjusted odds ratio,the estimated relative risk is given by:odds ratio/(1-risk+risk*odds ratio)Valuethe estimated relative riskAuthor(s)Zhu WangReferencesZhang J,Yu KF(1998).What’s the relative risk?A method of correcting the odds ratio in cohort studies of common outcomes.JAMA,280(19),1690-1.Exampleszy(risk=0.18,oddsratio=2.25)Index∗odds ratioorsk,2zy,4∗relative riskorsk,2zy,4orsk,2plot.orsk(orsk),2print.orsk(orsk),2summary.orsk(orsk),2zy,45。

Edinburgh, Scotland

This research was supported by SERC grants GR/E78463, GR/H73103 and GR/J07303. research was supported by SERC grants GR/E78463, GR/J07693, a SERC Advanced Fellowship, and the COMPASS Basic Research working group. z This research was supported by SERC grants GR/H76739 and GR/E78463, an ECfunded COST fellowship, and KBN grant PB 1247/P3/93/04.
y This
on foundations and tools. This paper is a report on the current state of this de nition as it nears completion. SML is a widely-used functional programming language. Apart from useful features it shares with a number of similar languages (a exible type system with polymorphic types, function de nition by patterns, etc.) it has two special characteristics which make it very well-suited to the enterprise mentioned above. First, it provides state-of-the-art modularisation facilities for building large software systems by de ning and combining self-contained generic program units. Such facilities seem to be a prerequisite for the use of formal development methods on examples of signi cant size. The main emphasis of EML is on development \in the large", relying heavily on linguistic support from the SML module facilities and incorporating ideas from foundational work on speci cation and formal development of modular systems 37], 33], 30], 36]. Second, the syntax and semantics of SML is formally de ned 22]. This makes it possible (at least in principle) to reason formally about the behaviour of SML programs, as required for proofs of correctness with respect to a speci cation of requirements. The size and complexity of the semantics is such that fully formal use of it, e.g. to prove correctness of an optimizing transformation, would be quite a di cult task. Nevertheless, the semantics is small and elegant enough that such use seems not to be completely out of the question. The idea of building a fully- edged speci cation and formal development framework around a \real" programming language seems to be novel to EML. Somewhat related is work on the Anna language for annotating Ada programs with assertions concerning their intended behaviour 19]; but this is not intended for formal development of software from speci cations (although see 17]), and as far as we are aware there is no formal semantics of Anna nor any intention to formally relate Anna to the semantics of Ada 2]. Similar comments apply to Larch 10], which has been used in connection with various programming languages. Attempts to apply Larch to the speci cation of SML modules have recently begun 39], but this work is still at an early stage and many problems remain to be solved. Real programming languages are inevitably complex, and any serious attempt to give a formal treatment of such a language and a development framework based on it is an ambitious goal bringing a host of problems which do not arise when considering toy programming languages or when considering speci cation and formal development in abstract terms. Another novelty of this work is in its treatment of the speci cation of a number of \di cult" facets of computation, all of which arise in SML. These include polymorphic types, higher-order functions, exceptions and non-termination. In spite of the fact that these are common features of modern programming languages, they are rarely addressed by approaches to speci cation. There have been attempts to treat each of these features in isolation, but not in combination with one another. It is precisely in the interaction between such features that some of the most di cult issues arise. The structure of the paper is as follows. Section 2 gives a short introduction to the main features of SML and EML in order to set the scene for the rest of the paper. We have resisted the temptation to dwell at length on aspects of EML which are not directly relevant to the topic at hand; for more information, see the papers cited in Section 2. Section 3 discusses the way in which EML relates to and extends SML. Section 4 is an overview of the semantics of EML which attempts to give the reader an overall impression of its strucct

第六章岛屿生物地理学理论与生物多样性保护

行对数转换该公式经过对数转换后变为上ｌｏｇＳ＝ｚＬｏｇＡＣ式中ｓ是面积为Ａ的岛屿上某一分类群物种的数目参数Ｃ取决于分类类群和生物地理区域其生态学意义不大但是Ｇｏｕｌｄ１９７９认为只要种面积曲线的之值相同Ｃ也是具有比较价值的ｚ即经过对数转换后直线的斜率尽管对于参数之的大小和生物学意义也引起过许多争论Ｃｏｎｎｏｒ和ＭｃＣｏｙ１９７９Ｍａｒｔｉｎ１９８１Ｓｕｇｉｈａｒａ１９８１但其值在下同的生物类群之间和世界不同地区的同一分类群之间变化不大见表１表１岛屿上各种不同陆生植物和动物的ｚ值由公式ＳＣＡｚ而来Ｓ表示物种数目Ａ是岛屿的面积
面上升被隔离后其上的生物经历了与陆地生物不同的选择压力和进化过程而真正海洋岛屿上的生物是从陆地经过一定距离的水域后逐渐迁入所以海洋岛屿也是研究陆地生物传播的理想场所岛屿有以下几个重要特征１岛屿比陆地和海洋简单２地球上岛屿的数量要比大陆和海洋多３岛屿的大小形状和隔离程度都不同岛屿的动物和植物区系对早期生态学思想的形成曾起了重要的作用例如１８３５年当达尔文考察南美的Ｇａｌａｐａｇｏｓ群岛时他被岛上的动植物所吸引他在日记中就提到岛屿在研究物种进化中的独特地位Ｄａｒｗｉｎ１３６０
２３平衡理论
ＭａｃＡｒｔｈｕｒ和Ｗｉｌｓｏｎ１９６３１９６７认为岛屿生物种类的丰富程度完全取决于两个过程即新物种的迁入和原来占据岛屿物种的灭绝见图３当迁人卓和灭绝率相等时岛屿物种数达到动态的平衡状态即物种的数目相对稳定但物种的组成却不断变化和更新这就是岛屿生物地理学理论的核心所以岛屿生物地理学理论也称为平衡理论邬建国

Spatial ability and learning the use of an angled laparoscope in a virtual environment

146Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 2001 J.D. Westwood et al. (Eds.) IOS Press, 2001 Spatial Ability and Learning the Use of an Angled Laparoscope in a VirtualEnvironmentRoy Eyal and Frank TendickDepartment of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0475frankt@Abstract. Little is known about the cognitive demands that underlie surgicalperformance. Several studies have suggested that spatial ability plays a substantialrole in surgical skill. An example of a skill in which spatial cognition appears to beof importance is the use of the angled laparoscope. This paper describes a virtualenvironment designed to assess and train the use of the angled laparoscope. Thelearning rates of novices learning the skill for the first time in the virtualenvironment were measured. The rates were found to be highly variable andstrongly correlated with spatial ability.1. IntroductionDespite the importance to society of ensuring the competence of surgeons, there has been surprisingly little research on surgical skill and training. Although the perceptual motor consequences of degraded visual information, reduced dexterity, and limited haptic sensation in laparoscopic surgery have been identified [1,2] and detailed time and motion studies have also been performed [3,4], these studies have done little to elucidate the underlying cognitive demands in surgery.Several studies have shown strong correlations between standardized tests of spatial ability and performance ratings on a variety of tasks in open surgery [5-8]. Spatial cognition is the study of how humans acquire, store, retrieve, and process knowledge of the spatial properties of objects, events, and places in the world. Spatial properties include location, movement, extent, shape and connectivity. Although skilled surgeons are often said to have “good hands,” in fact, performance in surgery is strongly dependent on spatial skills. The surgeon must develop a mental image of three-dimensional anatomy based on a surface view or cross sections from X-ray, CT, MRI, or ultrasound images. From this model and a goal state based on experience and anatomical knowledge, he or she must plan a strategy to gain exposure of the important anatomy and obtain the desired result. This plan requires complex coordination between a team of assistants using an array of instruments. With the advent of minimally invasive techniques such as laparoscopic surgery, the surgeon must rely on a video image of the internal anatomy and use instruments constrained by a fulcrum at their passage through the skin. This requires additional mental transformations of the image and careful planning to handle the constraints.R. Eyal and F. Tendick / Spatial Ability and Learning the Use of an Angled Laparoscope 147Figure 1. Angled laparoscope concept. The laparoscope passes through a cannula, which is constrained bythe fulcrum at the abdominal wall. The objective lens is angled with respect to the laparoscope axis.An example of a skill that requires the use of spatial cognition is guiding an angled laparoscope. In laparoscopic surgery, the fulcrum at the abdominal wall limits the range of motion of the laparoscope. Consequently, the viewing perspective within the abdomen is also limited. If the objective lens is aligned with the laparoscope axis, it is only possible to view from directions centered at the fulcrum. Some regions may be obscured by neighboring organs, or it may be impossible to view important structures en face. Laparoscopes with the objective lens at an angle with respect to the laparoscope axis are preferred and are often essential for many procedures, as they expand the range of viewing orientations (Figure 1).Although the concept of the angled laparoscope is simple, in practice its use can be difficult. For example, to look into a narrow cavity (shown as a box in Figure 1), the laparoscope objective must point along a line into the cavity. Because of the constrained motion of the laparoscope, there is only one position and orientation of the laparoscope that will place the lens view along this line. (Or, more strictly, there is a narrow range of position and orientation that will suffice, depending on the width of the cavity and the field of view of the laparoscope.) The viewer can only see the location of the cavity relative to the current video image, and consequently must use spatial reasoning to estimate how to achieve the necessary laparoscope location.Exacerbating the difficulty of using a laparoscope is the fact that often the least experienced person in the operating room handles the scope. The nurse, resident, or medical student serving as camera operator usually has no specific training in its use. Unskilled use of the laparoscope makes it difficult to obtain adequate exposure, potentially resulting in errors.A major reason for the poor state of surgical training has been the lack of suitable media for training and assessing skills. Books, videos, and CD-ROMs are poor media for training skills; they are 2-D and the user cannot physically interact with them. Cadavers, animals, and in vitro training models made of synthetic materials can be useful, but they are scarce and expensive. Virtual environments are a promising new medium for assessing and understanding the nature of surgical skill as well as for training [9]. In this paper, we use a virtual environment developed to study and teach the use of an angled laparoscope. In the simulation, described in section 2, the user must steer the scope to view the inside of five target boxes suspended in different positions and orientations in space.In earlier studies, the simulation was tested informally at UCSF in a one-day course for first year surgical residents and in advanced three-day courses for practicing surgeons.148R. Eyal and F. Tendick / Spatial Ability and Learning the Use of an Angled LaparoscopeFigure 2. The interface to the simulation (left). Close-up of handle, in which the user’s right hand controls the “light cable” and the left stabilizes the “camera” (right).The former group had little prior experience in handling the laparoscope in the operating room (mean of 6.5 cases, range 0 to 30, n = 13). Each had experience operating an angled laparoscope in one procedure performed in a pig during the day. The median time to complete the test was 94 seconds, with a range of 35 seconds (for the subject with 30 procedures experience) to 305 seconds (for a subject with no prior experience). We have seen an even wider range of performance among the experienced surgeons than in the basic course. One participant needed over 26 minutes to complete the task, even with substantial coaching from the experimenter, and despite having used angled laparoscopes in his practice. It is clear that some surgeons do not achieve competence in this skill even with experience in the operating room.We suspected that spatial ability might play a role in the use of the angled scope and the ease with which people learn the skill. To test this hypothesis, we measured learning rates in novices using the virtual environment and compared them with performance on standard tests of spatial ability.2. Methods2.1 SimulationThe simulation runs in C and OpenGL on Silicon Graphics Octane or O2 workstations. Input to the simulation is through a custom interface with optical encoders to measure motion of a handle in four degrees of freedom (plus one additional DOF to simulate camera rotation relative to the laparoscope), with kinematics identical to a laparoscope passing through a fulcrum (Figure 2). The handle is similar in shape to a laparoscope with a camera and light cable. By turning the handle about its axis, the orientation of the simulated laparoscope is changed. The simulation models the effect of a 45 degree laparoscope. All the encoders are tracked with an external interface board, which communicates with the computer through the serial port 30 times per second.The environment comprises five targets, each a tall box suspended in space at a different position and orientation (Figure 3). The test begins with the laparoscope view centered. One of the targets changes color, and the subject must position and orient the laparoscope to see into the target box. The simulation detects when this view is demonstrated for one second, and the process is repeated for the next target in sequence. A two-minute time limit is enforced for each target, after which the next box in sequence becomes the target. The simulation records the movement trajectories as well as the time to locate each target.R. Eyal and F. Tendick / Spatial Ability and Learning the Use of an Angled Laparoscope 149Figure 3. Angled laparoscope simulation. Upper left shows distant view of targets suspended at different positions and orientations. Remaining images show a sequence as the user smoothly changes the laparoscope position and orientation from view of target “N” to target “O”.Six target sets were used. The first three sets increased in difficulty from very easy to moderate; the last three target sets were difficult. Subjects completed the first three sets, then cycled through the last three until the time limit was reached. The score for each subject was the number of targets successfully achieved in two ten-minute sessions using the simulation.2.2 ExperimentsSubjects were novices, Berkeley undergraduates (14 males, 13 females, ages 18-25) who were not previously familiar with laparoscopic instruments. They were recruited through posters placed around campus and paid for their participation. Subjects were given a brief description of laparoscopic surgery and the role of the laparoscope. Then the researcher pointed out each part of a real scope, and described its function. This included the camera, light cable, scope shaft, and angled lens. Subjects were told that the most common way to hold the scope is with one hand on the light cable, to control the view direction, and one hand on the camera, to ensure an upright view. After some time to manipulate the real scope, the subjects were introduced to the simulation. Alternating between an external view of the scope in the virtual environment and the view through the scope, each of the four possible movements were demonstrated: left-right, up-down, in-out, and axial rotation. Then the subjects were given hints. The first was to pull the scope out at the begining of the search for the next target. In this position most of the virtual environment can be seen. Next, the subjects were advised to start their movement toward the target by orienting the view direction using the light cable, and then advance toward the target. After this explanation, the subject were asked to complete one target set as a practice, and were encouraged to ask questions about the procedure.150R. Eyal and F. Tendick / Spatial Ability and Learning the Use of an Angled LaparoscopeSubjects were tested in the simulation on target sets of increasing difficulty in three periods of 10 minutes. The measure of performance in the simulation was the total number of targets completed in the first two periods. Although the third period of the test was not included in the subjects’ scores, data was collected for future analysis of movement trajectories to model the strategies the subjects developed.After each period, the subject was given a test of spatial ability. The first, Card Rotations from the French kit [10] requires subjects to determine whether or not one shape is the rotated image of another. In the second, Paper Folding from the French kit [10], subjects imagine the folding of pieces of paper, imagine having a hole punched through the thickness of the paper in its folded position, and visualize where the holes would be when the paper is unfolded. The third test, Perspective Taking developed by Hegarty and Kozhevnikov, requires subjects to imagine the angular relationship between two objects ina plane as if viewed from a third object’s location [11].3. ResultsThere was a very wide range of performance in the simulation, ranging from 13 to 92 targets completed. Significant correlations were found with each of the tests of spatial ability: Pearson’s r = 0.39 (p < 0.05) with Card Rotations, r = 0.58 (p < 0.001) with Paper Folding, r = 0.40 (p < 0.05) with Perspective Taking (Figure 4). A combined Z score was formed for each subject by summing their normal deviate from the mean of each of the three tests. The correlation between the combined score and performance on the simulation was r = 0.52 (p < 0.005). Furthermore, in each test the subjects scoring lowest were also among the poorest performers in the simulation.4. DiscussionThe wide range of performance in the simulation demonstrates the large variation in learning rates for this skill. The strong correlations with standard tests demonstrate the role of spatial ability in learning this skill. In particular, the fact that the lowest scorers on each test were also the poorest performers in the simulation implies that some degree of spatial ability is a prerequisite for adequate learning, at least with the minimal instruction provided in this experiment (and typically provided to those who must use an angled scope in the operating room). We are now developing training methods within the simulation that we hope will improve learning among those with lower spatial ability, for example by teaching strategies that do not depend strongly on mental visualization. These methods will be evaluated by measuring transfer to performance in vivo.It might be argued that the population of surgeons could differ from the sample of undergraduates used in this experiment, for example if primarily those medical students with high spatial ability choose to become surgeons. However, in studies now going on at UCSF, we have so far found that experienced laparoscopic surgeons attending our courses are comparable to college students in their performance on the Paper Folding test [M. Hegarty, unpublished data]. There are, of course, many abilities and factors that contribute to success in a complex domain like surgery. However, the fact that the lowest scorers on the spatial tests consistently had difficulty learning to use the angled scope in the simulation implies that people with low spatial ability may require focused instruction in this skill and possibly other laparoscopic skills. Although similar tests could eventually be used in a battery to assess aptitude for success in laparoscopic surgery, such prediction has proven to be difficult in other domains.R. Eyal and F. Tendick / Spatial Ability and Learning the Use of an Angled Laparoscope 151Figure 4. Subjects’ performance in the simulation (number of targets completed) compared to their scores on the spatial ability tests.Although the angled laparoscope virtual environment obviously is not intended to simulate surgical anatomy, our research group is developing simulations to simulate realistic skills [9]. The emphasis is on exposure skills and teaching correct performance of the procedural steps that can lead to major complications if performed incorrectly. As the skills are developed and validated, a major goal will be to develop models of task performance and relate these models to the underlying cognitive demands. AcknowledgmentsThis research was supported in part by the National Science Foundation through grants CDA-9726362 and BCS-9980122 and the Office of Naval Research under grant N14-96-1-1200. We thank Sue-Lynn Wu for her work in designing the interface to the simulation and Mary Hegarty for providing the Perspective Taking test.References[1] F. Tendick, R. Jennings, G. Tharp, and L. Stark, “Sensing and manipulation problems in endoscopic surgery: experiment, analysis and observation,” Presence 2, 66−81, 1993.[2] P. Breedveld, P. Observation, manipulation, and eye-hand coordination in minimally invasive surgery. Technical Report Report N-510, Delft University of Technology, Man-Machine Systems and Control Group, 1998.[3.] C. Cao, C. MacKenzie, and S. Payandeh, “Task and motion analyses in endoscopic surgery.” In K. Danai, ed., Proc. ASME Dynamic Systems and Control Division, 1996.[4] W. Sjoerdsma. Surgeons at Work: Time and Actions Analysis of the Laparoscopic Surgical Process. PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology, 1998.[5] R. Gibbons, C. Gudas, and S. Gibbons, “A study of the relationship between flexibility of closure and surgical skill,” J. Am. Podiatr. Assoc., 73(1):12−6, 1983.152R. Eyal and F. Tendick / Spatial Ability and Learning the Use of an Angled Laparoscope[6] R. Gibbons, R. Baker, and D. Skinner, D, “Field articulation testing: a predictor of technical skills in surgical residents,” J Surg. Res. 41:53−7, 1986.[7] A. Schueneman, J. Pickleman, R. Hesslein, and R. Freeark, “Neuropsychologic predictors of operative skill among general surgery residents,” Surgery 96(2):288−295, 1984.[8] R. Steele, C. Walder, and M. Herbert, M. (1992), “Psychomotor testing and the ability to perform an anastomosis in junior surgical trainees,” Br. J. Surg. 79:1065−7, 1992.[9] F. Tendick, M. Downes, T. Goktekin, M.C. Cavusoglu, D. Feygin, X. Wu, R. Eyal, M. Hegarty, and L.W. Way, “A virtual environment testbed for training laparoscopic surgical skills,” Presence 9(3), 236−255, June 2000.[10] R.B. Ekstrom, J.W. French, and H.H. Harman, Manual for Kit of Factor Referenced Cognitive Tests. Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ, 1976.[11] M. Kozhevnikov and M. Hegarty, “Perspective-taking ability is distinct from mental rotation ability,” paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Psychonomics Society, Los Angeles, CA, November, 1999.。

中文版怀旧倾向指引量表的信效度

Advances in Psychology 心理学进展, 2019, 9(10), 1748-1754Published Online October 2019 in Hans. /journal/aphttps:///10.12677/ap.2019.910212Reliability and Validity of Chinese Version of Index of Nostalgia PronenessMiaoxi Chen, Yi Sun, Rui Song, Kangqi NanSchool of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing JiangsuReceived: Oct. 2nd, 2019; accepted: Oct. 17th, 2019; published: Oct. 24th, 2019AbstractThis study translated and revised the English version of Index of Nostalgia Proneness. The relia-bility, validity and item discrimination of the scale were determined by testing 279 elderly sub-jects. Exploratory factor analysis was carried out on the Index of Nostalgia Proneness to test whether the four dimensions of the original scale were applicable to Chinese people; by calculat-ing the discriminant coefficient D of each item, the difference between the high and low groups was compared, and the distinctive degree of each item was determined; by calculating the Cron-bach’s α coefficient, Split-in-Half reliability and Test-Retest reliability, the reliability of the scale was determined. The results confirm that the Index of Nostalgia Proneness has good reliability and discrimination, and meets the requirements of psychometrics, but its validity is not ideal, and further research is needed.KeywordsIndex of Nostalgia Proneness, Reliability, Validity中文版怀旧倾向指引量表的信效度陈妙惜，孙懿，宋瑞，南康祺南京师范大学心理学院，江苏南京收稿日期：2019年10月2日；录用日期：2019年10月17日；发布日期：2019年10月24日摘要本研究翻译并修订了英文版的《怀旧倾向指引量表》，通过对279名老年被试的施测，确定了量表的信度、效度、项目区分度。

219480986_羊螨病流行特点及预防方法

兽医临床科学 | Veterinary clinical science592022.23·0 引言羊螨病是由寄生于羊体表的痒螨引起巨痒、脱毛、消瘦直到皮痒的一种寄生虫病，能直接接触感染，一旦出现大范围病羊，给养殖者带来了非常大的损失。

因此，结合羊螨病流行特点分析其预防方法是非常有必要的。

1 羊螨病病原羊螨病主要由疥螨和痒螨两种寄生虫引起，疥螨虫的体积比较小，光是靠肉眼很难看到，需要在十倍放大镜或者显微镜低倍镜下才能看到。

疥螨属真螨目，疥螨科（Sarcoptidae ），是一种永久性寄生螨类。

疥螨成虫体近圆形或椭圆形，背面隆起，乳白或浅黄色。

雌螨大小为（0.3～0.5）mm ×（0.25～0.4）mm ；雄螨为（0.2～0.3）mm ×（0.15～0.2）mm 。

颚体短小，位于前端。

螯肢如钳状，尖端有小齿，适於啮食宿主皮肤的角质层组织。

须肢分3节。

无眼和气门。

躯体背面有横形的波状横纹和成列的鳞片状皮棘，躯体后半部有几对杆状刚毛和长鬃。

腹面光滑，仅有少数刚毛和4对足。

足短粗，分5节，呈圆锥形。

前两对足与后两对足之间的距离较大，足的基部有角质内突。

雌雄螨前2对足的末端均有具长柄的爪垫，称吸垫（ambulacra ），为感觉灵敏部份，后2对足的末端雌雄不同，雌虫均为长刚毛，而雄虫的第4对足末端具吸垫。

雌螨的产卵孔位于后2对足之前的中央，呈横裂缝状。

雄螨的外生殖器位于第4对足之间略后处。

两者的肛门都位于躯体后缘正中。

痒螨虫背部有细纹，没有生长垂直的刚毛，虫体存在硬化板，它的脚比较长，身长在0.5～0.9 mm ，主要寄生于羊皮肤表面，用肉眼能直接看到虫体[1]。

2 羊螨病临床症状与诊断方法2.1 羊螨病临床症状首先，奇痒。

如果羊感染了羊螨病，大部分羊都会出现瘙痒的症状，甚至有一些羊瘙痒症状非常严重，很容易导致羊的皮肤发炎，许多病羊为了止痒，只能选择在墙体上或者围栏上摩擦身体，当然也有部分羊会选择啃咬患处，但是这很容易出现越咬越痒的情况，病羊的皮肤状态非常差，导致患病处逐渐向健康部位扩展。

On Washing the Fur Without Wetting It Quine, Carnap, and Analyticity

On Washing the Fur Without Wetting It: Quine, Carnap, and Analyticity
ALEXANDER GEORGE
Despite its centrality and its familiarity, W. V. Quine’s dispute with Rudolf Carnap over the analytic/synthetic distinction has lacked a satisfactory analysis. The impasse is usually explained either by judging that Quine’s arguments are in reality quite weak, or by concluding instead that Carnap was incapable of appreciating their strength. This is unsatisfactory, as is the fact that on these readings it is usually unclear why Quine’s own position is not subject to some of the very same arguments. A satisfying and surprising account is here presented that stitches together the puzzling pieces of this important philosophical exchange and that in turn leads to an explanation of why it is so difﬁcult to say whether anything of substance is at stake.