外文资料翻译
外文资料翻译3000
无锡职业技术学院外文翻译The energy-conservation of freezer, with automaticallyingcontrol1 A present freezer of automatic control current situationsThough the cold storage self-control having been popularized all round, but great majority cold storages putting particular emphasis on is only a safeguard face to face , the energy conservation having increased Wenku picking up the self-adjustment and cold storage measuring and controlling, to entire system relates that under the control of seldom or. Even if another aspect, already getting the all-round universal safeguard, before actual condition in working can't admit of no sanguine, } pins up the cold storage self-control facilities having become "ear of the deaf person" even having become furnishing and decorating decorating front appearance only. The Shanghai cold storage association has done investigation in recent years to Shanghai area ammonia refrigerating system cold storage safeguard and autocontrol condition , concrete conditions has seen that are what form l shows. A spot of should inquire into a data as the leopard has reflected current cold storage self-control general situation Form what 1 shows a self-control interposes and runs status though the very good cold storage only having 5 tidal current and direction accounting for 9% of the number counting, but it is these cold storages to have represented a nowadays. With the development of electron technology, the self-control component is more and more advanced , changeable procedure controller (PLC) and the PC function are more and more strong , self-control procedure is more and more perfect, system optimization and the energy conservation consciousness are also more and more strong. The cold storage energy conservation and the autocontrol relation are more and more rapid and intense , need the cold storage energy conservation to be ready for and composing much better, do well in and be engaged in better the autocontrol vitally needing right away. Above-mentioned example adopted by five cold storages representing tidal current in the nowadays and advanced level has all got the pretty important effect to realizing cold storage energy conservation.2 How be ready for cold storage energy conservation autocontrolFundamental above-mentioned content starting point is the cold storage taking ammonia as all together style refrigeration working medium refrigerating system , is that refrigeration working medium decentralization, allows all together style , all together style refrigerating system cold storage to have got very big development , whose self-control degree overtops also sometimes the all together style refrigerating system cold storage taking ammonia as refrigeration working medium on behalf of a hydrocarbon with the thick gravy nowadays. Many working mediums are unlike cold storage of system of all kinds extensive use, content having enriched cold storage autocontrol tremendously, application in energy conservation at the same time also has provided the vast scope for one's ability to autocontrol in the cold storage.2.1 Cold storage energy conservation autocontrolCold storage energy conservation autocontrol is energy conservation under the control of procedure establishment and self-control component selecting and using from the content coming to study the autocontrol developing cold storage energy conservation's relates that mainly whom.The firm, special field designing institute or capable unit as self-control component may assume cold storage energy conservation autocontrol research and develop equally. The firm and the designing institute make a contribution to some extent without exception already by now within that field. Cold storage energy conservation autocontrol can be developed exploitation commonly by firm and designing institute best (not bad firm give first place to, the designing institute coordinates) , perfects in the process of putting into effect using an unit the new product getting into form and grinding unceasingly to get rich.2.2 Energy conservation autocontrol specific items design prepares a cold storage putting composition into practice.That a specific items energy conservation autocontrol's puts process into practice sometimes is that the purpose checking K amendment , reaching energy conservation until according with design demand by designing , assembling debugging , pilot run , effect is extremely. While the project requires that content is changed into a ratio to some extent, may revise K at any time satisfying a request.The cold storage energy conservation sometimes requires that the advanced refrigeration switches over to prepare , right system mates , effective the words emergency measure and strict operation manage to manage to be put into effect, be requiring that the refrigeration technician goes ahead in the basis optimizing refrigeration process design right now, know well that energy conservation needs , be tied in wedlock this project characteristic , the flow chart designing out entire cold storage energy conservation autocontrol. Ability accomplishes whose electricity self-control design according to the self-control flow chart , the electricity self-control technician , being able to wield whose professional knowledge at the same time, makes self-control technological process be simplification and an optimization more. Cold storage energy conservation is a cold storage autocontrol important component , all cold storage autocontrol is composed of refrigeration and electricity two parts content without exception , K makes cold storage energy conservation be carried out to the letter only when ability makes cold storage autocontrol come into effect in the field of two under technician's making joint efforts.3 Cold storage energy conservation autocontrol pilot run is also one very important ring , echoes the usage unit and the special field firm in the pilot run keeping close connection , uses an unit to discuss working effect , deliberates amendment measure with special field firm and.Energy conservation is one of cold storage autocontrol purpose.3.1 Adjusts storehouse temperature adjustment in the past about that the storehouse temperature and the evaporation temperature adjust the parametric storehouse of3.1.1 Storehouse temperature controlMultiple spots temperature temperature giving first place to dyadic adjustment of place, correct evaporate the temperature not sometimes doing adjustment , very difficult to reach good energy conservation effect.The ideal storehouse temperature control mode is that wind and their air-out temperature is entering parameter with the storehouse mean temperature , the air cooler moving forward , works out appropriate under the control of procedure , measures by the fact that PLC is in progress. So-called Wenku adjusts the request being able to reach energy conservation , also can satisfy the need that some storehouse high-accuracy temperature adjusts, self own but the accuracy reaching 0.250 C requires that energy conservation makes an appointment with 10% at present.3.1.2 Regard to relatively evaporate temperature higher cold right away be in no energy conservation operation statePs stop being unlike the diversity evaporates because K couplet operation can only work under evaporating the temperature with a with a systematic refrigeration compression engine evaporating the cold room of temperature temperature cold if K couplet work, with regard to relatively evaporate temperature higher cold right away be in no energy conservation operation state, should cold hot load increasingly be promoted to a higher post increasingly no energy conservation. Ought to try one's best to avoid this condition appearing. One machine reviews the cold storage method of work pair in freon refrigerating system , add the back pressure valve on time of high temperature warehouse air tube , add single check valve on time of low temperature warehouse air tube, be representative block of wood energy conservation methodof work, do not respond to encourage but suitable abolish.3.1.3 Unexpected turn of events evaporates temperature adjustmentSome one work state lower if evaporate temperature can use storehouse hot load and refrigerating system refrigerating output be parameter be in progress adjustment, then now that can reach energy conservation purpose can make energy adjustment be more rational. The sort Er Yan , refrigerating system evaporation implement and refrigeration compression engine equipment can satisfy maximal load need basically all. Load falls off but the refrigerating output can not make corresponding adjustment in time if the cold room is hot, the refrigerating output and hot load being that the refrigerating system evaporation temperature will may act in responses reduces , uses a compression engine reach a new balance burning. The lessening evaporating the temperature has increased but the refrigerating output evaporating an implement conversely but , has faced the hot load that self own cuts down taking form surely frequently opening the consequence staying. Evaporate temperature 10 C per change, electric energy about 3 ~ 5% acting in responses adding or subtracting. Be energy conservation on making system burn in another ideal balance of } if raising the evaporation temperature in time,have avoided freely not having achieved not only, having decreased by the refrigeration compression engine's frequently starts , is the energy conservation measure achieving two things at one stroke. Not changeable fundamental refrigerant rate of flow rate of flow evaporating an implement adjusts.3.1.4 Changeable rateChangeable rate of flow adjustment ammonia in the past refrigerating system; Freon system evaporates the implement refrigerant rate of flow , great majority achieve simple proportion measures. The air cooler air mass flow great majority do not measure or speed and the electric fan platform number measure only when two. This two kinds parametric rate of flow adjustment all are cold the adjustment assigning the equipment refrigerating output and storehouse temperature direct relevance , one of the content being also that the cold storage energy conservation self-control responds to in taking seriously with the storehouse.3.1.5 Fetch the warehouse taken heightSets up right under the control of accuracy and adds the storehouse temperature setting up the commodity and different storage period controlling the different storehouse , different stock out of gauge having no equal to and their under the control of accuracy request. Set off from the energy conservation angle, the storehouse temperature ought to take height not choosing low , the mild high-accuracy controlling accuracy ought to fetch the warehouse taken height , insisted to run after face to face unnecessarily low low controls as long as not affecting the commodity quality.To the cold room of many } storehouse temperature under the control of, except original storehouse temperature setting value, suitable add set up Kuwen transfinite controlling value. This pair of factors storehouse temperature adjusts deflect but premature bringing into service being able to achieve when refrigerating system needs bringing into service , incapable because of } pins up the storehouse temperature; Can not make cold according to reality that time at intervals, refrigerating system stops working untimely Ding , fully utilizes now having energy K avoid equipment or systematic frequently open Ding.3.1.6 Set up avoiding meeting high o perationInterpose avoid meeting high o operation under the control of electric power short-supplied be the universal phenomenon that current all parts of the country there exists in everywhere, huge bad especially heavy electric power of power consumption o grain is short-supplied , the electric charge o grain price differences puts into effect in a lot of city and price differences play big as early as successive steps for this purpose. Under the premise not affecting commodity mass, the cold storage is set up avoiding meeting high o peration , beneficial to the electrified wire netting cuts o repair a valley , help overall situation energyconservation on macroscopic view; Microcosmic Er Yan operation also beneficial toreducing a cold storage cost.3.2 Cold room relative humidities adjust cold room relative humidity adjustmentCold room relative humidities adjust cold room relative humidity adjustment and the temperatureadjusts the method similarity repeating description unnecessarily. But in general cold room relative humidity is in 85 ~ the relative humidity that the also a little bit cold room demands is lower than or the relative humidity higher than the be 98%, but some crops of relative humidity kind of quality warehouse being range , for instance some gases turn to obj1 = " 位" exchange the warehouse request demands 45% to be 40 ~ between 95%. During the period of high relative humidity adjustment and low relative humidity adjustment, Youyin attaches importance to energy conservation measure.3.2.1 High relative humidities adjust the adjustmentHigh relative humidities adjust the adjustment demanding the cold room to high relative humidity , are going try one's best to reduce the logarithm averages difference in temperature (2 advisable K) between the refrigerant temperature and the storehouse temperature, return refrigerating system back when being necessary but adopt to be loaded with the cold agent first; May adopt air defrosting K besides with defrosting water restoring to the storehouse. That this two measure is given by autocontrol being put into effect, is effective energy conservation method , the domestic trade headquarter has not been 20,000 tons of Long Kou City gas that the research institute designs obj1 exchange a warehouse being a very good example of one 17 }.3.2.2 Low relative humidities adjust the adjustmentLow relative humidities adjust the adjustment demanding the cold room to low relative humidity , controlling also should be ready for two aspect mainly. One is on the basis selecting and using dehumidification method and dehumidification machine stopping bringing quantity of heat into cold room to the full, hot few cold p rooms load controlling good dehumidification while procedure, reaching the relative humidity request. It's two is to avoid air current organizing the wet load controlling fever of taking now and then entering unnecessary outside; Once had the wet low one } low temperature crops kind of quality warehouse, wet load roughly accounts for about35% of plain meter { load from invading the heat within being put in storage outside.3.3 Measures about providing liquid wayDirect swelling is for liquid's expanding directly to be for liquid's being that great majority thick gravies pin up the confession liquid method that ammonia system adopts on behalf of hydrocarbon (include freon) system and }. This provides liquid method with adopt the heating power expansion valve to provide liquid in the past basically , self problem, has no way to realize the energy conservation purpose since choosing the type , adjustment and product. Electron expansion valve appearing measures combining with selecting parametric Kuwen of temperature much , can realize energy conservation operation fairly good, sort but energy conservation 10%. But the thick gravy generation hydrocarbon refrigerating system heating power expansion valve product already be commensurate to maturity and still have the special-purpose PLC Kuwen controller, for a variety of reasons, adopt extension , wait for to increase energy not yet commonly in cold storage refrigerating system. Working hot shot degree of ammonia refrigerating system evaporation implement is not big , degree of difficulty is under the control of relatively bigger , there is no at present still mature ammonia using electron to expand ? ? valve product. The system冷库节能与自动控制1 当前冷库自控现状冷库自控虽然得到了全面普及，然而大多数冷库的侧重面只是安全保护，或者还增加了温库捡测和控制，对于全系统的自动调节和冷库的节能控制还很少涉及。
外文翻译
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译学院(系)：计算机科学与工程专业：计算机科学与技术姓名：杨玉婷学号：120602127外文出处：[1]Jérôme Vouillon,Vincent Balat.From bytecode to JavaScript: the Js_of_ocaml compiler[J].Softw.Pract.Exper.,2014,44（8）:Pages 951-955附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
1.外文翻译译文：总结：我们目前从OCaml字节码编译器的设计与实现JavaScript。
编译器首先将字节码转换为静态单赋值的中间表示上进行优化，在生成的JavaScript。
我们相信，以字节而不是一个高层次的语言输入是一个明智的选择。
虚拟机提供了一个非常稳定的原料药。
这样的编译器是很容易维护的。
它也方便使用，它可以添加到现有的开发工具的安装。
已经编译好的库可以直接使用，无需重新安装任何东西，最后，一些虚拟机是几种语言的目标。
字节码编译为JavaScript可以重新审视所有这些语言的Web浏览器一次。
1。
简介我们提出了一个编译器将字节码转换为JavaScript OCaml[1][2]。
这个编译器可以交互式Web应用程序客户端在ocaml.javascript是唯一的语言，很容易在大多数Web浏览器和浏览器的API提供了直接访问。
（其他平台，如Flash 和Silverlight，并没有广泛使用和集成。
）因此，强制性语言开发Web应用程序，它将能够使用各种Web浏览器上的JavaScript语言有趣：可适用于某些任务，但可以在其他语言其他情况下更合适。
特别是，能够使用相同的语言，无论是在浏览器和服务器，使它可以共享代码，并降低了语言之间的阻抗不匹配的两个层次。
例如，表单验证必须在服务器上进行，以提供安全的原因，并且在客户端上进行，以向用户提供早期反馈。
外文翻译资料
外文翻译资料Title: Translation of Foreign TextAs requested, I have translated a foreign text into Chinese. The translated text contains approximately 700 words. Please find the translation below:Original Text:"Artificial intelligence is revolutionizing various industries, including healthcare, finance, and transportation. It has the potential to greatly improve efficiency and productivity in these sectors. Machine learning algorithms are being used to analyze vast amounts of data and make accurate predictions.In the healthcare industry, AI is being used to develop diagnostic tools that can detect diseases at an early stage. This can potentially save lives by enabling timely intervention. AI-powered robots are also being used in surgery to assist doctors and enhance precision. Additionally, AI systems are being used to interpret medical images and provide more accurate diagnoses.In finance, AI is being used for fraud detection and risk assessment. Machine learning algorithms can analyze large amounts of financial data to identify patterns that may indicate fraudulent activities. AI-powered chatbots are also being used to provide customer support and answer queries in financial institutions.The transportation industry is benefiting from AI with the development of autonomous vehicles. Self-driving cars arebecoming a reality, with companies like Tesla and Google leading the way. These vehicles use AI algorithms to sense the environment, make decisions, and navigate traffic. Autonomous vehicles have the potential to greatly reduce accidents and improve transportation efficiency.However, with the rise of AI also comes new challenges. Ethical concerns such as privacy and job displacement need to be addressed. AI systems require access to vast amounts of personal data, raising concerns about privacy and data security. Additionally, the automation of certain jobs by AI may result in job losses, requiring society to adapt and provide new opportunities for those affected.Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of AI in various industries cannot be denied. It has the ability to revolutionize the way we live and work, and if managed correctly, could greatly enhance our society and economy."Translated Text:“人工智能正在改革各个行业，包括医疗保健、金融和交通。
在线旅游外文文献翻译最新译文资料
在线旅游外文文献翻译最新译文资料The online travel industry。
which combines tourism and the。
has unique features that distinguish it from XXX industry。
and as society advances。
it has XXX commerce to create a new economic form - electronic commerce。
This has XXX accelerates。
online travel services and their business models have also XXX.2 The business model of online travelThe business model of online travel is based on the。
and merce。
It is a customer-centric model that provides users with a -shop for travel-related services。
including booking flights。
n。
and activities。
Online travel agencies (OTAs) have emerged askey players in this industry。
with their business models XXX pricingXXX.3 Business model XXXIn recent years。
online travel companies have been innovating their business models to stay ahead of the n。
One ofthe key XXX of social media into their platforms。
毕业论文-外文资料翻译[管理资料]
![毕业论文-外文资料翻译[管理资料]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/b6d118d2192e45361166f5e2.png)
附件1：外文资料翻译译文数据库简介1．数据库管理系统（DBMS）。
众所周知，数据库是逻辑上相关的数据元的集合。
这些数据元可以按不同的结构组织起来，以满足单位和个人的多种处理和检索的需要。
数据库本身不是什么新鲜事——早期的数据库记录在石头上或写在名册上，以及写入索引卡中。
而现在，数据库普遍记录再可磁化的介质上，并且需要用计算机程序来执行必需的存储和检索操作。
在后文中你将看到除了简单的以外，所有数据库中都有复杂的数据关系及其连接。
处理与创建、访问以及维护数据库记录有关的复杂任务的系统软件包叫做数据库管理系统（DBMS）。
DBMS软件包中的程序在数据库极其用户间建立了接口（这些用户可以是应用程序员、管理员以及其他需要信息和各种操作系统的人员）。
DBMS可组织、处理和显示从数据库中选择的数据元。
该功能使决策者可以搜索、试探和查询数据库的内容，从而对在正式报告中没有的、不再出现的且无计划的问题作出回答。
这些问题最初可能是模糊的并且是定义不清的，但是人们可以浏览数据库直到获得问题的答案。
也就是说DBMS将“管理”存储的数据项，并从公共数据库中汇集所需的数据项以回答那些非程序员的询问。
在面向文件的系统中，需要特定信息的用户可以将他们的要求传送给程序员。
该程序员在时间允许时，将编写一个或多个程序以提取数据和准备信息。
但是，使用DBMS可为用户提供一种更快的、用户可以选择的通信方式。
顺序的、直接的以及其它的文件处理方式常用于单个文件中数据的组织和构造，而DBMS能够访问和检索非关键记录字段的数据，即DBMS能够将几个大文件中逻辑相关的数据组织并连接在一起。
逻辑结构。
确定这些逻辑关系是数据管理者的任务，由数据定义语言完成。
DBMS 在存储、访问和检索操作过程中可选用以下逻辑结构技术：（1）表结构。
在该逻辑方式中，记录通过指针链接在一起。
指针是记录中的一个数据项，它指出另一个逻辑相关的记录的存储位置，例如，顾客主文件的记录将包含每个顾客的姓名和地址，而且该文件中的每个记录都由一个帐号标识。
外文资料及翻译
外文翻译ANALYSIS OF HVAC SYSTEM ENERGYCONSERVATIONIN BUILDINGSABSTRACTE conomic development and people's increasing demand for energy, but the nature of the energy is not inexhaustible. Environment and energy issues become increasingly acute, if no measures are taken, then the energy will limit the rapid economic development of the question.With the improvement of living standard, building energy consumption in the proportion of total energy consumption is increasing. In developed countries, building energy consumption accounts for 40% of total energy consumption of the community, while the country despite the low level of socio-economic development, but the building energy consumption has nearly 30% of total energy consumption, and still rising. Therefore, in western countries or in China, building energy consumption is affecting the socio-economic status of the overall development of the question. In building energy consumption, the energy consumption for HVAC systems has accounted for 30% of building energy consumption -50%, with the extensive application of HVAC, energy consumption for HVAC systems will further increase Great. HVAC systems are often coupled with high-quality electric energy, and our power and relatively tight in some areas, lack of energy supply and demand which is bound to lead to further intensification of contradictions. Therefore, energy-saving heating, higher professional requirements is inevitable across the board.KEYWORDS:energy-saving，HVAC1. Energy saving design measures should be takenRapid changes in science and technology today, area HVAC new technologiesemerge, we can achieve a variety of ways of energy saving HVAC systems.1.1 Starting from the design, selecting, designing HVAC systems, so that the efficient state of the economy running.Design is a leading engineering, system design will directly affect its performance. The building load calculation is an important part of the design, a common problem is that the current design of short duration, many designers to save time, wrong use of the design manual for the design or preliminary design estimates of cold, heat load with the unit construction area of cold, heat load index, direct construction design stage as hot and cold load to determine the basis, often making the total load is too large, resulting in heating equipment, air conditioning is too large, higher initial investment, operating costs, increased energy consumption.1.2 using the new energy-saving air-conditioning and heating comfort and healthy mannerAffect human thermal comfort environment of many parameters, different environmental parameters can get the same effect of thermal comfort, but for different heat and moisture parameters of the environment of its energy consumption air conditioning system is not the same.1.3 Actual situation of a reasonable choice of cold and heat sources, seek to achieve diversification of cold and heat sourceWith the extensive application of HVAC systems on non-renewable energy consumption also rose sharply, while the broken part of the ecological environment are becoming increasingly intensified. How to choose a reasonable heating sources, has caused widespread concern of all parties.1.4 to enhance the use of hot and cold recycling of the work, to achieve maximum energyHVAC systems to improve energy efficiency is one of the ways to achieve energy-saving air-conditioning. Heat recovery system installed mainly through energy recovery, with the air from wind energy to deal with new, fresh air can reduce the energy required for processing, reducing the load, to save energy. In the choice of heat recovery, the should be integrated with the local climate Tiao Jian, Jing Ji situation, Gong Cheng actual situation of harmful exhaust gases of the situation in avariety of factors Deng integrated to determine the Xuanyong suitable heat recovery, so as to achieve Hua Jiao Shao's investment, recovery of more heat (cold) the amount of purpose.1.5 focus on development of renewable energy, and actively promoting new energyAs the air-conditioning systems used in high-grade, non-renewable energy resources and environmental problems caused by the increasingly prominent, have to develop some reasonable and effective renewable energy to ease the current tensions. To heat (cold) and solar and other renewable resources used in air conditioning and refrigeration, has certain advantages, but also clean and pollution-free. Ground Source Heat Pump is a use of shallow and deep earth energy, including soil, groundwater, surface water, seawater, sewage, etc. as a cold source in winter and summer heat is not only heating but also a new central air-conditioning system cooling.2. Saving design problemsAchieve energy-saving HVAC systems, now has a lot of mature conditions, but in practical applications there are some problems：2.1 The issue of public awareness of energy conservationThe past is not enough public understanding of energy, and on the air conditioning is also very one-sided view. For a comfort of air conditioning system or heating system, should the human body has a very good comfort. But the prevailing view now is: the colder the better air-conditioning, heating the more heat the better. This is obviously we seek the comfort of air conditioning is contrary to the view. In fact, this not only greatly increase the energy consumption of air conditioning heating, indoor and outdoor temperature and because of the increase, but also to the human body's adaptability to different environmental decline, lowering the body immunity. Therefore, we need to improve advocacy efforts to change public to the traditional understanding of air conditioning and heating, vigorous publicity and promotion in accordance with building standards and the cold heat energy metering devices to collect tolls, raise public consciousness of energy.2.2 The design concept of the problemReasonable energy-saving design is a prerequisite. At present, some designers due to inadequate attention to design empirical value when applied blindly, resulting in the increase of the initial investment, energy consumption surprising, therefore recommended that the government functions and the energy-saving review body, to increase the monitoring of the HVAC air-conditioning energy saving efforts enhance staff awareness of energy conservation design, so that energy conservation is implemented.2.3 The promotion of new technologies issueNew technology in the HVAC system for energy conservation provides a new direction. Such as ground source heat pump systems, solar cooling and heating system, not only to achieve efficient use of renewable energy, and can bring significant economic benefits, is worth promoting. However, as with any new technology, these new technologies are often high in cost, and the geographical conditions of use have certain limitations, and technically there are still many areas for improvement to improve. Therefore, new energy-efficient technologies, we should be according to local conditions, sum up experience, and actively promote.3. ConclusionHVAC systems saving energy in the building occupies a very important position, should attract enough attention to the designer. Designers should be from a design point of view fully into account the high and strict compliance with energy standards energy saving ideas to run through all aspects of the construction sector. Energy-saving technologies and renewable energy recycling, the Government and other relevant departments should support and vigorously promoted. And the design, construction, supervision, quality supervision, municipal administration and other departments should cooperate closely and pay close attention to implementing a cold, heat metering devices to collect tolls, so people really get benefit from energy efficient building, energy-saving construction and non-heating energy efficient building can not have the same charge standard. At the same time to raise public awareness of energy conservation, and vigorously promote the development of new energy-saving technologies to achieve sustainable development of society.References[1] "residential design standard" DBJ14-037-2006.[2] "Public Buildings Energy Efficiency Design Standards" DBJ14-036-2006.[3] "Technical Specification for radiant heating" JGJ142-2004.析暖通空调系统在建筑中的节能问题摘要经济的发展使人们对能源的需求不断增加,但是自然界的能源并不是取之不尽,用之不竭的。
毕业设计外文文献翻译范文
毕业设计外文文献翻译专业学生姓名班级学号指导教师优集学院外文资料名称：Knowledge-Based Engineeri--ng Design Methodology外文资料出处：Int.J.Engng Ed.Vol.16.No.1附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文2.外文原文基于知识工程(KBE)设计方法D. E. CALKINS1.背景复杂系统的发展需要很多工程和管理方面的知识、决策，它要满足很多竞争性的要求。
设计被认为是决定产品最终形态、成本、可靠性、市场接受程度的首要因素。
高级别的工程设计和分析过程(概念设计阶段)特别重要，因为大多数的生命周期成本和整体系统的质量都在这个阶段。
产品成本的压缩最可能发生在产品设计的最初阶段。
整个生命周期阶段大约百分之七十的成本花费在概念设计阶段结束时，缩短设计周期的关键是缩短概念设计阶段，这样同时也减少了工程的重新设计工作量。
工程权衡过程中采用良好的估计和非正式的启发进行概念设计。
传统CAD工具对概念设计阶段的支持非常有限。
有必要，进行涉及多个学科的交流合作来快速进行设计分析(包括性能，成本，可靠性等)。
最后，必须能够管理大量的特定领域的知识。
解决方案是在概念设计阶段包含进更过资源，通过消除重新设计来缩短整个产品的时间。
所有这些因素都主张采取综合设计工具和环境，以在早期的综合设计阶段提供帮助。
这种集成设计工具能够使由不同学科的工程师、设计者在面对复杂的需求和约束时能够对设计意图达成共识。
那个设计工具可以让设计团队研究在更高级别上的更多配置细节。
问题就是架构一个设计工具，以满足所有这些要求。
2.虚拟(数字)原型模型现在需要是一种代表产品设计为得到一将允许一产品的早发展和评价的真实事实上原型的过程的方式。
虚拟样机将取代传统的物理样机，并允许设计工程师，研究“假设”的情况，同时反复更新他们的设计。
真正的虚拟原型，不仅代表形状和形式，即几何形状，它也代表如重量，材料，性能和制造工艺的非几何属性。
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译(学生用)
毕业设计外文资料翻译学院：信息科学与工程学院专业：软件工程姓名： XXXXX学号： XXXXXXXXX外文出处： Think In Java (用外文写)附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文网络编程历史上的网络编程都倾向于困难、复杂，而且极易出错。
程序员必须掌握与网络有关的大量细节，有时甚至要对硬件有深刻的认识。
一般地，我们需要理解连网协议中不同的“层”（Layer）。
而且对于每个连网库，一般都包含了数量众多的函数，分别涉及信息块的连接、打包和拆包；这些块的来回运输；以及握手等等。
这是一项令人痛苦的工作。
但是，连网本身的概念并不是很难。
我们想获得位于其他地方某台机器上的信息，并把它们移到这儿；或者相反。
这与读写文件非常相似，只是文件存在于远程机器上，而且远程机器有权决定如何处理我们请求或者发送的数据。
Java最出色的一个地方就是它的“无痛苦连网”概念。
有关连网的基层细节已被尽可能地提取出去，并隐藏在JVM以及Java的本机安装系统里进行控制。
我们使用的编程模型是一个文件的模型；事实上，网络连接（一个“套接字”）已被封装到系统对象里，所以可象对其他数据流那样采用同样的方法调用。
除此以外，在我们处理另一个连网问题——同时控制多个网络连接——的时候，Java内建的多线程机制也是十分方便的。
本章将用一系列易懂的例子解释Java的连网支持。
15.1 机器的标识当然，为了分辨来自别处的一台机器，以及为了保证自己连接的是希望的那台机器，必须有一种机制能独一无二地标识出网络内的每台机器。
早期网络只解决了如何在本地网络环境中为机器提供唯一的名字。
但Java面向的是整个因特网，这要求用一种机制对来自世界各地的机器进行标识。
为达到这个目的，我们采用了IP（互联网地址）的概念。
IP以两种形式存在着：(1) 大家最熟悉的DNS（域名服务）形式。
我自己的域名是。
所以假定我在自己的域内有一台名为Opus的计算机，它的域名就可以是。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)
外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the financesector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more i ts “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more.Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to l ending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing itinto EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs: •The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive,which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, whichstrengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating w ill also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to easetransparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译【范本模板】
南京理工大学紫金学院毕业设计（论文）外文资料翻译系：机械系专业：车辆工程专业姓名:宋磊春学号:070102234外文出处：EDU_E_CAT_VBA_FF_V5R9(用外文写)附件：1。
外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文.附件1：外文资料翻译译文CATIA V5 的自动化CATIA V5的自动化和脚本：在NT 和Unix上：脚本允许你用宏指令以非常简单的方式计划CATIA。
CATIA 使用在MS –VBScript中(V5.x中在NT和UNIX3。
0 )的共用部分来使得在两个平台上运行相同的宏。
在NT 平台上：自动化允许CATIA像Word/Excel或者Visual Basic程序那样与其他外用分享目标。
ATIA 能使用Word/Excel对象就像Word/Excel能使用CATIA 对象。
在Unix 平台上:CATIA将来的版本将允许从Java分享它的对象。
这将提供在Unix 和NT 之间的一个完美兼容。
CATIA V5 自动化：介绍（仅限NT）自动化允许在几个进程之间的联系:CATIA V5 在NT 上：接口COM：Visual Basic 脚本(对宏来说)，Visual Basic 为应用（适合前:Word/Excel )，Visual Basic。
COM（零部件目标模型)是“微软“标准于几个应用程序之间的共享对象。
Automation 是一种“微软“技术,它使用一种解释环境中的COM对象。
ActiveX 组成部分是“微软“标准于几个应用程序之间的共享对象,即使在解释环境里。
OLE（对象的链接与嵌入）意思是资料可以在一个其他应用OLE的资料里连结并且可以被编辑的方法(在适当的位置编辑）.在VBScript,VBA和Visual Basic之间的差别：Visual Basic(VB）是全部的版本。
它能产生独立的计划,它也能建立ActiveX 和服务器。
它可以被编辑。
VB中提供了一个补充文件名为“在线丛书“(VB的5。
计算机外文翻译（完整）
计算机外⽂翻译（完整）毕业设计(论⽂)外⽂资料翻译专业：计算机科学与技术姓名：王成明学号：06120186外⽂出处：The History of the Internet附件： 1.外⽂原⽂ 2.外⽂资料翻译译⽂；附件1：外⽂原⽂The History of the InternetThe Beginning - ARPAnetThe Internet started as a project by the US government. The object of the project was to create a means of communications between long distance points, in the event of a nation wide emergency or, more specifically, nuclear war. The project was called ARPAnet, and it is what the Internet started as. Funded specifically for military communication, the engineers responsible for ARPANet had no idea of the possibilities of an "Internet."By definition, an 'Internet' is four or more computers connected by a network.ARPAnet achieved its network by using a protocol called TCP/IP. The basics around this protocol was that if information sent over a network failed to get through on one route, it would find another route to work with, as well as establishing a means for one computer to "talk" to another computer, regardless of whether it was a PC or a Macintosh.By the 80's ARPAnet, just years away from becoming the more well known Internet, had 200 computers. The Defense Department, satisfied with ARPAnets results, decided to fully adopt it into service, and connected many military computers and resources into the network. ARPAnet then had 562 computers on its network. By the year 1984, it had over 1000 computers on its network.In 1986 ARPAnet (supposedly) shut down, but only the organization shut down, and the existing networks still existed between the more than 1000 computers. It shut down due to a failied link up with NSF, who wanted to connect its 5 countywide super computers into ARPAnet.With the funding of NSF, new high speed lines were successfully installed at line speeds of 56k (a normal modem nowadays) through telephone lines in 1988. By that time, there were 28,174 computers on the (by then decided) Internet. In 1989 there were 80,000 computers on it. By 1989, there were290,000.Another network was built to support the incredible number of people joining. It was constructed in 1992.Today - The InternetToday, the Internet has become one of the most important technological advancements in the history of humanity. Everyone wants to get 'on line' to experience the wealth of information of the Internet. Millions of people now use the Internet, and it's predicted that by the year 2003 every single person on the planet will have Internet access. The Internet has truly become a way of life in our time and era, and is evolving so quickly its hard to determine where it will go next, as computer and network technology improve every day.HOW IT WORKS:It's a standard thing. People using the Internet. Shopping, playing games,conversing in virtual Internet environments.The Internet is not a 'thing' itself. The Internet cannot just "crash." It functions the same way as the telephone system, only there is no Internet company that runs the Internet.The Internet is a collection of millioins of computers that are all connected to each other, or have the means to connect to each other. The Internet is just like an office network, only it has millions of computers connected to it.The main thing about how the Internet works is communication. How does a computer in Houston know how to access data on a computer in Tokyo to view a webpage?Internet communication, communication among computers connected to the Internet, is based on a language. This language is called TCP/IP. TCP/IP establishes a language for a computer to access and transmit data over the Internet system.But TCP/IP assumes that there is a physical connecetion between onecomputer and another. This is not usually the case. There would have to be a network wire that went to every computer connected to the Internet, but that would make the Internet impossible to access.The physical connection that is requireed is established by way of modems,phonelines, and other modem cable connections (like cable modems or DSL). Modems on computers read and transmit data over established lines,which could be phonelines or data lines. The actual hard core connections are established among computers called routers.A router is a computer that serves as a traffic controller for information.To explain this better, let's look at how a standard computer might viewa webpage.1. The user's computer dials into an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The ISP might in turn be connected to another ISP, or a straight connection into the Internet backbone.2. The user launches a web browser like Netscape or Internet Explorer and types in an internet location to go to.3. Here's where the tricky part comes in. First, the computer sends data about it's data request to a router. A router is a very high speed powerful computer running special software. The collection of routers in the world make what is called a "backbone," on which all the data on the Internet is transferred. The backbone presently operates at a speed of several gigabytes per-second. Such a speed compared to a normal modem is like comparing the heat of the sun to the heat of an ice-cube.Routers handle data that is going back and forth. A router puts small chunks of data into packages called packets, which function similarly to envelopes. So, when the request for the webpage goes through, it uses TCP/IP protocols to tell the router what to do with the data, where it's going, and overall where the user wants to go.4. The router sends these packets to other routers, eventually leadingto the target computer. It's like whisper down the lane (only the information remains intact).5. When the information reaches the target web server, the webserver then begins to send the web page back. A webserver is the computer where the webpage is stored that is running a program that handles requests for the webpage and sends the webpage to whoever wants to see it.6. The webpage is put in packets, sent through routers, and arrive at the users computer where the user can view the webpage once it is assembled.The packets which contain the data also contain special information that lets routers and other computers know how to reassemble the data in the right order.With millions of web pages, and millions of users, using the Internet is not always easy for a beginning user, especially for someone who is not entirely comfortale with using computers. Below you can find tips tricks and help on how to use main services of the Internet.Before you access webpages, you must have a web browser to actually be able to view the webpages. Most Internet Access Providers provide you with a web browser in the software they usually give to customers; you. The fact that you are viewing this page means that you have a web browser. The top two use browsers are Netscape Communicator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Netscape can be found at /doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html and MSIE can be found at /doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html /ie.The fact that you're reading this right now means that you have a web browser.Next you must be familiar with actually using webpages. A webpage is a collection of hyperlinks, images, text, forms, menus, and multimedia. To "navigate" a webpage, simply click the links it provides or follow it's own instructions (like if it has a form you need to use, it will probably instruct you how to use it). Basically, everything about a webpage is made to be self-explanetory. That is the nature of a webpage, to be easily navigatable."Oh no! a 404 error! 'Cannot find web page?'" is a common remark made by new web-users.Sometimes websites have errors. But an error on a website is not the user's fault, of course.A 404 error means that the page you tried to go to does not exist. This could be because the site is still being constructed and the page hasn't been created yet, or because the site author made a typo in the page. There's nothing much to do about a 404 error except for e-mailing the site administrator (of the page you wanted to go to) an telling him/her about the error.A Javascript error is the result of a programming error in the Javascript code of a website. Not all websites utilize Javascript, but many do. Javascript is different from Java, and most browsers now support Javascript. If you are using an old version of a web browser (Netscape 3.0 for example), you might get Javascript errors because sites utilize Javascript versions that your browser does not support. So, you can try getting a newer version of your web browser.E-mail stands for Electronic Mail, and that's what it is. E-mail enables people to send letters, and even files and pictures to each other.To use e-mail, you must have an e-mail client, which is just like a personal post office, since it retrieves and stores e-mail. Secondly, you must have an e-mail account. Most Internet Service Providers provide free e-mail account(s) for free. Some services offer free e-mail, like Hotmail, and Geocities.After configuring your e-mail client with your POP3 and SMTP server address (your e-mail provider will give you that information), you are ready to receive mail.An attachment is a file sent in a letter. If someone sends you an attachment and you don't know who it is, don't run the file, ever. It could be a virus or some other kind of nasty programs. You can't get a virus justby reading e-mail, you'll have to physically execute some form of program for a virus to strike.A signature is a feature of many e-mail programs. A signature is added to the end of every e-mail you send out. You can put a text graphic, your business information, anything you want.Imagine that a computer on the Internet is an island in the sea. The sea is filled with millions of islands. This is the Internet. Imagine an island communicates with other island by sending ships to other islands and receiving ships. The island has ports to accept and send out ships.A computer on the Internet has access nodes called ports. A port is just a symbolic object that allows the computer to operate on a network (or the Internet). This method is similar to the island/ocean symbolism above.Telnet refers to accessing ports on a server directly with a text connection. Almost every kind of Internet function, like accessing web pages,"chatting," and e-mailing is done over a Telnet connection.Telnetting requires a Telnet client. A telnet program comes with the Windows system, so Windows users can access telnet by typing in "telnet" (without the "'s) in the run dialog. Linux has it built into the command line; telnet. A popular telnet program for Macintosh is NCSA telnet.Any server software (web page daemon, chat daemon) can be accessed via telnet, although they are not usually meant to be accessed in such a manner. For instance, it is possible to connect directly to a mail server and check your mail by interfacing with the e-mail server software, but it's easier to use an e-mail client (of course).There are millions of WebPages that come from all over the world, yet how will you know what the address of a page you want is?Search engines save the day. A search engine is a very large website that allows you to search it's own database of websites. For instance, if you wanted to find a website on dogs, you'd search for "dog" or "dogs" or "dog information." Here are a few search-engines.1. Altavista (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed2. Yahoo (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed Collection3. Excite (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed4. Lycos (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed5. Metasearch (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Multiple searchA web spider is a program used by search engines that goes from page to page, following any link it can possibly find. This means that a search engine can literally map out as much of the Internet as it's own time and speed allows for.An indexed collection uses hand-added links. For instance, on Yahoo's site. You can click on Computers & the Internet. Then you can click on Hardware. Then you can click on Modems, etc., and along the way through sections, there are sites available which relate to what section you're in.Metasearch searches many search engines at the same time, finding the top choices from about 10 search engines, making searching a lot more effective.Once you are able to use search engines, you can effectively find the pages you want.With the arrival of networking and multi user systems, security has always been on the mind of system developers and system operators. Since the dawn of AT&T and its phone network, hackers have been known by many, hackers who find ways all the time of breaking into systems. It used to not be that big of a problem, since networking was limited to big corporate companies or government computers who could afford the necessary computer security.The biggest problem now-a-days is personal information. Why should you be careful while making purchases via a website? Let's look at how the internet works, quickly.The user is transferring credit card information to a webpage. Looks safe, right? Not necessarily. As the user submits the information, it is being streamed through a series of computers that make up the Internet backbone.The information is in little chunks, in packages called packets. Here's the problem: While the information is being transferred through this big backbone, what is preventing a "hacker" from intercepting this data stream at one of the backbone points?Big-brother is not watching you if you access a web site, but users should be aware of potential threats while transmitting private information. There are methods of enforcing security, like password protection, an most importantly, encryption.Encryption means scrambling data into a code that can only be unscrambled on the "other end." Browser's like Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer feature encryption support for making on-line transfers. Some encryptions work better than others. The most advanced encryption system is called DES (Data Encryption Standard), and it was adopted by the US Defense Department because it was deemed so difficult to 'crack' that they considered it a security risk if it would fall into another countries hands.A DES uses a single key of information to unlock an entire document. The problem is, there are 75 trillion possible keys to use, so it is a highly difficult system to break. One document was cracked and decoded, but it was a combined effort of14,000 computers networked over the Internet that took a while to do it, so most hackers don't have that many resources available.附件2：外⽂资料翻译译⽂Internet的历史起源——ARPAnetInternet是被美国政府作为⼀项⼯程进⾏开发的。
环境生态学(外文资料及翻译)
环境生态学（外文资料及翻译）"Environmental ecology, mainly in humanities and social and environmental ecology international wide public concern" the concept of sustainable development ", "environmental protection and sustainable development strategy problem", "harmonious society and circular economy", "human survival way and environmental ecological crisis", "China at the beginning of 21 century on the path of sustainable development", "environmental culture and living safety", "global warming the earth's environment and the ecological security", "ozone depletion of earth environment the ecological influence", "acid rain on the earth's environment the ecological influence", "urbanization on city environment and regional climate effect", "desert-oasis ecosystem water heat transfer and the interaction numerical simulation", "western China development of water resources and the sustainable development problems".In the 21 st century, the human face of worsening ecological environment and the lack of human resources, clearly recognized that must walk the path of sustainable development. From a long-term perspective, the development environment ecological education is to solve the environmental problems and the implementation of the strategy of sustainable development at all. Higher school education is to improve theecological environment of the new century, the environment of the builders ecological awareness, to the transportation environment of specialized personnel the ecological protection of important way. As a contemporary college students, must have the living environment and the sense of urgency and have the time should be the new century demand quality talent environmental knowledge.Green peace in China and international stage play an active role. In China, the green peace was China's most influential media as "China's best public organization"; On the international stage, green peace at the UN conference on climate change, and in the light of the international society should how to deal with climate change challenge from China put forward the folk organization views.Because of "traditional environmental technology can not to" contemporary environmental biological technology, the development of high level technology mainly in the hot, namely to molecular biology technology as the main body, by genetic engineering as the leading pollution diagnosis, pollution monitoring, pollution control and ecological remediation technologies. Among them, the environmental biological new technology, new methods of development and utilization, such as pollution of the environment molecular diagnosis technology ispollution control and repair the premise and basis. Because the current environmental biological technology researchers, still can't very well in biological chip, genetically modified, stem cell, protein group, metabolic group, biological technology, such as the development of light pollution detection and monitoring of the effective method.People and the environment is inseparable relationship. In the past, present and future, human beings are always in constant change the environment, create not only use, and beautiful environment space. City imply, is more than just building, streets, shops and construct the accumulation of artificial things and contain in many functional facilities and hard landscape of social culture, accompanied by economic, political and urban residents colorful life. From external visual image of the city is to see, by its plane structure, the sky outline, various building, facilities, regional market, open space, landmark plant gardens and indefinite traffic tools through a city, but these are people in choice and the selected behavior formed under the physical form, which contain deep natural law, social psychology, human emotions and historical vicissitudes of life.Urbanization in bring about many benefits for people at the same time, also caused a series of serious ecological environment problems, to natural ecosystem and the people's health effects. These problems isreflected in three aspects: one is the urban climate change (such as heat island effect) and environmental pollution, including water, air and noise and solid waste pollution, etc.; 2 it is natural resource depletion and shortages, especially fresh water, fossil fuel, cultivated land excessive utilization and biodiversity of the reduced; Three is the city the increase of population, resulting in a large number of social issues, such as housing nervous, heavy traffic, reduce, education and health and green lag and so on. Ecological city is to point to in ecological system, within the scope of carrying capacity of the ecological economy principle and system engineering construction method of the city. And Ecological city construction, change the traditional way of production and consumption, decision-making and management methods, fully mining district inside and outside the resources can be exploited to all potential, has developed economy, ecology and efficient industry, the system is reasonable, the harmony of the society culture and ecological health, landscape suitable environment, to achieve the conditions of the socialist market economy, economic growth and environmental protection, material civilization and the spiritual civilization, natural ecological and human ecological high unification.Ecological city practice methods should be coordinated economic and social development, at the same time ensure long-term ecological healthand future generations, the resources needed for survival and development. China's ecological city planning with other plan to have two different. Its planning time more than 20 years of general (general layout planning of fixed number of year), for long-term development direction. In addition, ecological city planning than any other plan covers the content more widely. China's ecological city method can reflect the most need to solve two aspects of the--the economic and ecological, the purpose is to seek for the economic and social benefits, long-term ecological health and resource management and coordination. Social issue would be in the discussions of the ecological city becomes more and more important. First, pay attention to the exploration of the urban ecology theory, especially the different scale of urban construction and function of; Second, expanding the scope of the city scientific research, that is, from the city by a single objective of the study, change is compound ecological system in rural and urban studies, including half of urbanized area research and rural industrialization and urban agglomeration research; Third, the development of ecological city construction applicable technology system, and promote the existing technology the ecological; Fourth, for ecological city construction ecological landscape planning and provide the ecological culture methodological guidance; Fifth, establish the corresponding policies and decrees and rewards and punishment system, promote the development ofecological city; Sixth, strengthen education, training and ecological city construction, enhance the ability of ecological consciousness; Seventh, to strengthen international between cities and communities, cooperation and communication between the.."We have a responsibility, which is not only consider the meaning, and open our own to experience the beauty and follows the lead. The urban environment art, a kind of choice and the progress of relief.The current both large and medium cities or towns and villages, the ecological construction practice in our country on booming has. People are more and more aware of ecological city development and construction of ecological city the importance and the urgency ofEcological city is put forward based on the awakening of the human ecological civilization and to the traditional industrialization and industrial cities, ecological city has not reflect pure natural ecology, but the natural, social and economic compound the symbiosis between the urban ecological, it and sanitation city, garden city, urban landscape, garden city, forest city, different qu co-workers, have distinction to have connection again already, have increase public cultural quality and life quality effect, note that the Chinese ecological environment conditionsdiffer in thousands ways, may not single development type and development model, need to adjust measures to local conditions of ecological city planning create all sorts of type and various development model.Facing the new century, the human orientation and inevitable choice is ecology. Urban ecological development path, construction go ecological city is the inevitable trend of the development of history. The construction of ecological city cannot leave the creative planning and design, creative planning and design need forward-looking theoretical guidance. In the research of ecological city became a city plan the forefront of research topic. Change the traditional urban planning values, it is necessary in new ecological values of the current under the guidance of the urban planning theory to a fundamental reform system, ecological city planning and design theory principle and method, the method, a series of problems, such as technology to meet the need of the time.Ecological city idea contains the sustainable development idea and city and nature coexist aims, the domestic future urban planning work have important significance. In today's science and technology is developed, to transform nature (namely human intervention natural ability of past situation, far beyond human must be aware that any living environment(including city) is a global ecological system, part of the human activities within the limit in the ecological necessary, and fully embodied in the planning, this is true in the premise of sustainable development of establishing ecological city, is also the fundamental guarantee.Ecological civilization of moral evaluation standard, in general, that is beneficial to the human and the nature harmonious relationship between the behavior of the construction is good, what things are harmful to the human and the nature harmonious relationship between the behavior of the construction is evil. Of course, consciously abide by the environmental law shall ecological civilization is the base line of ethics standards, specific provision people in dealing with the relationship between man and nature, what should do and what should not do. And active practice ecological ethics behavior may allow have DuoZhong realm. The highest state is "ecological self-supervision", that is, no matter when and where, regardless of whether supervision, always to ecological moral standard, in the interests of both consciously and ecological benefits, the determination to promote the harmony between human being and nature and prosperity, and the relationship between man and nature to solve the crisis with all my heart. In short, ecology theory in China construction of ecological civilization society has the important, not the role of the body, and provide scientific theory.Hope that nature can peace and common forever!!!!!《环境生态学》主要以人文社会和环境生态学方面国际社会广泛关注的“可持续发展的理念”、“环境保护与可持续发展战略问题”、“和谐社会和循环型经济”、“人类生存方式与环境生态危机”、“中国21世纪初可持续发展之路”、“环境文化与生存安全”、“全球变暖与地球环境生态安全”、“臭氧层破坏对地球环境生态的影响”、“酸雨对地球环境生态的影响”、“城市化对城市环境及区域气候的影响”、“沙漠－绿洲生态系统水热输送及相互作用数值模拟”、“中国西部水资源开发与可持续发展问题”。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)
外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（/docs/pos_papers/2004/041027_SME-finance_final.do c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the finance sector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more its “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs,but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more. Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to lending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPM E’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing it into EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs:•The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive, which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, which strengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating will also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to ease transparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
外文翻译资料及译文
附录C：外文翻译资料Article Source：Business & Commercial Aviation, Nov 20, 2000. 5-87-88 Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals Electronic publications can increase the efficiency of your digital aircraft and analogtechnicians.Benoff, DaveComputerized technical manuals are silently revolutionizing the aircraft maintenance industry by helping the technician isolate problems quickly, and in the process reduce downtime and costs by more than 10 percent.These electronic publications can reduce the numerous volumes of maintenance manuals, microfiche and work cards that are used to maintain engines, airframes, avionics and their associated components."As compared with the paper manuals, electronic publications give us greater detail and reduced research times," said Chuck Fredrickson, general manager of Mercury Air Center in Fort Wayne, Ind.With all the advances in computer hardware and software technologies, such as high quality digital multimedia, hypertext and the capability to store and transmit digital multimedia via CD-ROMs/ networks, technical publication companies have found an effective, cost-efficient method to disseminate data to technicians.The solution for many operators and OEMs is to take advantage of today's technology in the form of Electronic Technical Manuals (ETM) or Interactive Technical Manuals (IETM). An ETM is any technical manual prepared in digital format that has the ability to be displayed using any electronic hardware media. The difference between the types of ETM/IETMs is the embedded functionality and implementation of the data."The only drawback we had to using ETMs was getting enough computers to meet our technicians' demand," said Walter Berchtold, vice president of maintenance at Jet Aviation's West Palm Beach, Fla., facility.A growing concern is the cost to print paper publications. In an effort to reduce costs, some aircraft manufacturers are offering incentives for owners to switch from paper to electronic publications. With an average printing cost of around 10 cents per page, a typical volume of a paper technical manual can cost the manufacturer over $800 for each copy. When producing a publication electronically, average production costs for a complete set of aircraft manuals are approximately $20 per copy. It is not hard to see the cost advantages of electronic publications.Another advantage of ETMs is the ease of updating information. With a paper copy, the manufacturer has to reprint the revised pages and mail copies to all the owners. When updates are necessary for an electronic manual, changes can either be e-mailed to theowners or downloaded from the manufacturer's Web site.So why haven't more flight departments converted their publications to ETM/IETMs? The answer lies in convincing technicians that electronic publications can increase their efficiency."We had an initial learning curve when the technicians switched over, but now that they are familiar with the software they never want to go back to paper," said Fredrickson.A large majority of corporate technicians also said that while they like the concept of having a tool that aids the troubleshooting process, they are fearful to give up all of their marked-up paper manuals.In 1987, a human factors study was conducted by the U.S. government to compare technician troubleshooting effectiveness, between paper and electronic methodology, and included expert troubleshooting procedures with guidance through the events. Results of the project indicated that technicians using electronic media took less than half the time to complete their tasks than those using the paper method, and technicians using the electronic method accomplished 65 percent more in that reduced time.The report also noted that new technicians using the electronic technical manuals were 12-percent more efficient than the older, more experienced technicians. (Novices using paper took 15 percent longer than the experts.)It is interesting that 90 percent of the technicians who used the electronic manuals said they preferred them to the paper versions. This proved to the industry that with proper training, the older technicians could easily transition from paper to electronic media.Electronic publications are not a new concept, although how they are applied today is. "Research over the last 20 years has provided a solid foundation for today's IETM implementation," said Joseph Fuller of the U.S. Naval Surface Warfare Center. "IETMs such as those for the Apache, Comanche, F-22, JSTAR and V-22 have progressed from concept to military and commercial implementation."In the late 1970s, the U.S. military investigated the feasibility of converting existing paper and microfilm. The Navy Technical Information Presentation System (NTIPS) and the Air Force Computer- based Maintenance Aid System (CMAS) were implemented with significant cost savings.The report stated that transition to electronic publications resulted in reductions in corrective maintenance time, fewer false removals of good components, more accurate and complete maintenance data collection reports, reduction in training requirements and reduced system downtime.The problem that the military encountered was ETMs were created in multiple levels of complexity with little to no standardization. Options for publications range from simple page-turning programs to full-functioning automated databases.This resulted in the classification of ETMs so that the best type of electronic publication could be selected for the proper application.Choosing a LevelWith all of the OEM and second- and third-party electronic publications that are available it is important that you choose the application level that is appropriate for your operation.John J. Miller, BAE Systems' manager of electronic publications, told B/CAthat "When choosing the level of an ETM/IETM, things like complexity of the aircraft and its systems, ease of use, currency of data and commonality of data should be the deciding factors; and, of course, price. If operational and support costs are reduced when you purchase a full-functioning IETM, then you should purchase the better system."Miller is an expert on the production, sustainment and emerging technologies associated with electronic publications, and was the manager of publications for Boeing in Philadelphia.Electronic publications are classified in one of five categories. A Class 1 publication is a basic electronic "page turner" that allows you to view the maintenance manual as it was printed. With a Class 2 publication all the original text of the manual is viewed as one continuous page with no page breaks. In Class 3, 4 and 5 publications the maintenance manual is viewed on a computer in a frame-based environment with increasing options as the class changes. (See sidebar.)Choosing the appropriate ETM for your operation is typically limited to whatever is being offered on the market, but since 1991 human factors reports state the demand has increased and, therefore, options are expected to follow.ETM/IETM ProvidersCompanies that create ETM/IETMs are classified as either OEM or second party provider. Class 1, 3 and 4 ETM/IETMs are the most commonly used electronic publications for business and commercial operators and costs can range anywhere from $100 to $3,000 for each ETM/ IETM. The following are just a few examples ofETM/IETMs that are available on the market.Dassault Falcon Jet offers operatorsof the Falcon 50/50EX, 900/900EX and 2000 a Class 4 IETM called the Falcon Integrated Electronic Library by Dassault (FIELD). Produced in conjunction with Sogitec Industries in Suresnes Cedex, France, the electronic publication contains service documentation, basic wiring, recommended maintenance and TBO schedules, maintenance manual, tools manual, service bulletins, maintenance and repair manual, and avionics manual.The FIELD software allows the user to view the procedures and hot- link directly to the Illustrated parts catalog. The software also enables the user to generate discrepancy forms, quotation sheets, annotations in the manual and specific preferences for each user.BAE's Miller said most of the IETM presentation systems have features called "Technical Notes." If a user of the electronic publication notices a discrepancy or needs to annotate the manual for future troubleshooting, the user can add a Tech Note (an electronic mark-up) to the step or procedure and save it to the base document. The next time that or another user is in the procedure, clicking on the tech note icon launches a pop-up screen displaying the previous technician's comments. The same electronic transfer of tech notes can be sent to other devices by using either a docking station or through a network server. In addition, systems also can use "personal notes" similar to technical notes that are assigned ID codes that only the authoring technician can access.Requirements for the FIELD software include the minimum of a 16X CD-ROM drive,Pentium II 200 MHz computer, Windows 95, Internet Explorer 4 SP 1 and Database Access V3.5 or higher.Raytheon offers owners of Beech and Hawker aircraft a Class 4 IETM called Raytheon Electronic Publication Systems (REPS). The REPS software links the frame-based procedures with the parts catalog using a single CD-ROM.Raytheon Aircraft Technical Publications said other in- production Raytheon aircraft manual sets will be converted to the REPS format, with the goal of having all of them available by 2001. In addition Raytheon offers select Component Maintenance Manuals (CMM). The Class 1 ETM is a stand-alone "page-turner" electronic manual that utilizes the PDF format of Adobe Acrobat.Other manufacturers including Bombardier, Cessna and Gulfstream offer operators similar online and PDF documentation using a customer- accessed Web account.Boeing is one manufacturer that has developed an onboard Class 5 IETM. Called the Computerized Fault Reporting System (CFRS), it has replaced the F-15 U.S. Air Force Fault Reporting Manuals. Technologies that are currently being applied to Boeing's military system are expected to eventually become a part of the corporate environment.The CFRS system determines re-portable faults by analyzing information entered during a comprehensive aircrew debrief along with electronically recovered maintenance data from the Data Transfer Module (DTM). After debrief the technicians can review aircraft faults and schedule maintenance work to be performed. The maintenance task is assigned a Job Control Number (JCN) and is forwarded electronically to the correct work center or shop. Appropriate information is provided to the Air Force's Core Automated Maintenance System (CAMS).When a fault is reported by pilot debrief, certain aircraft systems have the fault isolation procedural data on a Portable Maintenance Aid (PMA). The JCN is selected on a hardened laptop with a wireless Local Area Network (LAN) connection to the CFRS LAN infrastructure. The Digital Wiring Data System (DWDS) displays aircraft wiring diagrams to the maintenance technician for wiring fault isolation. On completion of maintenance, the data collected is provided to the Air Force, Boeing and vendors for system analysis.Third party IETM developers such as BAE Systems and Dayton T. Brown offer OEMs the ability to subcontract out the development of Class 1 through 5 ETM/IETMs. For example, Advantext, Inc. offers PDF and IPDF Class 1 ETMs for manufacturers such as Piper and Bell Helicopters. Technical publications that are available include maintenance manuals, parts catalogs, service bulletins, wiring diagrams, service letters and interactive parts ordering forms.The difference between the PDF and IPDF version is that the IPDF version has the ability to search for text and include hyperlinks. A Class 1 ETM, when printed, is an exact reproduction of the OEM manuals, including any misspellings or errors. Minimum requirements for the Advantext technical publications is a 486 processor, 16 MB RAM with 14 MB of free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Aircraft Technical Publishers (ATP) offers Class 1, 2 and 3 ETM/ IETMsfor the Beechjet 400/400A; King Air 300/ 350, 200 and 90; Learjet 23/24/25/28/29/35/36/55; Socata TB9/10/20/21 and TBM 700A; Sabreliner 265-65, -70 and -80; andBeech 1900. The libraries can include maintenance manuals, Illustrated parts bulletins, wiring manuals, Airworthiness Directives, Service Bulletins, component maintenance manuals and structural maintenance manuals. System minimum requirements are Pentium 133 MHz, Windows 95 with 16 MB RAM, 25 MB free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Additional providers such as Galaxy Scientific are providing ETM/ IETMs to the FAA. This Class 2, 3 and 4 publication browser is used to store, display and edit documentation for the Human Factors Section of the administration."Clearly IETMs have moved from research to reality," said Fuller, and the future looks to hold more promise.The Future of Tech PubsThe use of ETM/IETMs on laptop and desktop computers has led research and development corporations to investigate the human interface options to the computer. Elements that affect how a technician can interface with a computer are the work environment, economics and ease of use. Organizations such as the Office of Naval Research have focused their efforts on the following needs of technicians: -- Adaptability to the environment.-- Ease of use.-- Improved presentation of complex system relationship.-- Maximum reuse and distribution of engineering data.-- Intelligent data access.With these factors in mind, exploratory development has begun in the areas of computer vision, augmented reality display and speech recognition.Computer vision can be created using visual feedback from a head- mounted camera. The camera identifies the relative position and orientation of an object in an observed scene, and the object is used to correlate the object with a three-dimensional model. In order for a computer vision scenario to work, engineering data has to be provided through visually compatible software.When systems such as Sogitech's View Tech electronic publication browser and Dassault Systemes SA's Enovia are combined, a virtual 3D model is generated.The digital mockup allows the engineering information to directly update the technical publication information. If a system such as CATIA could be integrated into a Video Reference System (VRS), then it could be possible that a technician would point the camera to the aircraft component, the digital model identifies the component and the IETM automatically displays the appropriate information.This example of artificial intelligence is already under development at companies like Boeing and Dassault. An augmented reality display is a concept where visual cues are presented to users on a head-mounted, see-through display system.The cues are presented to the technician based on the identification of components on a 3D model and correlation with the observed screen. The cues are then presented as stereoscopic images projected onto the object in the observed scene.In addition a "Private Eye" system could provide a miniature display of the maintenance procedure that is provided from a palm- size computer. Limited success hascurrently been seen in similar systems for the disabled. The user of a Private Eye system can look at the object selected and navigate without ever having to touch the computer. Drawbacks from this type of system are mental and eye fatigue, and spatial disorientation.Out of all the technologies, speech recognition has developed into an almost usable and effective system. The progression through maintenance procedures is driven by speaker-independent recognition. A state engine controls navigation, and launches audio responses and visual cues to the user. Voice recognition software is available, although set up and use has not been extremely successful.Looking at other industries, industrial manufacturing has already started using "Palm Pilot" personal digital assistants (PDAs) to aid technicians in troubleshooting. These devices allow the technician to have the complete publication beside them when they are in tight spaces. "It would be nice to take the electronic publications into the aircraft, so we are not constantly going back to the work station to print out additional information," said Jet Aviation's Berchtold.With all the advantages that a ETM/ IETM offers it should be noted that electronic publications are not the right solution all of the time, just as CBT is not the right solution for training in every situation. Only you can determine if electronic publications meet your needs, and most technical publication providers offer demo copies for your review. B/CA IllustrationPhoto: Photograph: BAE Systems' Christine Gill prepares a maintenance manual for SGML conversion BAE Systems; Photograph: Galaxy Scientific provides the FAA's human factors group with online IETM support.; Photograph: Raytheon's Class 4 IETM "REPS" allows a user to see text and diagrams simultaneously with hotlinks to illustrated parts catalogs.外文翻译资料译文部分文章出处:民航商业杂志，2000-11-20,5-87-88交互式电子技术手册的电子出版物可以提高数字飞机和模拟技术的效率。
机床——机械类外文文献翻译、中英文翻译
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系部：专业：姓名：学号：外文出处：English For Electromechanical(用外文写)Engineering附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文机床机床是用于切削金属的机器。
工业上使用的机床要数车床、钻床和铣床最为重要。
其它类型的金属切削机床在金属切削加工方面不及这三种机床应用广泛。
车床通常被称为所有类型机床的始祖。
为了进行车削，当工件旋转经过刀具时，车床用一把单刃刀具切除金属。
用车削可以加工各种圆柱型的工件，如：轴、齿轮坯、皮带轮和丝杠轴。
镗削加工可以用来扩大和精加工定位精度很高的孔。
钻削是由旋转的钻头完成的。
大多数金属的钻削由麻花钻来完成。
用来进行钻削加工的机床称为钻床。
铰孔和攻螺纹也归类为钻削过程。
铰孔是从已经钻好的孔上再切除少量的金属。
攻螺纹是在内孔上加工出螺纹，以使螺钉或螺栓旋进孔内。
铣削由旋转的、多切削刃的铣刀来完成。
铣刀有多种类型和尺寸。
有些铣刀只有两个切削刃，而有些则有多达三十或更多的切削刃。
铣刀根据使用的刀具不同能加工平面、斜面、沟槽、齿轮轮齿和其它外形轮廓。
牛头刨床和龙门刨床用单刃刀具来加工平面。
用牛头刨床进行加工时，刀具在机床上往复运动，而工件朝向刀具自动进给。
在用龙门刨床进行加工时，工件安装在工作台上，工作台往复经过刀具而切除金属。
工作台每完成一个行程刀具自动向工件进给一个小的进给量。
磨削利用磨粒来完成切削工作。
根据加工要求，磨削可分为精密磨削和非精密磨削。
精密磨削用于公差小和非常光洁的表面，非精密磨削用于在精度要求不高的地方切除多余的金属。
车床车床是用来从圆形工件表面切除金属的机床，工件安装在车床的两个顶尖之间，并绕顶尖轴线旋转。
车削工件时，车刀沿着工件的旋转轴线平行移动或与工件的旋转轴线成一斜角移动，将工件表面的金属切除。
车刀的这种位移称为进给。
车刀装夹在刀架上，刀架则固定在溜板上。
溜板是使刀具沿所需方向进行进给的机构。
外文翻译资料原文
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Figure 1. GraphicalAnalysis of Square Wave Spectrum
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' ,SPECTRALCANCELLATION In figure 1, wave A is a square wave moving between the
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values +I and -1. Wave B is a sinusoidal wave with the same fundamental frequency. Multiplying the waves generates wave C, a function that is always positive. Fourier analysis will show that the square wave, A, has spectral power at the frequency of the sine wave, B, because the average value of this product function, C, is non-zero. Figure 2 shows a similar set of waves, except that wave A is a square wave inverted every third cycle. Wave B is the same sinusoid as before, and wave C is the product of the two waves. Wave C is the argument of the Fourier integral. Note that the average value of wave C is exactly zero. Modified square wave A has no spectral power at the frequency of sine wave B. Repeated inversion has suppressedthis frequency.
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)英文原文Mechanical Design and Manufacturing ProcessesMechanical design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also considers the various factors involved in the manufacture, marketing and use of the product.People who perform the various functions of mechanical design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Mechanical design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, materials engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of mechanical design is to produce a product which will serve a need for man. Inventions, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Mechanical design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovative talents to envision a design of a product, to analyze the systemand then make sound judgments on how the product is to be manufactured. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions required to produce a good design.On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that if the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have "bugs" or unforeseen problems which must be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design does not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.During the beginning stages of design, creativity should be allowedto flourish without a great number of constraints. Even though many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to the point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which is ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected designs that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to strive to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no average person for which certain operating dimensions and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communication available tous. These are the written, the oral, and the graphical forms. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possibility of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to accompany every really creative idea. There is a great deal to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the final analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all. To communicate effectively, the following questions must be answered:(1) Does the design really serve a human need?(2) Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?(3) Is it economical to produce?(4) Can it be readily maintained?(5) Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding questions, but the product should be designed, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answers. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detail and assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem will occur during the manufacturing cycle [3].It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerancing of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This fails in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other cases, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards finding that better way.Designing starts with a need, real or imagined. Existing apparatus may need improvements in durability, efficiently, weight, speed, or cost. New apparatus may be needed to perform a function previously done by men, such as computation, assembly, or servicing. With the objective wholly or partly defined, the next step in design is the conception of mechanisms and their arrangements that will perform the needed functions.For this, freehand sketching is of great value, not only as a record of one's thoughts and as an aid in discussion with others, but particularly for communication with one's own mind, as a stimulant for creative ideas.When the general shape and a few dimensions of the several components become apparent, analysis can begin in earnest. The analysis will have as its objective satisfactory or superior performance, plus safety and durability with minimum weight, and a competitive east. Optimum proportions and dimensions will be sought for each critically loaded section, together with a balance between the strength of the several components. Materials and their treatment will be chosen. These important objectives can be attained only by analysis based upon the principles ofmechanics, such as those of statics for reaction forces and for the optimumutilization of friction; of dynamics for inertia, acceleration, and energy; of elasticity and strength of materials for stress。
外文资料及翻译
外文资料及译文原文：Television Video SignalsAlthough over 50 years old , the standard television signal is still one of the most common way to transmit an image. Figure 8.3 shows how the television signal appears on an oscilloscope. This is called composite video, meaning that there are vertical and horizontal synchronization (sync) pulses mixed with the actual picture information.These pulses are used in the television receiver to synchronize the vertical and horizontal deflection circuits to match the video being displayed. Each second of standard video contains 30 complete images, commonly called frames , A video engineer would say that each frame contains 525 lines, the television jargon for what programmers call rows. This number is a little deceptive because only 480 to 486 of these lines contain video information; the remaining 39to 45 lines are reserved for sync pulses to keep the television’s circuits synchronized with the video signal.Standard television uses an interlaced format to reduce flicker in the displayed image. This means that all the odd lines of each frame are transmitted first, followed by the even lines. The group of odd lines is called the odd field, and the group of even lines is called the even field. Since each frame consists of two fields, the video signal transmits 60 fields per second. Each field starts with a complex series of vertical sync pulses lasting 1.3 milliseconds. This is followed by either the even or odd lines of video. Each line lasts for 63.5 microseconds, including a 10.2 microsecond horizontal sync pulse, separating one line from the next. Within each line, the analog voltage corresponds to the gray scale of the image, with brighter values being in the direction away from the sync pulses. This place the sync beyond the black range. In video jargon, the sync pulses are said to be blacker than black..The hardware used for analog-to-digital conversion of video signals is called a frame grabber. This is usually in the form of an electronics card that plugs into a computer, and connects to a camera through a coaxial cable. Upon command from software, the frame grabber waits for the beginning of the next frame, as indicated by the vertical sync pulses. During the following two fields, each line of video is sampled many times, typically 512,640 or 720 samples per line, at 8bits per sample. These samples are stored in memory as one row of the digital image.This way of acquiring a digital image results in an important difference between the vertical and horizontal directions. Each row in the digital image corresponds to one line in the video signal, and therefore to one row of wells in the CCD. Unfortunately,the columns are not so straightforward. In the CCD, each row contains between about 400 and 800 wells (columns), depending on the particular device used. When a row of wells is read from the CCD, the resulting line of video is filtered into a smooth analog signal, such as in Figure 8.3. In other words, the video signal does not depend on how many columns are present in the CCD. The resolution in the horizontal direction is limited by how rapidly the analog signal is allowed to change. This is usually set at 3.2 MHz for color television, resulting in a rise time of about 100 nanoseconds, i.e, about1/500th of the 53.2 microsecond video line.When the video signal is digitized in the frame grabber, it is converted back into conclusions. However, these columns in the digitized image have no relation to the columns in the CCD. The number of columns in the digital image depends solely on how many times the frame grabber samples each line of video. For example, a CCD might have 800 wells per row, while the digitized image might only have 512 pixels (i.e columns) perrow.The number of columns in the digitized image is also important for another reason. The standard television image has an aspect ratio of 4 to 3, i.e. it is slightly wider than it is high. Motion pictures have the wider aspect ratio of 25 to 9. CCDs used for scientific applications often have an aspect ratio of 1 to 1, i.e , a perfect square. In any event, the aspect ratio of a CCD is fixed by the placement of the electrodes, and cannot be altered. However, the aspect ratio of the digitized image depends on the number of samples per line. This becomes a problem when the image is displayed, either on a video monitor or in a hardcopy. If the aspect ratio isn’t properly reproduced, the image looks squashed horizontally or vertically.The 525 line video signal described here is called NTSC (National Television Systems Committee), a standard defined way back in 1954. This is the system used in the United States and Japan. In Europe there are two similar standards called PAL (Phase Alternation by Line) and SECAM (Sequential Chrominance and Memory). The basic concepts are the same, just the numbers are different. Both PAL and SECAM operate with 25 interlaced frames per second, with 625 lines per frame. Just as with NTSC, some of these lines occur during the vertical sync, resulting in about 576 lines that carry picture information. Other more subtle differences relate to how color and sound are added to the signal.The most straightforward way of transmitting color television would be to have three separate analog signals, one for each of the three colors the human eye can detect: red, green and blue. Unfortunately, the historical development of television did not allow such a simple scheme. The color television signal was developed to allow existing blackand white television sets to remain in use without modification. This was done by retaining the same signal for brightness information , but adding a separate signal for color information. In video jargon, the brightness is called the luminance signal, while the color is the chrominance signal. The chrominance signal is contained on a 3.58 MHz carrier wave added to the black and white video signal. Sound is added in this same way, on a 4.5 MHz carrier wave. The television receiver separates these three signals, processes them individually, and recombines them in the final diplay.译文：关键词：核心，合成信号，电压耦合电视信号尽管已经拥有50年的历史了,电视信号依然是常用的传递信息的途径之一。
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附件二外文资料翻译参考文献[11]的相关译文建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
关键词：混凝土裂缝预防处理前言混凝土是一种由砂石骨料、水泥、水及其他外加材料混合而形成的非均质脆性材料。
由于混凝土施工和本身变形、约束等一系列问题，硬化成型的混凝土中存在着众多的微孔隙、气穴和微裂缝，正是由于这些初始缺陷的存在才使混凝土呈现出一些非均质的特性。
微裂缝通常是一种无害裂缝，对混凝土的承重、防渗及其他一些使用功能不产生危害。
但是在混凝土受到荷载、温差等作用之后，微裂缝就会不断的扩展和连通，最终形成我们肉眼可见的宏观裂缝，也就是混凝土工程中常说的裂缝。
混凝土建筑和构件通常都是带缝工作的，由于裂缝的存在和发展通常会使内部的钢筋等材料产生腐蚀，降低钢筋混凝土材料的承载能力、耐久性及抗渗能力，影响建筑物的外观、使用寿命，严重者将会威胁到人们的生命和财产安全。
很多工程的失事都是由于裂缝的不稳定发展所致。
近代科学研究和大量的混凝土工程实践证明，在混凝土工程中裂缝问题是不可避免的，在一定的范围内也是可以接受的，只是要采取有效的措施将其危害程度控制在一定的范围之内。
钢筋混凝土规范也明确规定：有些结构在所处的不同条件下，允许存在一定宽度的裂缝。
但在施工中应尽量采取有效措施控制裂缝产生，使结构尽可能不出现裂缝或尽量减少裂缝的数量和宽度，尤其要尽量避免有害裂缝的出现，从而确保工程质量。
混凝土裂缝产生的原因很多，有变形引起的裂缝：如温度变化、收缩、膨胀、不均匀沉陷等原因引起的裂缝；有外载作用引起的裂缝；有养护环境不当和化学作用引起的裂缝等等。
在实际工程中要区别对待，根据实际情况解决问题。
混凝土工程中常见裂缝及预防:1.干缩裂缝及预防干缩裂缝多出现在混凝土养护结束后的一段时间或是混凝土浇筑完毕后的一周左右。
水泥浆中水分的蒸发会产生干缩，且这种收缩是不可逆的。
干缩裂缝的产生主要是由于混凝土内外水分蒸发程度不同而导致变形不同的结果：混凝土受外部条件的影响，表面水分损失过快，变形较大，内部湿度变化较小变形较小，较大的表面干缩变形受到混凝土内部约束，产生较大拉应力而产生裂缝。
相对湿度越低，水泥浆体干缩越大，干缩裂缝越易产生。
干缩裂缝多为表面性的平行线状或网状浅细裂缝，宽度多在0.05-0.2mm之间，大体积混凝土中平面部位多见，较薄的梁板中多沿其短向分布。
干缩裂缝通常会影响混凝土的抗渗性，引起钢筋的锈蚀影响混凝土的耐久性，在水压力的作用下会产生水力劈裂影响混凝土的承载力等等。
混凝土干缩主要和混凝土的水灰比、水泥的成分、水泥的用量、集料的性质和用量、外加剂的用量等有关。
主要预防措施：一是选用收缩量较小的水泥，一般采用中低热水泥和粉煤灰水泥，降低水泥的用量。
二是混凝土的干缩受水灰比的影响较大，水灰比越大，干缩越大，因此在混凝土配合比设计中应尽量控制好水灰比的选用，同时掺加合适的减水剂。
三是严格控制混凝土搅拌和施工中的配合比，混凝土的用水量绝对不能大于配合比设计所给定的用水量。
四是加强混凝土的早期养护，并适当延长混凝土的养护时间。
冬季施工时要适当延长混凝土保温覆盖时间，并涂刷养护剂养护。
五是在混凝土结构中设置合适的收缩缝。
2.塑性收缩裂缝及预防塑性收缩是指混凝土在凝结之前，表面因失水较快而产生的收缩。
塑性收缩裂缝一般在干热或大风天气出现，裂缝多呈中间宽、两端细且长短不一，互不连贯状态。
较短的裂缝一般长20-30cm，较长的裂缝可达2-3m，宽1-5mm.其产生的主要原因为：混凝土在终凝前几乎没有强度或强度很小，或者混凝土刚刚终凝而强度很小时，受高温或较大风力的影响，混凝土表面失水过快，造成毛细管中产生较大的负压而使混凝土体积急剧收缩，而此时混凝土的强度又无法抵抗其本身收缩，因此产生龟裂。
影响混凝土塑性收缩开裂的主要因素有水灰比、混凝土的凝结时间、环境温度、风速、相对湿度等等。
主要预防措施：一是选用干缩值较小早期强度较高的硅酸盐或普通硅酸盐水泥。
二是严格控制水灰比，掺加高效减水剂来增加混凝土的坍落度和和易性，减少水泥及水的用量。
三是浇筑混凝土之前，将基层和模板浇水均匀湿透。
四是及时覆盖塑料薄膜或者潮湿的草垫、麻片等，保持混凝土终凝前表面湿润，或者在混凝土表面喷洒养护剂等进行养护。
五是在高温和大风天气要设置遮阳和挡风设施，及时养护。
3.沉陷裂缝及预防沉陷裂缝的产生是由于结构地基土质不匀、松软或回填土不实或浸水而造成不均匀沉降所致；或者因为模板刚度不足，模板支撑间距过大或支撑底部松动等导致，特别是在冬季，模板支撑在冻土上，冻土化冻后产生不均匀沉降，致使混凝土结构产生裂缝。
此类裂缝多为深进或贯穿性裂缝，其走向与沉陷情况有关，一般沿与地面垂直或呈30°-45°角方向发展，较大的沉陷裂缝，往往有一定的错位，裂缝宽度往往与沉降量成正比关系。
裂缝宽度受温度变化的影响较小。
地基变形稳定之后，沉陷裂缝也基本趋于稳定。
主要预防措施：一是对松软土、回填土地基在上部结构施工前应进行必要的夯实和加固。
二是保证模板有足够的强度和刚度，且支撑牢固，并使地基受力均匀。
三是防止混凝土浇灌过程中地基被水浸泡。
四是模板拆除的时间不能太早，且要注意拆模的先后次序。
五是在冻土上搭设模板时要注意采取一定的预防措施。
4.温度裂缝及预防温度裂缝多发生在大体积混凝土表面或温差变化较大地区的混凝土结构中。
混凝土浇筑后，在硬化过程中，水泥水化产生大量的水化热，（当水泥用量在350-550 kg/m3，每立方米混凝土将释放出17500-27500kJ的热量，从而使混凝土内部温度升达70℃左右甚至更高）。
由于混凝土的体积较大，大量的水化热聚积在混凝土内部而不易散发，导致内部温度急剧上升，而混凝土表面散热较快，这样就形成内外的较大温差，较大的温差造成内部与外部热胀冷缩的程度不同，使混凝土表面产生一定的拉应力。
当拉应力超过混凝土的抗拉强度极限时，混凝土表面就会产生裂缝，这种裂缝多发生在混凝土施工中后期。
在混凝土的施工中当温差变化较大，或者是混凝土受到寒潮的袭击等，会导致混凝土表面温度急剧下降，而产生收缩，表面收缩的混凝土受内部混凝土的约束，将产生很大的拉应力而产生裂缝，这种裂缝通常只在混凝土表面较浅的范围内产生。
温度裂缝的走向通常无一定规律，大面积结构裂缝常纵横交错；梁板类长度尺寸较大的结构，裂缝多平行于短边；深入和贯穿性的温度裂缝一般与短边方向平行或接近平行，裂缝沿着长边分段出现，中间较密。
裂缝宽度大小不一，受温度变化影响较为明显，冬季较宽，夏季较窄。
高温膨胀引起的混凝土温度裂缝是通常中间粗两端细，而冷缩裂缝的粗细变化不太明显。
此种裂缝的出现会引起钢筋的锈蚀，混凝土的碳化，降低混凝土的抗冻融、抗疲劳及抗渗能力等。
主要预防措施：一是尽量选用低热或中热水泥，如矿渣水泥、粉煤灰水泥等。
二是减少水泥用量，将水泥用量尽量控制在450kg/m3以下。
三是降低水灰比，一般混凝土的水灰比控制在0.6以下。
四是改善骨料级配，掺加粉煤灰或高效减水剂等来减少水泥用量，降低水化热。
五是改善混凝土的搅拌加工工艺，降低混凝土的浇筑温度。
六是在混凝土中掺加一定量的具有减水、增塑、缓凝等作用的外加剂，改善混凝土拌合物的流动性、保水性，降低水化热，推迟热峰的出现时间。
七是高温季节浇筑时可以采用搭设遮阳板等辅助措施控制混凝土的温升，降低浇筑混凝土的温度。
八是大体积混凝土的温度应力与结构尺寸相关，混凝土结构尺寸越大，温度应力越大，因此要合理安排施工工序，分层、分块浇筑，以利于散热，减小约束。
九是在大体积混凝土内部设置冷却管道，通冷水或者冷气冷却，减小混凝土的内外温差。
十是加强混凝土温度的监控，及时采取冷却、保护措施。
十一是预留温度收缩缝。
十二是减小约束，浇筑混凝土前宜在基岩和老混凝土上铺设5mm左右的砂垫层或使用沥青等材料涂刷。
十三是加强混凝土养护，混凝土浇筑后，及时用湿润的草帘、麻片等覆盖，并注意洒水养护，适当延长养护时间，保证混凝土表面缓慢冷却。
在寒冷季节，混凝土表面应设置保温措施，以防止寒潮袭击。
十四是混凝土中配置少量的钢筋或者掺入纤维材料将混凝土的温度裂缝控制在一定的范围之内。
5.化学反应引起的裂缝及预防碱骨料反应裂缝和钢筋锈蚀引起的裂缝是钢筋混凝土结构中最常见的由于化学反应而引起的裂缝。
混凝土拌和后会产生一些碱性离子，这些离子与某些活性骨料产生化学反应并吸收周围环境中的水而体积增大，造成混凝土酥松、膨胀开裂。
这种裂缝一般出现中混凝土结构使用期间，一旦出现很难补救，因此应在施工中采取有效措施进行预防。
主要的预防措施：一是选用碱活性小的砂石骨料。
二是选用低碱水泥和低碱或无碱的外加剂。
三是选用合适的掺和料抑制碱骨料反应。
由于混凝土浇筑、振捣不良或者是钢筋保护层较薄，有害物质进入混凝土使钢筋产生锈蚀，锈蚀的钢筋体积膨胀，导致混凝土胀裂，此种类型的裂缝多为纵向裂缝，沿钢筋的位置出现。
通常的预防措施有：一是保证钢筋保护层的厚度。
二是混凝土级配要良好。
三是混凝土浇注要振捣密实。
四是钢筋表层涂刷防腐涂料。
裂缝处理裂缝的出现不但会影响结构的整体性和刚度，还会引起钢筋的锈蚀、加速混凝土的碳化、降低混凝土的耐久性和抗疲劳、抗渗能力。
因此根据裂缝的性质和具体情况我们要区别对待、及时处理，以保证建筑物的安全使用。
混凝土裂缝的修补措施主要有以下一些方法：表面修补法，灌浆、嵌缝封堵法，结构加固法，混凝土置换法，电化学防护法以及仿生自愈合法。
表面修补法是一种简单、常见的修补方法，它主要适用于稳定和对结构承载能力没有影响的表面裂缝以及深进裂缝的处理。
通常的处理措施是在裂缝的表面涂抹水泥浆、环氧胶泥或在混凝土表面涂刷油漆、沥青等防腐材料，在防护的同时为了防止混凝土受各种作用的影响继续开裂，通常可以采用在裂缝的表面粘贴玻璃纤维布等措施。
1、灌浆、嵌缝封堵法灌浆法主要适用于对结构整体性有影响或有防渗要求的混凝土裂缝的修补，它是利用压力设备将胶结材料压入混凝土的裂缝中，胶结材料硬化后与混凝土形成一个整体，从而起到封堵加固的目的。
常用的胶结材料有水泥浆、环氧树脂、甲基丙烯酸酯、聚氨酯等化学材料。
嵌缝法是裂缝封堵中最常用的一种方法，它通常是沿裂缝凿槽，在槽中嵌填塑性或刚性止水材料，以达到封闭裂缝的目的。
常用的塑性材料有聚氯乙烯胶泥、塑料油膏、丁基橡胶等等；常用的刚性止水材料为聚合物水泥砂浆。
2、结构加固法当裂缝影响到混凝土结构的性能时，就要考虑采取加固法对混凝土结构进行处理。
结构加固中常用的主要有以下几种方法：加大混凝土结构的截面面积，在构件的角部外包型钢、采用预应力法加固、粘贴钢板加固、增设支点加固以及喷射混凝土补强加固。