Stylistics D
(最新整理)Stylistics(英语文体学)
II. What is style?
style as rhetoric — Gorgias（风格即 修辞）;
style as form — Aristotle（风格即形 式）;
style as eloquence — Cicero (风格即 雄辩术);
proper words in proper places —
2021/7/26
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Langue(语言)(Longman Dictionary P382)
The French word for “language”. The
term was used by the linguist Saussure
to mean the system of a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and
interpretation of the text; or in order to
relate literary effects to linguistic
‘causes’ where these are felt to be
relevant…. Stylisticians want to avoid
situationally-distinctive uses of
language, with particular reference to
literary language, and tries to establish
principles capable of accounting for the
saying the right thing in the most effective way — Enkvist（以最有效 的方式讲恰当的事情） ;
Stylistics中文文体学课件
3. I ‘m finding out that a lot of what I thought had been bonfired, Oxfam-ed, used for land-fill, has in fact been tidied away in sound archives, stills libraries, image banks, memorabilia mausoleums, tat troves, mug morgues.
Cf. A. The police are investigating the case of
murder. B. The police are looking into the case of
murder. (Lexically, Latin, French, Greek words are generally used in formal style; Words from old English are mostly used in informal style.)
F: He left early in order not to miss the train.
F: He left early in order that he would not miss the train.
6. 问句：
F: When are you going to do it?
IF: When
place all the same.
F: He endeavoured to prevent the marriage ; however, they married notwithstanding. 3. 非正式文体常用副词做状语；而正式文体常 用由介词和与该副词同根的词够成的介词短 语：
The development of Stylistics
The development of StylisticsIn the WestThe word “stylistics”first appeared in 1882,and the first book on stylistics was written by French scholar Charles Bally,student of the famous modern linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in 1902 and was published in1909,entitled Traite de Stylistique Francaise .This book is often considered as a landmark of modern stylistics.The subject of study in Bally’s time was oral discourse.Bally considered that apart from the denotative meaning expressed by the speaker,there was usually an “overtune”which indicated different “feelings”,and the tasks of stylistics was to find out the linguistic devices indicating these feelings.Later,the German scholar L.Spitzer,began to analyze literary works from a stylistic point of view,and therefore,Spitzer is often considered as the “father of literary stylistics”.From the beginning of 1930s to the end of the 1950s stylistics was developing slowly and was only confined to European continent.During this period,the Russian formalists,the Prague School and the French Structuralists all contributed to the development of stylistics. There emerged some well-known stylisticians,such as E.Auerbach, J.Marouzeau, M.Cressot, R.Jakobson.From the end of the 1950s to the present time,modern stylistics has reached its prosperity.This can be further divided into roughly fourperiods:The first period is from the end of the 1950s to the end of the 1960s,in which,Formalist Stylistics was the prevailing trend.The second period is the 1970s,in which Functionlist Stylistics predominated.The third period is the 1980s,in which Discourse Stylistics flourished.While in the fourth period, the1990s,the Socio-Historical/Socio-Cultural Stylistics or Contextualized Stylistics developed quickly.In the new century,stylistics has developed further.In the departments and institutes of language,literature and linguistics around many universities in the world,stylistics has been one of main courses or subjects of research.Monographs and textbooks on stylistics are published,and research papers on stylistics increasingly appear in the academic journals all over the world.The trend is interdisciplinary study,and narrative stylistics,cognitive stylistics,feminist stylistics,etc.In ChinaChinese stylistics can be traced back to work of literary criticism-The Carving of the Literary Mind by Liu Xie(465-532)in the Southern Dynasty ter there were the generic classification of the Tang poetry,Song prose poems,the Y uan verse poems,and the Ming and Qing novels.The beginning of modern Chinese stylistics is marked by Chen Wangdao’s Principle of Rhetoric(1932)In China,the modern study of stylistics can be divided into two periods.The first period is from the founding of the People’s Republic ofChina to the year 1976,which is the fundamental stage for the development of modern stylistics.Some scholars,such as Wang Zuoliang,Xu Guozhang,Xu yanmou,Yangrenjing,et al.,began to study stylistics in its modern sense.And later some other articles on stylistics got published.But generally speaking,in this period of 28 years,there is no more than 30 articles concerning stylistics got published in China .What is more,there were almost no academic studies during the 10-year “Culture Revolution”(1966-1976)(王守元，et al.,2004)The second period is from 1977 up to the present time.Professor Wang Zuoliang took the lead in this research of modern stylistics.In this period,appear many academic works and textbooks and a large number of articles on stylistics also got published and the number increased with each passing year.And in the new century,stylistics developing even faster.The founding of the Chinese Association of Rhetoric in 1980 marked the new era of Chinese stylistics research,while the founding of China Stylistics Association in 2004 in Henan University during the 4th National Symposium on Stylistics marked the era of studies of Western stylistics in China.The international Stylistics Conference held in Tsinghua University in June 2006 further indicated the development and achievements of stylistics in China.The Scope of StudyThe study of modern stylistics can be divided into three main aspects:General Stylistics,Literary Stylistics and Theoretical Stylistics.Now I introduce it one by one ,which mainly gives your a frame impression about their scopes of study.General StylisticsGeneral stylistics studies different varieties of language.For example,according to field of discourse,with the related functions of language used in different genres,there are varieties such as news reports,advertisement,publish speeches,novels,poetry,scientific treatises,and legal documents.According to attitude ,there are different degrees of formality used on different occasions,such as formal language and informal language.According to medium of communication(mode of discourse),there are spoken language,written language,and e-discourse.According to regions,there are British English,American English and other regional dialects.According to social groups,there are standard language and non-standard language,language used by people of different classes,different sexes,and so on.According to time,there are Old English,Middle English,Modern English,Contemporary English.Literary StylisticsLiterary stylistics studies literary significance as well as linguistic choices in literary texts and also the different styles of individual authors and their works,as well as period styles.Broadly speaking,it study variations characteristic of different literary genres-poetry,prose,novels,drama,etc.,with the purpose of promoting literary texts as communicative acts. Theoretical StylisticsTheoretical stylistics researches the theories,the origin,the trend,and the historical development of stylistics as well as characteristics of different branches of stylistics.It also studies the relationships between stylistics and other branches of learning.。
Stylistics and translation IIi
• If we wish to communicate in English successfully, we too need to develop a “semi-instinctive sense of style”. Stylistics may help us speed up this process of acquisition by giving us access to different language varieties any by encouraging us to participate the problem-solving activity and to do practical analysis by ourselves so as to facilitate our sensitivity to language variation. • Analyzing translation/interpreting problems
9
• With a sense of style, we can arrive at a better understanding of a text/utterance. • Let us look at the following example. • [1.17] • Policeman: What‟s your name, boy? • Black physician: Dr. Poussaint. I‟m a physician. • Policeman: What‟s your first name, boy? • Black physician: Alvin.
• 徒 留 我 孤单 在湖面 成双 • (lexical deviation; semantic deviation) • 你的笑容已泛黄 • (semantic deviation)
Stylistics
Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which applies the theory and method ology of mod ern linguistics to the study of style.It studies the use of language in specific contexts and attempts to account for the characteristics that mark the language use of individuals and social groups. It is usually concerned with the examination of written language, particularly literary texts. The stylistic analysis of a text involves the d escription of a writer’s/speaker’s verbal choices which can be abstracted as style.Concepts of style:1.”styl e” may refer to some or all of the language habits of one person. 2.The word may refer to some or all of the language habits shared by a group of peopl e at one time,or over a period of time. 3.the word may be used in an evaluative sense, referring to the effectiveness of a mod e of expression. 4.Partly overlapping with the three senses just mentioned, the word may refer solely to literary language.The needs for stylistics:1.styl e is an integral part of meaning. 2.Stylistics may help us to acquire a “sense of styl e”. 3.Stylistics prepares the way to the intrinsic study of literature.The concept of text: A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a unified whole. A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not.The concept of context: “Context” has been und erstood in various ways. It may be linguistic or extra-linguistic. Linguistic context is alternatively termed as CO-TEXT, which refers to the linguistic units preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text. Extra-linguistic context refers to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning. The term CONTEXT may includ e not only the co-text, but also the extra-linguistic context of a text.An elliptical sentence is contextually conditioned. The ellipsis is recoverable from the preceding linguistic context. The ellipsis avoids repetition so as to focus on the new information.Incomplete sentences: sentences in which for some reason the speaker never reaches the end of what he intends to communicate.Reiteration refers to the use of an alternative expression as a replacement for an expression in the preceding context.Collocation may refer to: A. the conventional restriction of the ways in which words are used together. B. a tend ency of co-occurrence. Sets of words tend to turn up together.Medium refers to graphic signs or speech sounds by meas of which a message is conveyed from one person to another.Attitud e is related to the Role Relationships in various situations. Role Relationships range from temporary to permanent. Some role relationships are easier to id entify by the language than others.Fiel d of discourse refers to the type of social activity in which language plays a part. One aspect of the field is the subject matter. The subject matter can be practically anything, ranging from technical to non-technical: the theory of relativity, physiology and medicine.Another important aspect of the field—the purpose which the language serves in a social activity.The administration=the government/ apartment=flat/attorney=solicitor or barrister/automobile=car/bar=pub/biscuit=scone/can=tin/cookie or cracker=biscuit/elevator=lift/engineer=engine driver/faculty=staff/fall=autumn/first floor=ground floor/gas or gasoline=petrol/mail=post/movie=firm/one way ticket=single(ticket)/overpass=flyover/round-trip ticket=return(ticket)/sneakers=plimsolls/store=shop/truck=lorry or van/yiel d=give awayslang: baby=girl or woman/bad=good or excellent/hip=sophisticated or uptodate/high=a non-intoxicated feeling of exhilaration/square=a conventional person/swell or super or some=good or excellent or outstanding or notable or distinguished/a couple of=a few/kind of or sort of=somewhat or rather/a lot or lots of=a great d eal or many/sure=surely or absolutely/awfully or so or plenty or real=very or extremely or exceedingly or acutelyeuphemisms: senior citizen for ol d man or woman/newly single for divorced/memorial park for graveyard/funeral director for und ertaker/sanitation collector for garbage collector/industrial action for strike/to eliminate for to kill or to murd er/domestic helper for servant/hair stylist for barber/airhostess for waitress aboard a plane/knowl edge-based nonpossessor for idiot/the South, or the developing countries for countries that have littl e industrialization and low standard of living/Two freedom fighters took the oppressor’s life away for The general was murdered by two terrorists头韵：Alliteration/腹韵：Assonance/辅韵：Consonance/倒韵：Reverse Rhyme/头尾韵：Pararhyme/韵:Rhyme。
Stylistics summary
Stylistics summarystylisticsThe scope of chapter 1What is stylistics? Stylistics is a subject that teaches us how touse language and how to apply different styles of language.Stylistics specifically refers to the stylistic feature, refer to apply to the concept of modern linguistics and its skills, learning a language style used in a discipline, including general stylistics and literary stylistics.What is language, different people's definition of language, the development of time, the definition of language is constantly changing and improving. Language is essentially a social activity.Philosophic view holds that language system is the function and activity of language in society.Words are compared to languages. The word code usually refers to a series of symbols, symbolizing the transmission of information. Thesmall amount of information is the process of translating a series of words into a voice and allowing the receiver to receive the information.The use of speech in speech. Language is constantly used in human social activities, and in the speech is determined by three bad circumstances: the normative, the size and the type of the activity.Language variations and functions: the use of language is influenced by the use of the occasion, and different languages must be used indifferent contexts. Different scenes, different people, different times, different places, different media, different social situations use different languages.Language in this ancient, script and spoken English, have a conceptof function and functional points (a service for expression of speaker, a service) for writing the real world.Style is the key to distinguishing between different language habits. Each person has their own language style. For example, "the salsa style." A style is a person's language habit and a group language.The study of style: the study of stylistics is called style, and the study of stylistics is very early in the west. And stylistics as an independent language specification we need to have a full understanding to him, stylistic study of learning style tend to be more standardized, theoretical, make a linguistic description of the more strict specification.The learning of stylistics is the essence of modern science. It hasto do with literature; She is the continuation and development of rhetoric; He approaches critical literature with a new image andprovides a point of support for it.The second chapter is necessary to study the stylisticsThe study of stylistics helps us to develop a correct sense oflanguage.Language is not a unifying phenomenon. He is a broad collection.Only in different situations can people communicate properly withdifferent correct languages. Therefore, it is necessary to cultivate a good sense of language that makes it easier for us to communicate.The study of stylistics makes it easier to understand and appreciate the work of literature.In critical literature, there are three stages: the descriptive stage, the interpretation stage and the evaluation stage. In literary creation, the author will continue to make the choice and judgment of language, including the choice of words and sentence structure. When we interrupt the regular use of a new language structure, we call it "variation." This is called "repetition" when we overuse a structure. This departure from the reader's mind is a psychological one.In addition to the prospect,Some authors also for some special effect, a large number of imitation, some of great lethality is because they are significant difference between the novel and drama opened the way you talk, use a lot of dialect makes the language more vivid, close to life.Study of stylistics helps us gains in terms of translation, the role of language in different function in a different language series, each kind of display is the same rule of language features, the translation is not enough to simply express the original meaning of a sentence. The translation must conformto the meaning of the language, which should be combined with the structure of the sentence and the analysis of the style, which makes the translation of the language more perfect. In translation, it isnecessary to put our energy in the same height, the same level, as the sentence.Chapter 3: variations of languageIncludes the dialect variant and the language domain variantDifferent characteristics of speech in different bad circumstances make the language different. The learning of language features has evolved, and modern linguistics has been divided into a series of divisions.Dialect variants are divided according to the user's differences; The language domain variant is determined by the use of bad situations.Dialects can be divided into individual dialects, time dialects, regional dialects, social dialects, and standard dialects. Social dialects can be subdivided into socioeconomic status variations, ethnic variations, gender variations, age variations.The language domain includes: the range of discourse, the way of discourse, the concept of the tone of the discourse.Most of our work has to do with our work, which is to use different languages for our different jobs. Discourse means the tools that language users use when communicating. The tone ofthe speech is about the relationship between the individual and the speaker/writer, listener/reader. A series of actions spoken by language speakers for speech purposes are called functional language.The presence of a variation in the language domain helps us get alot of information about a person, such as who we can judge from aperson's accent.The language domain and the dialect are interdependent. Language variants are of great social significanceThe purpose of language description in literature. In this relationship, it is to prove the theoretical analysis. At the level, language can be divided into: vocabulary, grammar, phonetics/handwriting.The grammar level can be divided into grammar and syntax; Grammar is the key of linguistics. In the study of lexical learning, the choice of special terms, the analysis of linguistic level.Stylistic feature mainly appear in semantics, grammar and vocabulary phonetics graphology, in the first level in stylistic feature, semantic features are: the segmental features (onomatopoeia, phonetic symbols, sound assimilation, alliteration/half harmonics), super sound characteristics (melody). A feature (rereading, rhythm, intonation,pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/sound).The second level of stylistic features: grammatical featuresshould be considered in terms of words. The types of sentences are: statements, questions, imperative sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences,sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences Clause/sentence types are: independent, non-independent, non-finite, and sentence elements.Phrases (nouns, pronouns, numerals, non-qualifier and noun structure (noun pre/post phrases); Verb phrase (verb, prepositional verb), passive and abbreviative.The word types have (roots, prefixes, suffixes) the high frequency compound words, composite words, mixtures, temporary words, conversions and pun.The general tendency is to notice six "no matter" and connotation, denotation, jargon, new words, and slang. Notice the combination of words.Stylistics third level: the semantic unit, linguistic connection [word cohesion should pay attention to the turning point ofwords/phrases, grammar structure of ellipsis, substitution, refers to each other on the (refers to, refer to below), vocabulary reuse three aspects], segmentation, discourse/textual patterns, rhetoric (metaphor meaning [metaphor, metonymy], ridiculous words and deeds cheat)/rhetoric/escape situation, semantic role.Note the four steps, the actual description and the analysis of the linguistic description.Chapter v the comparison of formal language of formal languageThe interpersonal function of language, the function that surrounds language, the interpersonal function that speaks language. Further theformal degree of language, functional language and formal degree. There are five levels of classification: informal, formal, z...The formal and phonetic characteristics of the language: the formal and informal language of the language depends on our words, the relationship to phonology, syntax rules, semantics.To establish a similar characteristic, the formal and informal language of the language depends on the vocabulary, phonology morphology, syntactic semantics. The article finally explains the difference between the content of the intervention and the informal language.Chapter 6 comparisons of spoken and written languagesProminent differences: different listening/readers, different linguistic, and different preparation statesThe difference of stylistics: speaking and writing are different in grammar, and different in terms of vocabulary, but also inphonetics/handwriting. After telling the difference between the two, there are plenty of examples to compare thetwo.The more subtle difference between the way of discourse: the difference in lifestyle, the way in which it is written,It includes: style, tone, rangeChapter 7 English conversationThe text tells the necessity of learning how to speak, the necessity of learning the conversation.Learning content of the session: economy, politics, theinternational situation, culture, education, science, sports, entertainment, news, family, children, the friendship, the weather, andso on.Adapt to the way the session is copied. The text lists many examplesof informal conversationsGeneral characteristics of English conversation:In terms of language levels of stylistic feature: grammatical features, preference for short and loose sentence, often adapt toelliptical sentence and incomplete sentences, often adapt to questions, using a simple noun and verb phrase structure; Vocabularycharacteristics, like to use short words and inaccurate expression, high frequency of acronyms, idioms, and a lot of phrasal verbs, use exaggerated words and slang. In phonetic features, the frequent use of some basic metrical features, the rhythmic variation in the tones, andtheemergence of the sublinguistic effects of freedom; A series of viewson semantic characteristics,Rough synonyms, even using illogical languages.Summary: the conversation sometimes relies heavily on the bad background knowledge of the time.Other session types include: discussion, telephone conversation, etc.。
Stylistics-1-2
General Stylistics
Literary Stylistics
Literary Text Style
Variety Features
Genre Features
2. Object of stylistics: it studies the stylistic features of the main varieties of language, covering 1). functional varieties功能变体 from the dimension of fields of discourse (different social activities), 2). formal vs informal varieties from the dimension of tenors趋向 of discourse (different addresseraddressee relationships), 3). spoken vs written varieties from the dimension of modes of discourse (different mediums). 4). various genres体裁 of literature (fiction, drama, poetry) in its study.
Example
(From a novel)After a quarrel between the two lovers: With a flow of words, she started to argue with him, then she checked herself and said calmly, ―listen, John, I imagine you‘re tired of my company. There‘s no sense in having tea together. I think I‘d better leave you right here.‖ ―That‘s fine,‖ he said. ―Good afternoon.‖ ―Good-by‖
English-Stylistics1
1.2 The Necessity of Stylistics
The eventual thrust of literary criticism is to evaluate works of literature. But interpretation comes before evaluation, and description comes before interpretation. Stylistic analysis, by starting with linguistic facts, relates description to interpretation and formal features to their artistic function. It thus forms an essential part of literary critical activity.
1.1 The Definition of Stylistics
Definition: The study of style (Wales, 1989:437) The study of literary discourse from a linguistic
orientation (Widdowson,1975:3) The study of the use of language in literature, a
WHAT IS STYLISTICS
WHAT ISINTRODUCTIONSTYLISTICS?Some years ago, the well-known linguist Jean-Jacques Lecercle published a short butdamning critique of the aims, methods and rationale of contemporary stylistics. Hisattack on the discipline, and by implication the entire endeavour of the present book, wasuncompromising. According to Lecercle, nobody has ever really known what the term'stylistics' means, and in any case, hardly anyone seems to care (Lecercle 1993: 14).Stylistics is 'ailing'; it is 'on the wane'; and its heyday, alongside that of structuralism, hasfaded to but a distant memory. More alarming again, few university students are 'eager todeclare an intention to do research in stylistics'. By this account, the death knell ofstylistics had been sounded and it looked as though the end of the twentieth centurywould be accompanied by the inevitable passing of that faltering, moribund discipline.And no one, it seemed, would lament its demise.Modern stylisticsAs it happened, things didn't quite turn out in the way Lecercle envisaged. Stylistics inthe early twenty-first century is very much alive and well. It is taught and researched inuniversity departments of language, literature and linguistics the world over. The highacademic profile stylistics enjoys is mirrored in the number of its dedicated book-lengthpublications, research journals, international conferences and symposia, and scholarlyassociations. Far from moribund, modern stylistics is positively flourishing, witnessed ina proliferation of sub-disciplines where stylistic methods are enriched and enabled bytheories of discourse, culture and society. For example, feminist stylistics, cognitivestylistics and discourse stylistics,to name just three, are established branches ofcontemporary stylistics which have been sustained by insights from, respectively,feminist theory, cognitive psychology and discourse analysis. Stylistics has also becomea much valued method in language teaching and in language learning, and stylistics inthis 'pedagogical' guise, with its close attention to the broad resources of the system oflanguage, enjoys particular pride of place in the linguistic armoury of learners of secondlanguages. Moreover, stylistics often forms a core component of many creative writingcourses, an application not surprising given the discipline's emphasis on techniques ofcreativity and invention in language.So much then for the current 'health' of stylistics and the prominence it enjoys inmodern scholarship. It is now time to say a little more about what exactly stylistics is andwhat it is for. Stylistics is a method of textual interpretation in which primacy of place isassigned to language.The reason why language is so important to stylisticians is becausethe various forms, patterns and levels that constitute linguistic structure are an importantindex of the function of the text. The text's functional significance as discourse acts inturn as a gateway to its interpretation. While linguistic features do not of themselvesconstitute a text's 'meaning', an account of linguistic features nonetheless serves toground a stylistic interpretation and to help explain why, for the analyst, certain types ofmeaning are possible.The preferred object of study in stylistics is literature, whether thatbe institutionally sanctioned 'Literature' as high art or more popular 'noncanonical' formsof writing. The traditional connection between stylistics and literature brings with it twoimportant caveats, though.WHAT IS STYLISTICS? 3 The first is that creativity and innovation in language use should not be seen as the exclusive preserve of literary writing. Many forms of discourse (advertising, journalism, popular music - even casual conversation) often display a high degree of stylistic dexterity, such that it would be wrong to view dexterity in language use as exclusive to canonical literature. The second caveat is that the techniques of stylistic analysis are as much about deriving insights about linguistic structure and function as they are about understanding literary texts. Thus, the question 'What can stylistics tell us about literature?' is always paralleled by an equally important question 'What can stylistics tell us about language?'.In spite of its clearly defined remit, methods and object of study, there remain a number of myths about contemporary stylistics. Most of the time, confusion about the compass of stylistics is a result of confusion about the compass of language. For instance, there appears to be a belief in many literary critical circles that a stylistician is simply a dull old grammarian who spends rather too much time on such trivial pursuits as counting the nouns and verbs in literary texts. Once counted, those nouns and verbs form the basis of the stylistician's 'insight', although this stylistic insight ultimately proves no more far-reaching than an insight reached by simply intuiting from the text. This is an erroneous perception of the stylistic method and it is one which stems from a limited understanding of how language analysis works. True, nouns and verbs should not be overlooked, nor indeed should 'counting' when it takes the form of directed and focussed quantification. But the purview of modern language and linguistics is much broader than that and, in response, the methods of stylistics follow suit. It is the full gamut of the system of language that makes all aspects of a writer's craft relevant in stylistic analysis. Moreover, stylistics is interested in language as a function of texts in context, and it acknowledges that utterances (literary or otherwise) are produced in a time, a place, and in a cultural and cognitive context. These 'extra-linguistic' parameters are inextricably tied up with the way a text 'means'. The more complete and context-sensitive the description of language, then the fuller the stylistic analysis that accrues.The purpose of stylisticsWhy should we do stylistics? To do stylistics is to explore language, and, more specif-ically, to explore creativity in language use. Doing stylistics thereby enriches our ways of thinking about language and, as observed, exploring language offers a substantial purchase on our understanding of (literary) texts. With the full array of language models at our disposal, an inherently illuminating method of analytic inquiry presents itself. This method of inquiry has an important reflexive capacity insofar as it can shed light on the very language system it derives from; it tells us about the 'rules' of language because it often explores texts where those rules are bent, distended or stretched to breaking point. Interest in language is always at the fore in contemporary stylistic analysis which is why you should never undertake to do stylistics unless you are interested in language.Synthesising more formally some of the observations made above, it might be worth thinking of the practice of stylistics as conforming to the following three basic principles, cast mnemonically as three 'Rs'. The three Rs stipulate that:4INTRODUCTIONοstylistic analysis should be rigorousοstylistic analysis should be retrievableοstylistic analysis should be replicable.To argue that the stylistic method be rigorous means that it should be based on an explicit framework of analysis. Stylistic analysis is not the end-product of a disorganised sequence of ad hoc and impressionistic comments, but is instead underpinned by structured models of language and discourse that explain how we process and understand various patterns in language. To argue that stylistic method be retrievable means that the analysis is organised through explicit terms and criteria, the meanings of which are agreed upon by other students of stylistics. Although precise definitions for some aspects of language have proved difficult to pin down exactly, there is a consensus of agreement about what most terms in stylistics mean (see A2 below). That consensus enables other stylisticians to follow the pathway adopted in an analysis, to test the categories used and to see how the analysis reached its conclusion; to retrieve, in other words, the stylistic method.To say that a stylistic analysis seeks to be replicable does not mean that we should all try to copy each others' work. It simply means that the methods should be sufficiently transparent as to allow other stylisticians to verify them, either by testing them on the same text or by applying them beyond that text. The conclusions reached are principled if the pathway followed by the analysis is accessible and replicable. To this extent, it has become an important axiom of stylistics that it seeks to distance itself from work that proceeds solely from untested or un testable intuition.A seemingly innocuous piece of anecdotal evidence might help underscore this point.I once attended an academic conference where a well-known literary critic referred to the style of Irish writer George Moore as 'invertebrate'. Judging by the delegates' nods of approval around the conference hall, the critic's 'insight' had met with general endorsement. However, novel though this metaphorical interpretation of Moore's style may be, it offers the student of style no retrievable or shared point of reference in language, no metalanguage, with which to evaluate what the critic is trying to say. One can only speculate as to what aspect of Moore's style is at issue, because the stimulus for the observation is neither retrievable nor replicable. It is as if the act of criticism itself has become an exercise in style, vying with the stylistic creativity of the primary text discussed. Whatever its principal motivation, that critic's 'stylistic insight' is quite meaningless as a description of style.Unit A2, below, begins both to sketch some of the broad levels of linguistic organ-isation that inform stylistics and to arrange and sort the interlocking domains of language study that playa part in stylistic analysis. Along the thread, unit Bl explores further the history and development of stylistics, and examines some of the issues arising. What this opening unit has sought to demonstrate is that, over a decade after Lecercle's broadside, stylistics as an academic discipline continues to flourish. In that broadside, Lecercle also contends that the term stylistics has 'modestly retreated from the titles of books' (1993: 14). Lest they should feel afflicted by some temporary loss of their faculties, readers might just like to check the accuracy of this claim against the title on the cover of the present textbook!STYLISTICS AND LEVELS OF LANGUAGESTVLlSTICS AND LEVELS OF LANGUAGE5In view of the comments made in Al on the methodological significance of the three Rs, it is worth establishing here some of the more basic categories, levels and units of analysis in language that can help organise and shape a stylistic nguage in its broadest conceptualisation is not a disorganised mass of sounds and symbols, but is instead an intricate web of levels, layers and links. Thus, any utterance or piece of text is organised through several distinct levels of language.Levels of languageTo start us off, here is a list of the major levels of language and their related technical terms in language study, along with a brief description of what each level covers:level of languageThe sound of spoken language;the way words are pronounced.The patterns of written language;the shape of language on the page.The way words are constructed; words and their constituent structures.The way words combine with other words to form phrases and sentences.The words we use; the vocabularyof a language.The meaning of words and sentences. The way words and sentences are used in everyday situations; the meaning of language in context. Branch of language study phonology; phonetics graphologymorphologysyntax; grammarlexical analysis; lexicology semanticspragmatics; discourse analysisThese basic levels of language can be identified and teased out in the stylistic analysis of text, which in turn makes the analysis itself more organised and principled, more in keeping so to speak with the principle of the three Rs. However, what is absolutely central to our understanding of language (and style) is that these levels are inter-connected: they interpenetrate and depend upon one another, and they represent multiple and simultaneous linguistic operations in the planning and production of an utterance. Consider in this respect an unassuming (hypothetical) sentence like the following:(1) That puppy's knocking over those potplants!In spite of its seeming simplicity of structure, this thoroughly innocuous sentence requires for its production and delivery the assembly of a complex array of linguistic components. First, there is the palpable physical substance of the utterance which, when written, comprises graphetic substance or, when spoken, phonetic substance. This-6INTRODUCTION'raw' matter then becomes organised into linguistic structure proper, opening up the levelof graphology, which accommodates the systematic meanings encoded in the writtenmedium oflanguage, and phonology, which encompasses the meaning potential of thesounds of spoken language. In terms of graphology, this particular sentence is written inthe Roman alphabet, and in a 10 point emboldened 'palatino' font. However, as if to echoits counterpart in speech, the sentence-final exclamation mark suggests an emphatic styleof vocal delivery. In that spoken counterpart, systematic differences in sound sort out themeanings of the words used: thus, the word-initial Inl sound at the start of 'knocking' willserve to distinguish it from, say, words like 'rocking' or 'mocking'. To that extent, thephoneme Inl expresses a meaningful difference in sound. The word 'knocking' also raisesan issue in lexicology: notice for instance how contemporary English pronunciation nolonger accommodates the two word-initial graphemes <k> and <n>that appear in thespelling of this word. The <kn> sequence - originally spelt <en> - has become a singleInl pronunciation, along with equivalent occurrences in other Anglo-Saxon derived lexisin modern English like 'know' and 'knee'. The double consonant pronunciation ishowever still retained in the vocabulary of cognate languages like modern Dutch; as in'knie' (meaning 'knee') or 'knoop' (meaning 'knot').Apart from these fixed features of pronunciation, there is potential for significantvariation in much of the phonetic detail of the spoken version of example (1). Forinstance, many speakers of English will not sound in connected speech the 't's of both'That' and 'potplants', but will instead use 'glottal stops' in these positions. This is largelya consequence of the phonetic environment in which the 't' occurs: in both cases it isfollowed by a Ipl consonant and this has the effect of inducing a change, known as a'secondary articulation', in the way the 't' is sounded (Ball and Rahilly 1999: 130).Whereas this secondary articulation is not necessarily so conditioned, the social orregional origins of a speaker may affect other aspects of the spoken utterance. A majorregional difference in accent will be heard in the realisation of the historic <r> - a featureso named because it was once, as its retention in the modern spelling of a word like 'over'suggests, common to all accents of English. Whereas this /rl is still present in Irish and inmost American pronunciations, it has largely disappeared in Australian and in mostEnglish accents. Finally, the articulation of the 'ing' sequence at the end of the word'knocking' may also vary, with an 'in' sound indicating a perhaps lower status accent oran informal style of delivery.The sentence also contains words that are made up from smaller grammatical con-stituents known as morphemes. Certain of these morphemes, the 'root' morphemes, canstand as individual words in their own right, whereas others, such as prefixes andsuffixes, depend for their meaning on being conjoined or bound to other items. Thus,'potplants' has three constituents: two root morphemes ('pot' and 'plant') and a suffix (theplural morpheme's'), making the word a three morpheme cluster. Moving up frommorphology takes us into the domain of language organisation known as the grammar, ormore appropriately perhaps, given that both lexis and word-structure are normallyincluded in such a description, the lexico-grammar.Grammar is organised hierarchicallyaccording to the size of the units it contains, and most accounts of grammar wouldrecognise the sentence as the largest unit, with the clause, phrase,STYLISTICS AND LEVELS OF LANGUAGE 7 word and morpheme following as progressively smaller units (see further A3). Much could be said of the grammar of this sentence: it is a single 'clause' in the indicative declarative mood. It has a Subject ('That puppy'), a Predicator ("s knocking over') and a Complement ('those potplants'). Each of these clause constituents is realised by a phrase which itself has structure. For instance, the verb phrase which expresses the Predicator has a three part structure, containing a contracted auxiliary '[i]s', a main verb 'knocking' and a preposition 'over' which operates as a special kind of extension to the main verb. This extension makes the verb a phrasal verb, one test for which is being able to move the extension particle along the sentence to a position beyond the Complement ('That puppy's knocking those potplants over!').A semantic analysis is concerned with meaning and will be interested, amongst other things, in those elements of language which give the sentence a 'truth value'. A truth value specifies the conditions under which a particular sentence may be regarded as true or false. For instance, in this (admittedly hypothetical) sentence, the lexical item 'puppy' commits the speaker to the fact that a certain type of entity (namely, a young canine animal) is responsible for the action carried out. Other terms, such as the superordinate items 'dog' or even 'animal', would still be compatible in part with the truth conditions of the sentence. That is not to say that the use of a more generalised word like, say, 'animal' will have exactly the same repercussions for the utterance as discourse (see further below). In spite of its semantic compatibility, this less specific term would implicate in many contexts a rather negative evaluation by the speaker of the entity referred to. This type of implication is pragmatic rather than semantic because it is more about the meaning of language in context than about the meaning oflanguage per se. Returning to the semantic component of example (1), the demonstrative words 'That' and 'those' express physical orientation in language by pointing to where the speaker is situated relative to other entities specified in the sentence. This orientational function of language is known as deixis(see further A7). In this instance, the demonstratives suggest that the speaker is positioned some distance away from the referents 'puppy' and 'potplants'. The deictic relationship is therefore 'distal', whereas the parallel demonstratives 'This' and 'these' would imply a 'proximal' relationship to the referents.Above the core levels of language is situated discourse. This is a much more open-ended term used to encompass aspects of communication that lie beyond the organisation of sentences. Discourse is context-sensitive and its domain of reference includes pragmatic, ideological, social and cognitive elements in text processing. That means that an analysis of discourse explores meanings which are not retrievable solely through the linguistic analysis of the levels surveyed thus far. In fact, what a sentence 'means' in strictly semantic terms is not necessarily a guarantor of the kind of job it will do as an utterance in discourse. The raw semantic information transmitted by sentence (1), for instance, may only partially explain its discourse function in a specific context of use. To this effect, imagine that (1) is uttered by a speaker in the course of a two-party interaction in the living room of a dog-owning, potplantowning addressee. Without seeking to detail the rather complex inferencing strategies involved, the utterance in this context is unlikely to be interpreted as a disconnected remark about the unruly puppy's behaviour or as a remark which requires simply a-8INTRODUCTIONverbal acknowledgment. Rather, it will be understood as a call to action on the part of theaddressee. Indeed, it is perhaps the very obviousness in the context of what the puppy isdoing vis-it-vis the content of the utterance that would prompt the addressee to lookbeyond what the speaker 'literally' says. The speaker, who, remember, is positioneddeictically further away from the referents, may also feel that this discourse strategy isappropriate for a better-placed interlocutor to make the required timely intervention. Yetthe same discourse context can produce any of a number of other strategies. A lessforthright speaker might employ a more tentative gambit, through something like 'Sorry,but I think you might want to keep an eye on that puppy .. .'. Here, indirection serves apoliteness function, although indirection of itself is not always the best policy in urgentsituations where politeness considerations can be over-ridden (and see further thread 9).And no doubt even further configurations of participant roles might be drawn up toexplore what other discourse strategies can be pressed into service in this interactivecontext.SummaryThe previous sub-unit is no more than a thumbnail sketch, based on a single illustrativeexample, of the core levels of language organisation. The account of levels certainlyoffers a useful springboard for stylistic work, but observing these levels at work intextual examples is more the starting point than the end point of analysis. Later threads,such as 6 and 7, consider how patterns of vocabulary and grammar are sorted accordingto the various functions they serve, functions which sit at the interface betweenlexico-grammar and discourse. Other threads, such as 10 and 11, seek to take someaccount of the cognitive strategies that we draw upon to process texts; strategies thatreveal that the composition of a text's 'meaning' ultimately arises from the interplaybetween what's in the text, what's in the context and what's in the mind as well. Finally, itis fair to say that contemporary stylistics ultimately looks towards language as discourse:that is, towards a text's status as discourse, a writer's deployment of discourse strategiesand towards the way a text 'means' as a function of language in context. This is not for amoment to deny the importance of the core levels of language - the way a text isconstructed in language will, after all, have a crucial bearing on the way it functions asdiscourse.The interconnectedness of the levels and layers detailed above also means there is nonecessarily 'natural' starting point in a stylistic analysis, so we need to be circumspectabout those aspects of language upon which we choose to concentrate. Interactionbetween levels is important: one level may complement, parallel or even collide withanother level. To bring this unit to a close, let us consider a brief illustration of howstriking stylistic effects can be engendered by offsetting one level of language againstanother. The following fragment is the first three lines of an untitled poem by MargaretAtwood:You are the sunin reverse, allenergy flows intoyou ...(Atwood 1996: 47)GRAMMAR AND STYLE 9At first glance, this sequence bears the stylistic imprint of the lyric poem. This literary genre is characterised by short introspective texts where a single speaking voice expresses emotions or thoughts, and in its 'love poem' manifestation, the thoughts are often relayed through direct address in the second person to an assumed lover. Frequently, the lyric works through an essentially metaphorical construction whereby the assumed addressee is blended conceptually with an element of nature. Indeed, the lover, as suggested here, is often mapped onto the sun, which makes the sun the 'source domain' for the metaphor (see further thread 11). Shakespeare's sonnet 18, which opens with the sequence 'Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?', is a wellknown example of this type of lyrical form.Atwood however works through this generic convention to create a startling reorientation in interpretation. In doing so, she uses a very simple stylistic technique, a technique which essentially involves playing off the level of grammar against the level of graphology. Ending the first line where she does, she develops a linguistic trompe l'oeil whereby the seemingly complete grammatical structure 'You are the sun' disintegrates in the second line when we realise that the grammatical Complement (see A3) of the verb 'are' is not the phrase 'the sun' but the fuller, and rather more stark, phrase 'the sun in reverse'. As the remainder of this poem bears out, this is a bitter sentiment, a kind of 'anti-lyric', where the subject of the direct address does not embody the all-fulfilling radiance of the sun but is rather more like an energysapping sponge which drains, rather than enhances, the life-forces of nature. And while the initial, positive sense engendered in the first line is displaced by the grammatical 'revision' in the second, the ghost of it somehow remains. Indeed, this particular stylistic pattern works literally to establish, and then reverse, the harmonic coalescence of subject with nature.All of the levels of language detailed in this unit will feature in various places around this book. The remainder of this thread, across to a reading in D2 by Katie Wales, is concerned with the broad resources that different levels of language offer for the creation of stylistic texture. Unit B2 explores juxtapositions between levels similar in principle to that observed in Atwood and includes commentary on semantics, graphology and morphology. In terms of its vertical progression, this section feeds into further and more detailed introductions to certain core levels of language, beginning below with an introduction to the level of grammar.Stylistics, Paul Simpson, 2004。
谈论文学要知道哪些英语单词
谈论文学要知道哪些英语单词谈论文学要知道哪些英语单词文学是以语言文字为工具，形象化地反映客观现实、表现作家心灵世界的艺术，包括诗歌、散文、小说、剧本、寓言童话等，是文化的重要表现形式，以不同的形式即体裁，表现内心情感，再现一定时期和一定地域的社会生活。
文学就在我们生活里。
但你和外国人谈论文学时，一定要知道下面这些英语单词。
1).author n.作者，作家The author of this novel must be a detective这本小说的作者一定是一个侦探。
2).write v.书写，写作If you miss me, please write letters to me如果你念我，就请给我写信。
3).literature n.文学，文学作品As far as literature is concerned.I am very fond of classics就文学作品而言，我很喜欢古典作品。
4).work n.作品If my memory serves me right, the famous sonnet is Shakespeare's work如果我没记错的话，这首著名的十四行诗是莎士比亚的作品。
5).stylistics n.文体学，风格学Stylistics is a branch of linguistics文体学是语言学的一个分支。
6).poetry n.诗歌，诗集l often recite poetry as possible as I can in my spare time在我有空时，我经常尽可能的多背诗。
7).antithesis n. 对句，对偶The foreign friend is puzzled about the antithesis那个外国朋友看不懂对句。
8).verse n.诗，韵文From whom did you quote these verses?你从谁那里引用了这些诗句?9).ballad n.歌谣，民谣My mother likes ballads while I like pop music我妈妈喜欢民谣，但是我喜.欢流行音乐。
Stylistic Devices(全)
Stylistic Devices (Rhetorical Devices, Figures of Speech)Stylistic devices make your speeches, essays etc. more interesting and lively and help you to get and keep your reader‟s / listener‟s attention.Stylistic DevicesAlliteration : repetition of initial consonant soundThe initial consonant sound is usually repeated in two neighbouring words (sometimes also in words that are not next to each other). Alliteration draws attention to the phrase and is often used for emphasis.Examples:Repetition of initial consonant sounds means that only the sound must be the same, not theconsonants themselves.Examples:▪killer command▪fantastic philosophy▪ A neat knot need not be re-knotted.If neighbouring words start with the same consonant but have a different initial sound, the words are not alliterated.Examples:▪ a Canadian child▪honoured and humbled (the …h‟ in honoured is silent)Allusion is used to explain or clarify a complex problem. Note that allusion works best if you keep it short and refer to something the reader / audience is familiar with, e.g.:▪famous people▪history▪(Greek) mythology▪literature▪the bibleIf the audience is familiar with the event or person, they will also know background and context. Thus, just a few words are enou gh to create a certain picture (or scene) in the readers‟ minds. The advantages are as follows:▪We don‟t need lengthy explanations to clarify the problem.▪The reader becomes active by reflecting on the analogy.▪The message will stick in the reader's mind.Examples:▪the Scrooge Syndrome (allusion on the rich, grieve and mean Ebeneezer Scrooge from Charles Dicken‟s “Christmas Carol”)▪The software included a Trojan Horse. (allusion on the Trojan horse from Greek mythology) ▪Plan ahead. It was not raining when Noah built the Ark. (Richard Cushing) (allusion on the biblical Ark of Noah)Many allusions on historic events, mythology or the bible have become famous idioms.Examples:▪to meet one‟s Waterloo (allusion on Napoleons defeat in the Battle of Waterloo)▪to wash one‟s hands of it. (allusion on Pontius Pilatus, who sentenced Jesus to death, but washed his hands afterwards to demonstrate that he was not to blame for it.)▪to be as old as Methusalem (allusion on Joseph‟s grandfather, who was 969 years old according to the Old Testament)▪to guard sth with Argus‟s eyes (allusion on the giant Argus from Greek mythology, who watched over Zeus‟ lover Io.)The same word or phrase is used to begin successive clauses or sentences. Thus, the reader's / listener's attention is drawn directly to the message of the sentence.Example:▪Every child must be taught these principles. Every citizen must uphold them. And every immigrant, by embracing these ideals, makes our country more, not less, American. (2)▪If we had no winter, the spring would not be so pleasant; if we did not sometimes taste of adversity, prosperity would not be so welcome. (Anne Bradstreet)▪The beginning of wisdom is silence. The second step is listening. (unknown)▪ A man without ambition is dead. A man with ambition but no love is dead. A man with ambition and love for his blessings here on earth is ever so alive. (Pearl Bailey)Anaphora is often used in conjunction with parallelism or climax.Antithesis emphasises the contrast between two ideas. The structure of the phrases / clauses is usually similar in order to draw the reader's / listener's attention directly to the contrast.Examples:▪That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong)▪To err is human; to forgive, divine. (Pope)▪It is easier for a father to have children than for children to have a real father. (Pope)Hyperbole : deliberate exaggerationUsed sparingly, hyperbole effectively draws the attention to a message that you want to emphasise.Example:▪I was so hungry, I could eat an elephant.▪I have told you a thousand times.The author / speaker raises a question and also gives an answer to the question. Hypophora is used to get the audience's attention and make them curious. Often the question is raised at the beginning of a paragraph and answered in the course of that paragraph. Hypophora can also be used, however, to introduce a new area of discussion.Example:▪Why is it better to love than be loved? It is surer. (Sarah Guitry)▪How many countries have actually hit […] the targets set at Rio, or in Kyoto in 1998, for cutting greenhouse-gas emissions? Precious few. (6)Litotes is a form of understatement which uses the denied opposite of a word to weaken or soften a message.Examples:▪That's not bad. (instead of: That's good/great.)▪Boats aren't easy to find in the dark. (4) (instead of: Boats are hard/difficult to find in the dark.)Metaphor compares two different things in a figurative sense. Unlike in a simile (A is like B.), “like” is not used in metaphor (A is B.).Example:▪Truths are first clouds, then rain, then harvest and food. (Henry Ward Beecher)▪Through much of the last century, America's faith in freedom and democracy was a rock in a raging sea. Now it is a seed upon the wind, taking root in many nations. (2)Metonomy (unlike metaphor) uses figurative expressions that are closely associated with the subject in terms of place, time or background. The figurative expression is not a physical part of the subject, however (see synecdoche).Examples:▪The White House declared … (White House = US government / President)▪The land belongs to the crown. (crown = king / queen / royal family / monarchy)▪Empty pockets never held anyone back. Only empty heads and empty hearts can do that.(Norman Vincent Peale)▪(empty pockets = poverty; empty heads = ignorance / dullness / density; empty hearts = unkindness / coldness)▪the spit-and-polish command post (meaning: shiny clean) (3)First-person narratorThe narrator tells the story from his / her point of view (I). It is a limited point of view as the reader will only know what the narrator knows. The advantage of the first person narration is that the narrator shares his / her personal experiences and secrets with the reader so that the reader feels part of the story.Example:▪Charlotte Bronte: Jane EyreThird-person narratorThe narrator is not part of the plot and tells the story in the third person (he, she). Usually the narrator is all-knowing (omniscient narrator): he / she can switch from one scene to another, but also focus on a single character from time to time.Example:▪Charles Dickens: Oliver TwistThe third-person narrator can also be a personal narrator (point of view of one character) who tells the story in the third person (he, she), but only from the central character's point of view. This point of view is rarely used.Example:▪James Joyce: UlyssesThe pronounciation of the word imitates a sound. Onomatopoeia is used because it's often difficult to describe sounds. Furthermore, a story becomes more lively and interesting by the use of onomatopoeia.Examples:▪The lion roared.▪The steaks sizzled in the pan.▪The bomb went off with a bang.Successive clauses or sentences are similarly structured. This similarity makes it easier for the reader / listener to concentrate on the message.Example:▪We are bound by ideals that move us beyond our backgrounds, lift us above our interest, and teach us what it means to be citizens. (2)▪The mediocre teacher tells, The good teacher explains. The superior teacher demonstrates.The great teacher inspires. (William A. Ward)▪The mistakes of the fool are known to the world, but not to himself. The mistakes of the wise man are known to himself, but not to the world. (Charles Caleb Colton)▪Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I may remember. Involve me and I will learn. (Benjamin Franklin)Note: When writing, parallelism is a useful device for instructions. Due to the parallel structure, the reader can concentrate on the message and will immediately know what to do (see examples below).Example 1 (no parallelism):▪Open the book first.▪You must read the text now.▪There are pictures in the book–Look at them.▪The questions must be answered.Example 2 (parallelism):▪Open the book.▪Read the text.▪Look at the pictures.▪Answer the questions.You surely agree that the second instruction is easier to follow (and to remember) than the first one. The change of structure in the first example is confusing and distracts the reader from the actual message. It might be okay withsimple messages like the ones we used here. But following more complex instructions is really hard if they are not in parallel structure.The normal progression of a sentence is interrupted by extra information or explanations enclosed in commas, brackets or dashes. The extra information can be a single word, a phrase or even a sentence.Examples:▪We (myself, wife Lorraine and daughters Caroline and Joanna) boarded our boat 'Lynn', a Duchess class vessel barely a year old, at Black Prince Holidays' Chirk boatyard. (4)▪The boats have remarkably few controls and we were given a thorough briefing about 'driving' ours–along with advice on mooring, lock operation and safety considerations–by Pauline, who even set off with us for a few minutes to ensure we were confident. (4)Personification:attribution of human characteristics to animals, inanimate objects or abstractionsAnimals, inanimate objects or abstractions are represented as having human characteristics(behaviour, feelings, character etc.). Personification can make a narration more interesting and lively.Examples:▪Why these two countries would remain at each other's throat for so long. (3)▪I closed the door, and my stubborn car refused to open it again.▪The flowers nodded their heads as if to greet us.▪The frogs began their concert.Repetition : repeating words or phrasesWords or phrases are repeated throughout the text to emphasise certain facts or ideas.Examples:▪Down, down, down. Would the fall never come to an end! »I wonder how many miles I've fallen by this time?« she said aloud. […]Down, d own, down. There was nothing else to do, so Alice soon began talking again. […] (5)▪America, at its best, matches a commitment to principle with a concern for civility. A civil society demands from each of us good will and respect, fair dealing and forgiveness. […]America, at its best, is also courageous. Our national courage […]America, at its best, is compassionate. In the quiet of American conscience, we know that deep, persistent poverty is unworthy of our nation's promise. […] (2)Rhetorical Question : question without a direct answerThe author / speaker raises a question, but doesn't answer it directly as he/she sees the answer (usually Yes or No) as obvious.Rhetorical questions are used to provoke, emphasise or argue.Examples:▪When public money brings windfalls to a few, why should the state not take a share? (6)▪But was the best way to win them over to threaten to ignore them altogether? Like so many things this week, the adminitstration's diplomacy needs a smoother touch. (6) (Note that thesentence following the question is not an answer to it.)Simile : direct comparisonTwo things are compared directly by using 'like' (A is like B.).Other possibilities are for example:▪ A is (not) like B▪ A is more/less than B▪ A is as … as B▪ A is similar to B▪ A is …, so is B▪ A does …, so does BExamples:▪conrete box-style buildings are spreading like inkblots (3)▪The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel (5)▪Personality is to a man what perfume is to a flower. (Charles Schwab)▪My friend is as good as gold.Synechdoche is some kind of generalization or specification that uses a part, a member or a characteristic of what is meant. The following possibilities are common:Part used instead of the wholeExample:▪Turning our long boat round […] on the last morning required all hands on deck… (hands = people) (4)Whole used instead of a partExample:Specific term used instead of a general one:Example:A statement is deliberately weakened to sound ironical or softened to sound more polite.Note that understatement is a common feature of the English language (especially British English) used in everyday-life situations.Examples:▪I know a little about running a company. (a successful businessman might modestly say.)▪I think we have slightly different opinions on this topic. (instead of: I don't agree with you at all.)。
Stylistics
Procedure of stylistic analysis:
• The components and the procedure of stylistic analysis. A stylistic analysis involves description, interpretation and evaluation. When discussing components of literary criticism, Short has pointed out: "the three parts are logically ordered: Description ← Interpretation ← Evaluation"
Page 6
• a grief ago • The phrase violates two rules of English: a)
the indefinite article clashes syntactically with the uncountable noun grief, because it normally modifies a countable one; b) the postmodifying adverb ago clashes semantically with the head word grief, for it usually is able to modify a noun to do with time. But grief is a word which expresses emotion. The highly deviant nature of the phrase
process which includes silent pause --- silent breaks between words, and filled pause, e.g. um, er, ah Caesura )
Stylistics and Translation
In all these varieties, language performs various communicative roles, ie FUNCTIONS. For example, language is used to communicate ideas, to express attitudes, and so on. The roles that language plays are ever changing and the number of the roles can be numerous. There have been many attempts to categorize these roles into a few major functions.
1.4. Language Varieties and Function When language is used, it is always used in a context. What is said and how it is said is often subject to a variety of circumstances. In other words, speech events differ in different situations, for different purposes, through different media, and amidst different social environments. We often adjust our language according to the nature of the situation. Some situations seem to depend generally and fairly consistently on a regular set of linguistic features: as a result, there have appeared different types of a language which are called VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE. For example, there are different types of English. There is no such thing as a homogeneous English.
Stylistics
现代文体观（2）：ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้离观
Style as deviations from the norm 偏离的方式： 数量 性质 偏离的理据： 偏离(deviation)和陌生化 (defamiliarization）突出 (foregrounding)
Development
Diachronic study Synchronic study
• STYLE?
Different definitions of style
Style as form (Aristotle) Style as eloquence (Cicero) Style is the man. (Buffon) Style as personal idiosyncrasy (Murry)
Scholars’ views on stylistics (2)
• Crystal & Davy (1969): Investing English Style [M] : 宏观方面,风格指的是在某时间或某一时期内,由某一群人共 享的语言习惯(Crystal & Davy, 1990:1-10)。
1. 2. 3.
4. 5.
• STYLISTICS?
Scholars’ views on stylistics (1) • Widdowson: By stylistics, I mean the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation and I shall take the view that what distinguishes stylistics from literary criticism on the one hand and linguistics on the other is that it is essentially a means of linking the two (1975: 3). • Leech: the study of the use of language in literature(1969:1), stylistics is a meeting ground of linguistics and literary study(ibid,2).
stylistics文体学英文定义
stylistics文体学英文定义Stylistics is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the study of style in language. It is concerned with the analysis and interpretation of the linguistic features that contribute to the distinctive character of a text or a speaker's language use. Stylistics examines how language is used in different contexts and for different purposes, and how these choices can convey meaning and create particular effects.The study of stylistics involves the examination of various linguistic elements, such as vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and rhetoric, and how they are used to create a particular style or tone. Stylistics also considers the role of context, including the social, cultural, and historical factors that influence language use.One of the key aspects of stylistics is the concept of foregrounding, which refers to the use of linguistic features that draw attention to themselves and create a sense of prominence or emphasis. This can be achieved through the use of unusual or unexpected language, such as metaphors, alliteration, or unusual sentence structures.Stylistics also considers the relationship between form and content, and how the way language is used can shape the meaning andimpact of a text. For example, the use of formal or informal language, the choice of vocabulary, and the structure of sentences can all contribute to the overall tone and effect of a piece of writing.Another important aspect of stylistics is the analysis of literary texts, where the focus is on the distinctive linguistic features that contribute to the style and meaning of a work of literature. This can include the examination of narrative techniques, such as point of view and characterization, as well as the use of figurative language, symbolism, and other literary devices.Stylistics can also be applied to other forms of communication, such as speech, advertising, and political discourse. In these contexts, the analysis of style can reveal insights into the speaker's or writer's intentions, the target audience, and the broader cultural and social context in which the language is being used.One of the key challenges in the study of stylistics is the need to balance the objective analysis of linguistic features with the subjective interpretation of their meaning and effect. Stylistic analysis often requires a deep understanding of language, as well as a keen eye for detail and a willingness to engage with the nuances and complexities of language use.Despite these challenges, the study of stylistics remains an importantand influential field within linguistics. By examining the ways in which language is used to create meaning and effect, stylistics can provide valuable insights into the nature of language and communication, and can contribute to a deeper understanding of the human experience.。
英语文体学教案
第一章1.1 Definition of StylisticsStylistics has long been considered as a highly significant but very discussible branch of learning. It is concerned with various disciplines such as linguistics, semantics, pragmatics and literature. The word stylistics( ‘styl’ component relates stylistic to literary criticism, and the ‘istics’ component to linguistics). So stylistics is the bridge of linguistics and literature. Stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation.” (文体学是从语言学的角度研究文学语篇)Stylistics is an interdisciplined branch of learning which studies various differences between formal and informal, between deviant and normal, between magnificent and plain, between professional and popular, between foreign and domestic, between this and that individual.1.2 The Development of StylisticsThe date when stylistics became a field of academic inquiry is difficult to determine. However stylistics is often considered as both an old and a young branch of learning. It is old, because it orig inated from the ancient “rhetoric”. The famous ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle all contributed a lot to this branch of learning. It is young ,because the word “stylistics” first appeared only in 1882, and the first book on stylistics was written by a French scholar Charles Bally in 1902 and was published in 1909: Traite de Stylistique Francaise. This book is often considered as a landmark of modern stylistics. Consequently, a number of more coherent and systematic works of both a theoretical and a practical nature were published in the field.The subject of study in Bally’s time was oral discourse. Bally considered that apart from the denotative meaning expressed by the speaker4, there was usually an “overtone” which indicated differ ent “feelings”, and the task of stylistics was to find out the linguistic devices indicating these feelings.Later , the German scholar L.Spitzer(1887-1960), began to analyze literary works from a stylistic point of view, and therefore, Spitzer if often co nsider4ed as the “father of literary stylistics”.From the beginning of the 1930s to the end of the 1950s stylistics was developing slowly and was only confined to the European continent. From the end of the 1950s to the present time, modern stylistics has reached its prosperity.1.3 Definitions of StyleSo style is an integral part of meaning. It gives us additional information about the speaker’s/writer’s regional and social origin, education, his relationship with the his/her reader, his feelings, emotions or attitudes. Without a sense of style we cannot arrive at a better understanding of an utterance1）.Written---spoken in terms of channel2）The Differences between Formal and Informal Language3）modern----archaic in terms of time4）normal----deviated in terms of degree of novelty5）. common---professional in terms of technique（专业）Homework:1.What’s stylistics?2.What does stylistics study?3.Say something about the development of stylistics.4.Give examples to explain “Proper words in proper places makes the true definition of a style.”5.What does style study?6.Give example to illustrate the differences between spoken-- written,formal–informal, modern–archaic, norm—deviated, common---professional.第二章1. Definition of meanings of meaningAccording to Leech (1974 English linguists), meanings of meaning can be broken into seven kinds:1).Denotative meaningIt refers to literal meaning, refers to diction meaning.(super meaning) 词的概念意义。
stylistic
Poems on the perspective of stylistics----a different way to appreciate the poem Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective, which is a branch of applied linguistics concerned with the study of style in texts, especially (but not exclusively) in literary works.The goal of most stylistics is not simply to describe the formal features of texts for their own sake, but in order to show their functional significance for the interpretation of the text; or in order to relate literary effects to linguistic 'causes' where these are felt to be relevant.Different ways are implied to the analysis and appreciation of poems, including the analysis of background, of the poet's experience,also the stylistic analysis, which affords a rational way to appreciate the emotion of the poets,by the skills used in the poems . The lively words need the better way to make them easily understood by reeder. The followings are to show the poems on the perspective of stylistics.The EagleHe clasps /the crag/with crooked handsClose to the sun in lonely landsRinged with the azure world,/he stands//The winkled sea beneath him crawlsHe watches from his mountain wallsAnd like a thunderbolt he fallsThis poem has two stanzas, six lines and each line contains 8 syllables,from which we can see this poem is very short but very neat. The iambic foot of this poem is tetrameter,after each weak sound, a stressed sound is exactly followed,making the reading powerful.The rhyme sche me of this poem is “aaa, bbb”. And the rhyming words are “hands,lands ,stand, crawls,walls,falls”, expressing a stronger feeling and a greater strength. And the most of the words in this poem are monosyllables,no more than three syllables,except the word “thunderbolt’,which has three syllables.So those words are te nse, short but forceful.Also,Tennyson personify the eagle with the word "hands",and the expression of the eagle`s speediness and strength can be deeply left.As for phonetic devices,we can see it consists many kinds of phonetic devices, which picture out the prominent image of the eagle,and make the poem full of musical effect and full of melody.(1)Alliteration（头韵）is used many times in this poem, such as “claps , crag, crooked’in the first l ine of the first stanza. Those words show the vitality and the masculinity of the eagle by the powerful pronounce /k/. And "lonely , lands"," with , world" and “ watches, walls” are also belongs to alliteration.(2)Assonance（半谐韵）also can be seen here, suc h as “claps, crag,,hands”, “close , lonely”, “sea, beneath” and “wrinkle , him”. They provide this poem the beauty of sound.(3)Consonance（辅音）is an important phonetic device in this poem, such as “claps, hands”, “ringed , world”, “wrinkled , crawl” and “watches, his , walls”.They also give this poem a good coherence in sound.(4)There is another special phonetic device in thispoem---Onomatopoeia. In the poem we can see, the short but loud vowels such as /æ/ ,and the plosive sound,such as / k/ , /p/ , / g/ , / d/, make an impression of tough of the eagle. Then , with the sound / i :/,/ l/ and / n/ ,it describes the waves of the ocean.These special phonic sounds make the eagle seems more powerful and bring the readers the impact of mightiness hearing feeling.By the stylistic analysis, the image of eagle has been lifelike in our mind, and we can know the indomitable also the ferocious quality of eagle. Besides,the right way to read the poem is very important for understand the theme.The right place to pause and stress make the poem more powerful,which leaves the reader the impression of the static stateof first stanza , the dynamic of the second.The lake Isle of InnisfreeI will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree,And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles maden ine bean-rows will I have there, a hive for the honey-bee;And live alone in t hebe e-loud glade.And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes dropping slow, Dropping from the veils of the morning to where the cricket sings; There midnight's all a glimmer, and noon a purple glow,And evening full of the linnet's wings.I will arise and go now, for always night and dayI hear lake water lapping with low sounds by the shore;While I stand on the roadway, or on the pavements grey,I hear it in the deep heart's core.This lyric poem has three stanzas, each of which has the rhyme "abab", and the whole poem has the iambic hexameter,so when we read it smoothly, but without boringness.In the initial stanza, the first line uses the repetition,showing the poet's wish for doing to Innisfree directly,which attract the reader deeply. The first and third line line ends with the sound"i:",and second and fourth with "eid",which give the quiet feeling, echoing to the peaceful life of the island.The word "peace" and "dropping "in the middle stanza use the repetition, having the effect of emphasise and beautiful sound. The consonance of "morning "and "evening" forms the contrast of time.And"glimmer"and "purple glow" are metaphors,but they do not just mean the "sun"and "moon",also give the mysterious feeling, which is Y eats's style.There is the comparison between "slow" and "glow",one means quiet and the other movement，but both of them echo to the things described in the lines they lie in."S"of the words "sings ""wings" create the expression of cricket's song and linnet's dance,which is the onomatopoeia.At the beginning of the last stanza, repetition is used again ,which is the same phrase of the poem's staring, describing the poet's longing for the beautiful island.Also deep impression is left to reader. The word "lapping" is the onomatopoeia,having the function of making us seemly hear the the sound of lake water, just like the poet can do, and letting the beauty of the island impressed us vividly. The words "day"and "grey" are rhythm ,the function of which not only for rhyming ,also the former emphasizing the poet's around-the-clock longing for the island ,and latter echoing to the boring and painful life of city. The repetition for the second and third lines has the effect of emphasis, letting us know what is the poet's truly pursuit, not only the natural beautiful things ,like "the bee-loud glade","the veils of morning",the songs of "cricket"and the sound of"lake water lapping "etc.,but also the sound of heart, namely, the freedom of the poet's heart.Through the stylistic analysis of the two poems, the functionand importance of this way to appreciate the poems are clear, which is an overall means to understand the innate things in the poetry, by presenting the form of poem clearly ,the meaning of words vividly and the emotion of poet impressively.。
Stylistics 2 words
英语表示并列和从属关系的连接词种类和数 量比汉语多，使用频率比汉语高。汉译英时 常常要增补连接词。 ---他来，我走。 好好学习，天天向上。 车未停稳，不准上下。 喝水不忘掘井人。 无事不登三宝殿。 酒不醉人人自醉。
英语是语调语言，汉语是声调语言。 ---You may not go. / You may not go. All cats don’t like water. / All cats don’t like water. 我叫他去。/我叫他去。 我想起来了。/ 我想起来了。
新闻照片press photo新闻标题news headings/headlines 慢车local train 低价格商 品inexpensive goods 白酒spirits/liquor干货 dried food and nuts自行车出租bikes for hire 街道妇女common housewives/common neighborhood women国际大都市/ 旅游胜地a cosmopolitan city/resort national/state taxes, local taxes, customs duties, tariff rates, bonded warehouse area. Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Xixiangtang District, special economic zone, disaster area, exhibition area, press’s corner
Stylistics & Translation
II. Words
Just-for-fun examples:
Word choices and styles
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The content of each text is organized and presented according to various relational structures e.g. cause and effect, general and particular; matching or contrast), and genre schemes (i.e. the distinctive and characteristic forms of different types of texts, such as the form of a letter, a recipe, a legal document, a poem, or a play).
1.The Aims of Stylistics in Linguistic Description
Providing a methodology of analysis—a clear technique of description ideally allowing any persons to cope with any text they want to study, a procedure ensuring that no items of stylistic significance is overlooked, and replacing a sporadic approach with a systematic one seeking to avoid over-reliance on intuitive ability in stylistic analysis. The ordered approach aims at taking a text, working through it carefully, noting down its stylistic features, and discussing them in terms of a number of levels of language.
A’s second remark implies that he accepts B’s excuse and undertakes to do himself what he originally asked B to do (= ―Ok. I’ll go myself and see.‖).
To connect the sentences into a text, we need to make several modifications so that the sentences become cohesive with one another.
Two boys stood near a jeweller’s shop. They saw a man break the shop window and steal all the watches. They ran after him, because they took him for a thief.
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one related to the level of phonology/graphology, its formal one related of the level of lexis and grammar, and its 2. Levels to Language situational one related to the level of semantics, the contextual relations between situation and form.
In the example the relevance of B’s remark to A’s first remark is conveyed by pragmatic implication. ―I’m in pyjamas‖ implies an excuse for not complying with A’s command (= ―No, I can’t, because I’m in pyjamas.‖).
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In the text you may notice the following modifications, which serve as grammatical cohesive devices: (a) the use of the definite article on second mention, e.g. a shop→the shop a man→the man (b) the substitution of pronouns for nouns, e.g. two boys→they (c) the use of conjunction, e.g. They ran after him, because…
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The lexical cohesion in the text is realized by the collocation of the words that are in some way or other typically associated with one another, e.g. steal with thief;
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Pollution is a menace to us all.
(a sign on a beach)
Functioning as a sign on a beach, the example above is not simply a generalized statement, but a request for not polluting the particular beach. Without context, the example above can only be understood as a statement.
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2) The Concept of Context
The discussion of ―text‖ naturally leads to the discussion of ―context‖, because an understanding of the meaning of a linguistic unit or a text depends upon a knowledge of the context in which the unit or text occurs.
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―Context‖ has been understood in various ways. It may be linguistic or extra-linguistic. Linguistic context is alternatively termed as Co-Text, which refers to the linguistic units preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text. Extra-linguistic context (interchangeable with Context of Situation) refers to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning. Taking on a broader sense, the term Context may include not only the co-text (if there is any), but also the extra-linguistic context of a text.
a) The Level of Phonology/Graphology b) The Level of Lexis and Grammar c) The Level of Semantics
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3. Procedure of Analysis
There is no foolproof technique for analysing style, and each analysis may be compared to ―an adventure of discovery‖. Linguists suggest that we need a flexible method. The following points may prove to be useful in our practice.
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1) The Concept of Text
The first term we need to define is ―text‖, because it is the natural starting place for the study of style. A TEXT is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a united whole. It may be the product of a single speaker/writer (e.g. a sign, a letter, a news report, a statute, a novel), or that of several speakers (e.g. a piece of conversation, a debate). A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not. The connection among parts of a text is achieved by various cohesive devices, and by semantic and pragmatic implication. Let us construct a text from the following disconnected sentences.