语言学讲义 考研 9 Stylistics
语言学C9-1
2002.12.1
Chapter 9 Stylistics
13Βιβλιοθήκη YAR CAUC9.2.3 The analysis of literary language
• Literary texts can be analyzed in various ways. • Some of the following procedures may be of help in analyzing the grammatical structure and meaning of the text. • 1) Foregrounding on the level of lexis (word) • 2) Foregrounding on the level of word order and syntax • 3) On the grammatical level, analyze the structure of sentences • 4) In all cases, be aware of the systems of the language, identify the more "deviant”，“marked" or literary structures.
•
2002.12.1 Chapter 9 Stylistics 9
YAR CAUC
1) Simile (明喻)
• A SIMILE is a way of comparing one thing with another.
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Chapter 9 Stylistics
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YAR CAUC
2) Metaphor (隐喻)
• A METAPHOR also makes a comparison between two unlike elements; but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.
Stylistics中文文体学课件
3. I ‘m finding out that a lot of what I thought had been bonfired, Oxfam-ed, used for land-fill, has in fact been tidied away in sound archives, stills libraries, image banks, memorabilia mausoleums, tat troves, mug morgues.
Cf. A. The police are investigating the case of
murder. B. The police are looking into the case of
murder. (Lexically, Latin, French, Greek words are generally used in formal style; Words from old English are mostly used in informal style.)
F: He left early in order not to miss the train.
F: He left early in order that he would not miss the train.
6. 问句：
F: When are you going to do it?
IF: When
place all the same.
F: He endeavoured to prevent the marriage ; however, they married notwithstanding. 3. 非正式文体常用副词做状语；而正式文体常 用由介词和与该副词同根的词够成的介词短 语：
Rhetoric and Stylistics (9)
6) Stress 重音 Word stress & sentence stress --Word stress. In a word or expression, difference in stress may create difference in words or meaning. See p. 12. --Sentence stress. John bought that new car yesterday. (In a falling tone) (1) John stressed means not anybody else; bought it instead of stealing it.
2. Pun It is a figure depending on a similarity of sound and a disparity of meaning. It is play on words, the form and meaning of words, for a witty or humorous effect.
(4) Car stressed means not other vehicles; (5) Yesterday stressed may mean: …but it does not work properly today /…not the day before/…but he acts as if he had had it for a long time.
8)Tempo 语速 Speed of utterance. Speed of utterance conveys meanings. A slow tempo is related to special care and seriousness whereas a fast tempo suggests dismissal or cheerfulness. When a speaker is excited or impatient, he/she tends to speak at a quicker tempo. When hesitant, doubtful, or low-spirited, he/she tends to slow down. e.g.
stylistics
World-builders: t soon after they had left Ramandu’s country. l near the edge of the world c Edmund, Lucy, Drinian, Caspian and the crew o ship ,sun, birds, Aslan’s Table. Function- advancers they began to feel
Example of analysis by text world theory
A simple text: Very soon after they had left Ramandu’s country they began to feel that they had already sailed beyond the world. All was different. For one thing they all found that they were needing less sleep. One did not want to go to bed nor to eat much, nor even to talk except in low voices. Another thing was the light. There was too much of it. The sun when it came up each morning looked twice, if not three times, its usual size. And every morning (which gave Lucy the strangest feeling of all) the huge white birds, singing their song with human voices in a language no one knew, streamed overhead and vanished astern on their way to their breakfast at Aslan’s Table. A little later they came flying back and vanished into the east. (The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, C.S. Lewis)
英语语言学胡壮麟09Chapter 9_literature
Syntactical Level 1 Sentence Types According to different criteria, the English sentences can be classified into different types, and they each manifest distinctive stylistic features and are suitable for different ideas expressed.
Chapter 9 Language and Literature
9.1 three definitions of style
Style: Style as deviation, style is regarded as deviation or deviance, i.e. departure from what is normal. E.g. a grief ago, generally we use a noun indicating time in the expression “ a ago”, such as a month ago and the word to fill the slot is normally a countable noun. In this phrase, grief doesn’t meet the conventional requirement. It express an idea in a beautifully succinct way. Since grief means a feeling of great sadness and any feeling will last for some time, it is not difficult to figure out the message. That is , sth terribly sad has happened, and the speaker may have experienced grief repeatedly so that he can measure time in terms of it.
Stylistics 中文
些）等。
IF: A wolf, after all, is a wolf though it has artful disguises. F: A wolf, after all, is a wolf in spite of (despite) it has artful disguises.
3. IF: He tried to prevent the marriage but it took place all the same. F: He endeavoured to prevent the marriage ; however, they married notwithstanding. 3. 非正式文体常用副词做状语；而正式文体常 用由介词和与该副词同根的词够成的介词短 语： IF: He spoke confidently. F: He spoke in a confident manner. F: He spoke with confidence.
Syntactically, more verb phrases are used in
informal style while single verbs of equivalent meaning are used in formal style. IF : The criminals finally turned themselves in. F: The criminals finally surrendered. IF: I can’t put up with your bad manners. F: I cannot tolerate your bad manners. IF: He tried to make good use of his abilities in the new job. F: He endeavoured to utilize his abilities in the new position.
Stylistics 9
Theme 主位and Rheme述位▪Theme is a clause-initial element. Theme is always that which comes first in the clause (in English).▪Theme provides the "local context" for the development of the clausal message. The rest of the message is called Rheme.▪Theme is the point of departure. What this means is that the Theme is the point beyond which the message in the clause properly takes off.The thematic portion can have as many as three elements:Textual Theme （structural）ConjunctionsConjunctive adjunctsWh-relatives [½ text., ½ top.]Interpersonal Theme VocativesModal adjunctsFinite elementsWh-question words [½ int., ½ top.] Topical Theme ParticipantCircumstanceProcessWhere Theme stops and Rheme starts. Here is the golden rule:In the clause, you start at the beginning and keep on searching until you find the Topical Theme. Once you've done that, you have your Thematic portion.Everything else after the topical Theme is the Rheme. The Thematic portion, therefore, is everything from the start of the clause up to and including the Topical Theme (unmarked).However, you'll need to make an exception where marked Themes are concerned.It is possible for the thematic portion to contain more than one topical Theme, provided all the topical Themes in the thematic portion are marked. More on this later.Let's start at the beginning of the clause. If you encounter any of the following: ▪Continuatives (eg, umm, yeah, ...)▪Conjunctions (eg, and, or, but)▪Conjunctive adjuncts (eg, however, therefore, because, ...)▪Wh-relative (eg, that, which, who, ...)label them as Textual Themes.As indicated in the table above, make a slight exception for wh-relatives. They are both textual and topical Theme rolled into one. Going by the golden rule, if you have a clause initiated by a wh-relative (which is both a textual and topical Theme), everything else after the wh-relative would be Rheme. For example:The official, « whoTxt/Top Theme slept on a meeting, »Rhemelost his job.If you encounter the following:▪Vocatives (eg, Henry!, Sir!, ...)▪Modal adjuncts, including mood and comment adjuncts (eg, probably, usually, frankly, ...)▪Finite operators (eg, modal auxiliaries, 'be' auxiliary, ...)▪Wh-question word (eg, who, what, where, how, why)label them as Interpersonal Themes.Again, make an exception for wh-question words. These are both interpersonal and topical Themes squeezed into one. Example:WhyInt/Top Theme did the official sleep? RhemeFinally, label the first participant (usually NG), circumstance (usually PP or AdvG), or process (VG) as Topical Theme. Once you've done that, you have your thematic portion of the clause. Here's a simple example with all three types of Themes:Well, Txt Sir,IntwhyInt/Topdo you sleep on my meeting?RhemePlease note that topical Themes are obligatory for all clauses. The other Theme types (textual and interpersonal) are optional. This means that, sometimes, you may even need to recover ellipsed elements in analysis. For example, in:Superman bit Mr Bean, and was sorry about it.We have two clauses, the topical Theme of the first clause is "Superman". The second clause’s topical Theme is ellipsed “he”:andTxt (Top) was sorry about it RhemeUnmarked非标记的& marked 标记的ThemesBy markedness is meant that the occurrence of some phenomenon is less typical or frequent. Hence, when we say that a Theme is marked, we are saying that it is less typical or frequent for it to be realised that way. And the opposite for unmarked Themes. And, whenever we talk about marked or unmarked Themes, we are referring only to the topical Theme, not the textual or interpersonal Theme.Let's now see what the unmarked Themes are like for different clausal moods:Declaratives:The unmarked Theme is the subject, as in: "Snow White picked her nose everyday." All other realisations of topical Themes are marked, for example: "Her nose, she loves to pick" (here, the complement, rather than the subject, is the topical Theme).Interrogatives:For interrogatives, we need to separate polar from content interrogatives:▪▪Content:The unmarked Theme is the wh-question word, as in: "Why did Snow White pick her nose?" All other realisations are marked. Imperatives:Like interrogatives, we also need to make a distinction between two types of imperatives -- inclusive and exclusive imperatives.▪Inclusive:The unmarked Theme is us, which is actually thewayward form of the subject (= we): pick our noses!" All other realisations are marked.▪Exclusive: The unmarked Theme is the process: "Pick your nose!" All other realisations are marked.Topical Themes realised by circumstantial elements are marked.Not all marked Themes, however, are the same. They differ in terms of the extent of markedness. Compare: which one is more marked?Noses, she loves to pick.In the evenings, she loves to pick noses.Multiple marked ThemesRemember the golden rule above? Now, consider the sentence below:Yesterday, with the computer, late into midnight, I prepared my presentation.If we go strictly by the golden rule, then only Yesterday would be analysed as the topical Theme. The rest of the clause, from with the computer onwards, would be the Rheme. But this doesn't seem quite correct. Some linguists, such as Martin (1995), have proposed a more intuitively appealing approach, by regarding all marked Themes in such instances as topical Themes. If so, the thematic portion in this sentence wouldn’t simply be Yesterday, but Yesterday, with the computer, late into midnight. Such an approach makes sense in terms of the broader characterization of Theme as the point of departure, since the additional marked Themes function to lay the ground and prepare for the message within the clause to properly take off. This is the only exception to the golden rule.One last thingTopical Themes are obligatory only for finite clauses and imperatives. NF clauses can be without topical Themes due entirely to their structural compactness. Look out, though, for the subject in NF clauses. If it's there, you have a topical Theme, but not otherwise. So in the first clause of "//after hearing how loudly//he sang//", we have only a textual Theme (after), but no topical Theme. On the other hand, the NF clause "his singing having hurt their eardrums ..." has a topical Theme (his singing).Given+New and Theme+RhemeThe information structure and the thematic structure are closely related. Normally, a speaker will locate the Given information in Theme and the climax of New information in Rheme. If not, we have a marked information structure.Unmarked:A: I slept on the meeting yesterday.B: You will be fired.Marked:A: Sleeping on a meeting will cause a dismissal.B: Then I will be fired.In the textIn looking at the thematic progression of the text, it is usual to look at the topical Themes of the main clauses only. [Why? That's because subordinate clauses are always dependent on the main clause and add little to the main idea(s) of structure the text.]How do the Themes of clauses progressed through the text? There are various patterns of thematic progression (TP). The first two are more common:Theme Iteration:I am a student.I attend school everyday.I like study.I prefer physics especially.Theme Development:Yesterday I went to the bookshop.I bought a novel.It is about WWII.Rheme Iteration:John respects Margaret.I also admire her enormously.Everyone, in fact, wants to emulate her.Rheme Regression:John got a full mark in exam.But Rose accused him of cheating.No one, fortunately, takes Rose seriously.Theme Iteration:I am a student.I attend school everyday.I like study.I prefer physics especially.Theme Development:Yesterday I went to the bookshop.I bought a novel.It is about WWII.Rheme Iteration:John respects Margaret.I also admire her enormously.Everyone, in fact, wants to emulate her. Rheme Regression:John got a full mark in exam.But Rose accused him of cheating.No one, fortunately, takes Rose seriously.Group work: Do a T-P analysis on the following text and improve its cohesion by revising Theme-Rheme organization:Should Private Schools be Encouraged in China?First of all, let’s have a clear picture of the general condition of China’s education. Now, China still has very low level of education. Compared with a large population of students, schools are very insufficient in China. Students can be provided with more chances to receive education by private schools. Secondly, the country’s heav y burden can be relieved by private schools. Different from public schools, private schools are supported by individuals. Therefore the country does not take the responsibility of giving the financial support to these private schools. Furthermore the taxes paid by the private schools can benefit the country. Money gained from these private schools can be put in developing our country’s education.Should Private Schools be Encouraged in China (original)First of all, let’s have a clear picture of the general condition of China’s education. Now, China still has very low level of education. Compared with a large population of students, schools are very insufficient in China. Students can be provided with more chances to receive education by private schools. Secondly, the country’s heav y burden can be relieved by private schools. Different from public schools, private schools are supported by individuals. Therefore the country does not take the responsibility of giving the financial support to these private schools. Furthermore the taxes paid by the private schools can benefit the country. Money gained from these private schools can be put in developing our country’s educ ation.Should Private Schools be Encouraged in China (revised)①First of all, let’s have a clear picture of the general condition of China’s education.②Now, China’ education level is still very low. Compared with a large population of students,③schools are very insufficient in China.④Private schools can provide students with more chances to receive education.⑤Secondly, private schools can relieve the country’s heave burden. Different from public schools,⑥private schools are supported by individuals.⑦Therefore the country does not take the responsibility of giving the financial support to these private schools.⑧Furthermore the country can benefit from the taxes paid by the private schools.⑨Money gained from these private schools can be put in developing our country’s education.①Yesterday I worked with my workmates in the school library.②We were writing down the number of magazines when another workmate came.③She brought drinks for us.④Later, we began to transfer the old-fashioned magazines to the warehouse.⑤It was really a hard project.⑥We kept doing it from 3PM to 5:30PM.⑦After completing the work, we all felt tired and hot.①In recent years, China has become increasingly active in the process of regional economic integration. ②While promoting globalization China is putting more emphasis on regional, economic cooperation. ③Lately, China and the Association of South East Asian Nations are actively pushing forward the building of a free trade area. ④This free trade area is to be established in 2010. ⑤The trade valume between China and ASEAN had reached 200 billion US dollars by 2007.白狐（歌词，词作者：玉镯儿）我是一只修行千年的狐千年修行,千年孤独夜深人静时可有人听见我在哭灯火阑珊处可有人看见我在跳舞我是一只等待千年的狐千年等待,千年孤独滚滚红尘里谁又种下了爱的蛊茫茫人海中谁又喝下了爱的毒我爱你时,你正一贫如洗、寒窗苦读离开你时,你正金榜题名、洞房花烛能不能为你再跳一支舞?我是你千百年前放生的白狐你看衣袂飘飘,衣袂飘飘海誓山盟都化作虚无能不能为你再跳一支舞?只为你临别时的那一次回顾你看衣袂飘飘,衣袂飘飘天长地久都化作虚无。
语言学--unit9语言与文学Language and Literature
Dictionary definition
The world is like a stage.
The name of a
part of a
objective
to
synecdoche refer to the
whole thing.
simile Figurative language metapher
(4)
To demonstrate technical skill, and for intellectual pleasure
(5)
For emphasis or contrast
(6)
Onomatopoeia
9.3 The Language in Poety 9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry
Ex.9-15
Trochee and palm to palm is holy palmer's kiss
Ex.9-16
Anapest Willows whiten, aspens quiver
Ex.9-17
Dactyl Without cause be he pleased, without cause be he cross
(1)
Information about the poem
(2)
The way the poem is structured
lingustics chapter 9.4 The Language
in Fiction
9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point of View
(1) I-narrators (2)Third-person narrators (3)Schema-oriented language (4)Given vs New information (5)Deixis
语言学讲义 考研 9 Stylistics
• In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language.
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• Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and people‘s dialects, descriptive language, the use of grammar, such as the active voice or passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language registers语域, etc.
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• Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as socialisation, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis and literary criticism.
However, in Linguistic Criticism, Roger Fowler makes the point that, in non-theoretical usage, the word stylistics makes sense and is useful in referring to an enormous range of literary contexts, such as John Milton‘s ‗grand style‘, the ‗prose style‘ of Henry James, the ‗epic‘ and ‗ballad style‘ of classical Greek literature, etc. (Fowler, 1996: 185).12题三：Chiming 谐音
语言学Chapter 9
•
9· 1 Foregrounding and grammatical form前 2· 景化和语法形式
Events belong to the string of plot are usually foregrounded while those used to provide related information are backgrounded. Deviation（偏离）and parallelism（平行） are usually used to show foregrounding events. The study of foregrounding is called patterning（模式/干扰背景模式）.
Language & Literature 4
Chapter 9 Language & Literature • 9· Some general features of the literary 2 language
•
9· 1 Foregrounding and grammatical form前 2· 景化和语法形式
Language & Literature 2
Chapter 9 Language & Literature • 9· Theoretical background 1
• 研究表明: 自20世纪60年代，建立起来了现代文体学， 从此该学科就飞速发展起来。但20世纪60年代，文体 学是形式主义formalism的十年，70年代是功能主义 functionalism的十年，80年代是语篇文体学discourse stylistics的十年，那么在90年代，是社会历史sociohistorical和社会文化socio-cultural文体学。 • 2000年后，文体学的发展趋势有两个主要特征。首先， 向着社会历史和社会文化文体学的研究深入。其次， 正兴起一种多元发展plural-heads development的趋势， 不同文体学学派竞相发展，新的学派不时涌现出来。
语言学教程Chapter 9. Language and Literature
The term “foregrounding”
Definition Deviation of language involves all levels of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning, graphology,etc. Repetition is also a kind of deviation. Alliteration, parallism, and many figures of speech are the examples of foregrounding in literary language.
9.2 some general features of the literary language
Features of literary language are displayed in the following three aspects: 1. phonology 2. grammar 3. semantics Literay language differs from non-literary language in that the former is foregrounded in the above three aspects.
9.2.3 the analysis of literay language
Procedures we should follow when we analyze the grammatical structure and meaning of a literary text. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Chapter 9-11-S语言学
Chapter Nine Language and LiteratureSection One Features of Literary LanguageThere is a very close relationship between language and literature. The part of linguistics that studies the language of literature is termed LITERARY STYLISTICS. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.9.1 Theoretical backgroundOur pursuit of style, the most elusive and fascinating phenomenon, has been enhanced by the constant studies of generations of scholars. “Style”, the phenomenon, has been recognized since the days of ancient rhetoric; “stylistic”, the adjective, has been with us since 1860; “stylistics”, the field, is perhaps the creation of bibliographers. (Dolores Burton, 1990)Earlier stage: Helmut Hatzfeld was the first biographer of stylistics and his work in A Critical Bibliography of the New Stylistics (1953) was continued by Louis Milic”s andStylistics (1967), Richard Bailey and Dolores Burton’s English Stylistics (1968)and James Bennett’s A Bibliography of Stylistics and related Criticism (1986).Until Helmut Hatzfeld brought out his bibliography the word “stylistics” had notappeared in the title of any English book about style although “stylistique”hadappeared in French titles, beginning in 1905with Charles Bally’s Traite destylistique francaise. The distinction between the French “sylistique”(withimplications of a system of thought) and the English “stylistics”(with theconnotation of science) reflects the trends manifested in the grouping ofbibliographies from the more narrowly focused view of stylistics in the 1960s,when computer science and generative grammar led many to hope for more preciseways of describing their impressions of describing their impressions of style, toBennett’s bibliography which covers books published from 1967 to 1983. Establishment:1960s witnessed the firm establishment of modern stylistics and ever since then the discipline has been developing at an enormous speed. As Carter and Simpson(1989) observed, at “the risk of overgeneralization and oversimplification, wemight say that ifthe 1960s was a decade of formalism in stylistics,the 1970s a decade of functionalism andthe 1980s a decade of discourse stylistics, thenthe 1990s could well become the decade in which socio-historical and socio-cultural stylistic studies are a main preoccupation.”Present trends:the socio-historical and socio-culture studies are gaining momentum“plural-heads development”/ different schools of stylistics compete for development and new schools emerge every now and then (Shen 2000)9.2 Some general features of the literary languageWhat seems to distinguish literary from non-literary usage may be the extent to which the phonological, grammatical and semantic features of the language are salient, or foregrounded in some way. The phonological aspect will be outlined in the next section. In this section, we shall briefly discuss the grammatical and semantic aspects.9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical formIn literary texts, the grammatical system of the language is often made to “deviate from other, more everyday, forms of language, and as a result creates interesting new patterns in form and in meaning” (Mularovsky) by means of the use of non-conventional structures that seem to break the rules of grammar.Ex. 9—1 The 1960 dream of high rise living soon turned into a nightmare.In this sentence, there is nothing grammatically unusual or “deviant” in the way the words of the sentence are put together. However, in the following verse from a poem, the grammatical structure seems to be much more challenging, and makes more demands on our interpretative processing of these lines:Ex. 9—2 Four storeys have no windows left to smashBut in the fifth a chipped sill buttressesMother and daughter the last mistressesOf that black block condemned to stand, not crash.Ex. 9-3The red-haired woman, smiling, waving to the disappearing shore. She left the maharajah; she left innumerable other lights o’passing love in towns and cities andtheatres and railway stations all over the world. But Melchior she did not leave.9.2.2 Literal language and figurative languageLITERAL meaning: The first meaning for a word that a dictionary definition gives.E.g. tree: “a large plant”, an organism which has bark, branches and leaves.FIGURATIVE meaning: the metaphorical meaning rather than the ordinary one.E.g. a family tree, (ancestry)Different forms of tropes (figurative use of language):SIMILE is a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing, and it explicitly signals itself in a text,with the words as or like.METAPHOR, like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements; but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated. Compare the followingtwo examples.Ex. 9—6 The world is like a stage. (simile). Ex. 9—7 All the world’s astage,Metonymy: like metaphor(the transport of ideas), means a change of name.Synecdoche: refers to using the name of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.9.2.3 The analysis of literary languageVarious ways can be used to literary texts, depending on:the kind of text we are dealing withthe aim of analysis (cf. P288-289 for detailed procedures)Section Two The Language in Poetry9.3 The language in poetry9.3.1 Sound patterningMost people are familiar with the idea of RHYME in poetry, in deed for some, this is what defines poetry. END RHYME(i.e. rhyme at the end of lines, cVC) is very common in some poetic styles, and particularly in children’s poetry:9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterningRhyme me-be love-prove/mi:/-/bi:/ /l v/-/pruv/Alliteration: the initial consonants are identical (Cvc)me-my pleasures-prove/mi:/-/mai/ /’ple z/ / pruv/Assonance(准押韵) describes syllables with a common vowel (cVc)live-with-will come-love/liv/-/wi /-/wil/ /k m/-l v/Consonance(辅音韵): Syllables ending with the same consonants (cvC)will-all/wil/- :l/Reverse rhyme（反韵）describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonant, CVc, rather than the vowel and the final consonant as is the case in rhyme.with-will/wi /-wil/Pararhyme（侧押韵）two syllables have the same initial and final consonants, but different vowels (CvC)live-love/l v/-l v/Repetition CVC, for example “the sea, the sea”. This is called REPETITION.9.3.3 Stress and metrical patterningIn English words of two syllables, one is usually uttered slightly louder, higher, held for slightly longer, or otherwise uttered slightly more forcefully than the other syllable in the same word, when the word is said in normal circumstances. This syllable is called the STRESSED syllable. For example, in the word kitten, kit is the stressed syllable, while ten is the UNSTRESSED syllable. In addition to stress within an individual word, when we put words together in utterances we stress some more strongly than others. Where someone puts the stress depends partly on what they think is the most important information in their utterance, and partly on the inherent stresses in the words.Metrical pattern : (韵律模式)1.Iamb(抑扬格): the pattern of unstressed and stressed syllables2.Trochee (扬抑格): the stressed followed by an unstressed syllables3.Anapest : two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed one4.Dactyl: a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones.5.Spondee: two stressed ( lines of poetry rarely consist only of spondees)6.Pyrrhic: two unstressed syllable9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and soundAt different times, different patterns of metre and sound have developed and become accepted as ways of structuring poems. These conventional structures often have names, and if you are analyzing poems, it is advisable to be familiar with the more frequent conventions that poets use. Some conventional forms of metre and sound are as follows. (see P294-295)CoupletsQuatrainsBlank verseOthers: sonnet, free verse, limericks.9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?The following checklist provided by Thornborrow and Wareing (1998) may help to cover the areas of discussion when analyzing poetry.(1)Information about the poemIf this information is available to you, somewhere in your analysis give the title of the poem, the name of the poet, the period in which the poem was written, the genre to which the poem belongs, e.g. lyric, dramatic, epic sonnet, or satire, etc. You might also mention the topic, e.g. whether it is a love poem, a war poem or a nature poem.(2)The way the poem is structuredThese are structural features that you should check for; there may well be others we have omitted. Don’t worry if you don’t find any examples of reverse rhyme, or a regular metrical pattern in your poem. What matters is that you looked, so if they had been there, you wouldn’t have missed them.Section Three Language in Fiction9.4. The language in fiction9.4.1 Fictional prose and point of viewAccording to Mick short (1996), we need at least three levels of discourse to account for the language of fictional process (i.e. a novel or short story), because there is a narrator-narratee level intervening between the character-character level and the author-reader level (see P298): ViewpointsI-narrators:3rd-person narratorsschema-oriented languagegiven vs new informationDeixis9.4.2 Speech and thought presentationSpeech presentation: (see P301-303)1)Direct speech (DS)2)Indirect Speech (IS)3)Narrator’s representation of speech acts (NRSA)4)Narrator’s representation of speech (NRS)The speech contribution of the character is arranged in a decreased orderThough presentation (see P301-304)1)Direct thought2)Free indirect thought3)Stream of consciousness writing9.4.3 Prose style (P306-307)1)authorical style:2)text style.Section Four Language in Drama9.5 The language in dramaA play exists in two ways—on the page, and on the stage. Our interest in this book, nevertheless, is in the language of the play on the page.9.5.1 How should we analyse drama?a)Drama as poetryb)Drama as fictionc)Drama as conversation9.5.2 Analysing dramatic language1)Turn quanjtity and length2)Exchange sequence3)Production errors4)The cooperative principle5)Status marked through language6)Register7)Speech and silence-female characters in plays9.5.3 How to analyse dramatic texts?1)Paraphrase the text—i.e. put it into your own words2)Write a commentary on the text3)Select a theoretical approach, perhaps from those discussed above.Chapter 11 Language and Foreign Language TeachingSection One Linguistic Views in Language1. The relation of linguistics to TEFL语言学和外语教学的关系Language is viewed as a system of forms in linguistics, but it is regarded as a set of skills in the field of language teaching. Linguistic research is concerned with the establishment of theories, which explains the phenomena of language, whereas language teaching aims at th e learner’s mastery of language.To bride the gap between the theories of linguistics and the practice of foreign language teaching, APPLIED LIGUISTICS serves as a mediating area that interprets the results of linguistic theories and makes them user-friendly to the language teacher and learner.Applied linguistics is conducive to foreign language teaching in two major aspects:1)Firstly, applied linguistics extends theoretical linguistics in the directionof language learning and teaching, so that the teacher is enabled to make better decisions on the goal and content of the teaching.2)Secondly, applied linguistics states the insights and implications thatlinguistic theories have on the language teaching methodology.2. Various linguistic views and their significance in language learning and teaching语言学观点及其在语言教学中的价值2.1 Traditional grammar传统语法A TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR is a pre-20th century language description, which is based on earlier grammars of Greek or Latin. As a product of the pre-linguistic era, it lays emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of the written language.In language teaching textbooks based on traditional grammars take prominent writers of the previous centuries as language models. They favor the pasty “purest” language form rather than the present “degenerated” from; they prefer the written language to spoken language; they concentrate on detailed points instead of the construction of the whole text. Under traditional language teaching, students learn to know many taboos. For example, in English one cannot use “Split infinitives” or end sentences with prepositions,because these are not allowed in Latin grammar. The traditional approach to language teaching involves the presentation of numerous definitions, rules and explanations, and it adopts a teacher-centered grammar-translation method, i.e. the main teaching and learning activities are grammar and translation study. In the view of many modern linguists, such an approach is damaging to language learning. They argue that one should teach the language, not teach about the language. In communication, one should learn first to “speak” the language, not to “read” the language.2.2 Struicturalist linguistics结构主义语言学Structuralist linguistics describes linguistic features in terms of systems or structures. Dissatisfied with traditional grammars, structuralist grammar sets out to describe the current spoken language which people use in communication. For the first time, structuralist grammar provides description of phonological systems, which aids the systematic teaching of pronunciation. However, like traditional grammars, the focus of structuralist grammar is still on the grammatical structures of a language. Structuralist teaching materials are arranged on a basis of underlying grammatical patterns and structures, and ordered in a way supposed to be suitable for teaching. Structuralist linguists are influenced by the behaviouristic view that one learns a language by building up habits on the basis of stimulus-response chains. In teaching method this implies a pattern drill technique which aims at the learner’s automatism’s for language forms.2.3 Transformational-Generative linguistics转换生成语言学Proposed by Chomsky, Transformation-Generative grammar (or TG grammar) sees language as a system of innate rules. In Chomsky’s view, a native speaker possesses a kind of linguistic competence. The child is born with knowledge of some linguistic universals. While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares his innate language system with that of his native language and modifies his grammar. Therefore, language learning is not a matter of habit formation, but an activity of building and testing hypothesis. As for the construct of a sentence, TG grammar describes it as composed of a deep structure, a surface structure and some transformational rules. Although Chomsky does intend to make his model a representation of performance, that is, the way language is actually used in communication, some applied linguists find that TG grammar offers useful ideas for language teaching. In designing teaching materials, for example, sentence patterns withthe same deep structure can be closely related, such as the active and the passive. Transformational rules may assist the teacher in the teaching of complex sentence construction. In the teaching of literature, TG grammar provides a new instrument for stylistic analysis. For instance, a writer’s style can be identified according to certain kinds of transformation which frequently appear in his writing, say, nonimalization, verbalization, adjectivization, adverbialization, passivization, etc. (Ohmann, 1964). Nevertheless, despite the various attempts to apply TG grammar to language teaching, the influence of such a formal and abstract grammar remains limited in the field of language education as Chomsky himself openly claimed that language teaching and learning is not his concern.2.4 Functional linguistics功能语言学Taking a semantic-sociolinguistic approach, Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics sees language as an instrument used to perform various functions in social interaction. Halliday writes a number of works in which he examines the development of language functions in the child and the function language has in society.For Halliday, learning language is learning to mean. In other to be able to mean, one has to master a set of language functions, which have direct relation to sentence forms. In the child language, there are seven initial forms. In the adult language, however, these discrete functions are replaced by three META-FUNCTIONS: the ideational function, the interpersonal function, the ideational function, and the textual function.Since systemic-functional linguistics sees the formal system of language as a realization of functions of language in use, its scope is broader than that of formal linguistic theories. In the field of language teaching, it leads to the development of notion / function-based syllabuses, which have attracted increasing attention. In the section of “syllabus design,” we will come back to this kind of syllabus in detail.2.5 The theory of communicative competence交际能力理论The concept COMPETENCE originally comes from Chomsky. It refers to the grammatical knowledge of the ideal language user and has nothing to do with the actual use of language in concrete situations. This concept of linguistic competence has been criticized for being too narrow and resenting a “Garden of Eden View”. To expand the concept of competence, D.H. Hymes (1971) proposes COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE, which has fourcomponents: POSSIBILITY –the ability to produce grammatical sentences; FEASIBILITY—the ability to produce sentences which can be decoded by the human brain; APPROPRIATENESS—the ability to use correct forms of language in a specific socio-cultural context; PERFORMANCE—the fact that the utterance is completed.In Hymes’ view, the learner acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical but also as appropriate. The aim of language learning is the ability to perform a repertoire of speech acts so as to take part in speech events. This is another way of saying that learning language is learning to perform certain functions. Like Halliday’s functional grammar, Hymes’ theory also leads to notion / function-based syllabuses, and a step further, communicative syllabuses.The theory of communicative competence stresses the context in which an utterance occurs. In its application, the teacher may teach how in different situations the same sentence can perform the function of statement, command, or request. On the other hand, while introducing different linguistic forms with the same semantic structure, for example the two forms of “you” in Chinese, he may draw special attention to different contexts in which they are used. The conceptual approach also leads to a concentration on discourse, in Hymes’ term linguistic routines—the sequential organization beyond sentences. Thus in the teaching of literature, the teacher can focus on features of different generes. In the teaching of conversation, he can introduce such strategies as opening, continuing, turn taking and closing. To present teaching contents of this kind, a learner-centered teaching methodology is necessary.Section Two Syllabus Design3. Syllabus Design教学大纲的设计3.1 What is syllabus?什么是教学大纲SYLLABUS is the planning of a course of instruction. It is a description of the course content, teaching procedures and learning experiences. The concept “syllabus” is often used interchangeably with “curriculum”, but CURRICULUM is also used in a broader sense, referring to all the learning goals, objectives, contents, processes, resources and means of evaluation planned for students both in and out of the school.3.2 Major factors in syllabus design大纲设计的主要因素1)Selecting participants选择参与者2)Process过程3)Evaluation评估3. Types of Syllabus教学大纲的类型Structural syllabus结构教学大纲Influenced by structuralist linguistics, the STRUCTURAL SYLLABUS is a grammar oriented syllabus based on a selection of language items and structures. The vocabulary and grammatical rules included in the teaching materials are carefully ordered according to factors such as frequency, complexity and usefulness. The linguistic units in a sentence may appear in slots:Situational syllabus情景教学大纲The SITUATONAL SYLLABUS does not have a strong linguistic basis, yet it can be assumed that the situationnalists accept the view that language is used for communication. The aim of the situational syllabus is specifying the situations in which the target language is used. The selection and organization of language items are based on situations. Grammatical forms and sentence partner are introduced and practiced, but they are knitted in dialogues entitled “At the Air-port”, “At the Supermarket”, “At the Bank”, and so on. In class an AURAL-ORAL TEACHING METHOD is adopted, i.e., new materials are heard and spoken before they are read and written by the learners. This method may still be teacher-centred, but compared with the grammar-translation method there is more particip ation on the learner’s part. The teacher can make use of picture, real objects, and the postures of the participants to involve students in dialogues and role-playing.Notional-functional syllabus意念-功能教学大纲First proposed by D. Wilkins and J.A. van Ek, the NOTIONAL-FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUS has received considerable attention since the 70s. Compared to the situational syllabus, the notional-functional syllabus has a much stronger theoretical basis—it is directly influenced by Halliday’s functional grammar and Hymes’ theory of communicative competence. The concept of NOTION refers to the meaning one wants to convey, while that of FUNCTION refers to what one can do with the language. For example, while sayi ng “Would you please tell me how to get to the library?” the speaker expresses the notion of inquiry and performs the function of asking the way. The notional-functional syllabus is initiallyconcerned with what the learner communicates through the language—not with what the grammatical structure is, or when or where he uses the language. It is proposed that one should analyze the needs of the learner to express meanings before deciding the lexico-grammatical options required. What the notional-functional syllabus wants the learner to acquire is, first, the knowledge of language structures, and second, the ability of using them in different situations to express ideas. The notional-functional approach to language teaching views all course components as a systematic whole, and classroom activities should be learner-centred.Communicative syllabus交际教学大纲A COMMUNICATIVE SYLLABUS aims at the learner’s communicative competence. Based on as notional-functional syllabus, it teaches the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions, and emphasizes the process of communication.Summarizing the previous theories on communicative approach to syllabus design, Janice Yalden (1983) lists ten components of a communicative syllabus:1. as detailed a consideration as possible of the purposes for which the learners wish to acquire the target language;2. some idea of the setting in which t hey will want to use the target language (physical aspects need to be considered, as well as social setting);3. the socially defined role the learners will assume in the target language, as well as the roles of their interlocutors;4. The communicative events in which the learners will participate: everyday situations, vocational or professional situations, academic situations, and so on;5. the language functions involved in these events, or what the learner will need to be able to do with or through the language;6. the notions involved, or that the learner will need to be able to talk about;7. the skills involved in the “knitting together” of discourse: discourse and rhetorical skills;8. the variety or varieties of the target language that will be needed, and the levels in the spoken and written language which the learners will need to reach;9. the grammatical content that will be needed;10. the lexical content that will be needed.Fully Communicative Syllabus完全交际教学大纲The FULLY COMMUNICATIVE SYLLABUS stresses that linguistic competence is only a part of communicative competence. If we focus on communicative skills, most areas of linguistic competence will be developed naturally. Therefore, what we should teach is communication through language rather than language for communication. It is suggested that fully communicative teaching should do away with well planned syllabuses. What should be decided is the problem of communication to be solved, and the teacher should involve his students into activities in which they imitate his use of language consciously or unconsciously. If the teacher can well direct this process, language learning will take care of itself.Section Three Language Learning and Error Analysis4. Language learning语言学习The previous sections summarized various linguistic views and their significance in language teaching and learning. The discussions centred around how the practice of language teaching and learning has been influenced by different schools of linguistic studies, e.g. traditional grammars, structuralist linguistics, transformational generative lingui9stics, functional linguistics, etc. Although “learning” has frequently mentioned, most of the discussions are actually about how “teaching” has been influenced by linguistic theories. It is true that language teachers’ knowledge in linguistics (or their linguistic views) plays an important role when they make decisions about what to teach and how to teach. However, in whatever circumstances, in order for language teaching to be effective, no decision should be made if due attention is not paid to what and how the learners actually learn. In fact, in the past three or four decades, the research focus in language education has shifted from “how teachers teach” to “how learners learn”.4.1 Grammar and language learning语法和语言学习One of the major issues raised by second language acquisition researchers is the controversial question of whether and how to include grammar in second language instruction. The discrete-point grammar instruction conducted by more traditional language teachers has been widely criticized for focusing on forms and ignoring meanings. However, findings from immersion and naturalistic language acquisition studies suggest that when classroom second language learning is entirely experiential and meaning-focused, some linguistic features do not ultimately develop to target like levels (Doughtyand Williams, 1998:2). As a compromise between the “purely form focused” approaches and the “purely meaning focused” approaches, a recent movement of FOCUS ON FORM seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning.4.2 Input and language learning输入和语言学习It is self-evident that language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language. This input may come in written or spoken form. In the case of spoken input, it may occur in the context of interaction (i.e. the learner’s attempts to converse with a native speaker, a teacher, or another learner) or in the context of non-reciprocal discourse (for example, listening to the radio or watching a film).4.3 Interlanguage in language learning语言学习中的中介语Besides input, output has also been reported to promote language acquisition (Swain, 1985; Skehan, 1998). Correct production requires learners to construct language for the their messages. When learners construct language for expression, they are not merely reproducing what they have learned. Rather they are processing and constructing things. For example, they process syntax read or heard and construct syntax that can be used to express what they wish to convey.The conception of language output as a way to promote language acquisition is to some extent in line with the so called CONSTRUCTIVISM. A constructivist view of language argues that language (or any knowledge) is socially constructed (Nunan, 1999:304) . Learners learn language by cooperating, negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks. In other words, they construct language in certain social and cultural contexts.5. Error Analysis错误分析5.1 Errors, mistakes, and error analysis语法错误，语用错误和错误分析When a linguistic item is used as the result of faulty or incomplete learning, the learner is considered to have committed an error. A distinction is sometimes made between an error and a mistake. ERROR is the grammatically incorrect form; MISTAKE appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context. While errors always go with language learners, mistakes may also occur to native speakers. There is another type of fault, namely LAPSE, which refers to slips of the tongue or pen made by either foreign language learners or native speakers. ERROR ANALYSIS, as the term suggest, is the study and analysis of。
现代英语语言学理论 CHAPTER 9
Cui Jianbin, Department of Foreign Studies, WTU
Chapter Nine
A Study on Modern English Linguistics: Language and Culture
现代英语语言学理论
Chapter Introduction Language in Poetry Further Reading
Discussion topics(10mins.)
1. What is literature? 2. What are possible literature forms? 3. What is the possible relationship between language
and literature? 4. What is the difference between literature language
and general language?
现代英语语言学理论
CLASS PRESENTATION
我们要美丽的生命不断繁殖， 能这样，美丽的玫瑰才不会消亡……
关关雎鸠，在河之州； 窈窕淑女，君子好逑。
现代英语语言学理论
CLASS PRESENTATION
Stoning
Cui Jianbin
April 10th—May 1st Friday 98
Advanced 50mins X2
现代英语语言学理论
现代英语语言学理论
现代英语语言学理论
Section One: : Features of Literary Language
Outline of Procedures
现代英语语言学理论
语言学Chapter 9
diameter: four syllables / two feet trimeter: tetrameter pentameter hexameter heptameter octameter
Stress Iamb: unstressed + stressed Trochee: stressed + unstressed Anapest: unstressed (2) + stressed Dactyl: stressed + unstressed (2) Spondee: stressed (2) Pyrrhic: unstressed (2)
Couplets Quatrains Blank verse
Exercise O! lest the world should task you to recite What merit lived in me, that you should love After my death,—dear love, forget me quite, For you in me can nothing worthy prove; Unless you would devise some virtuous lie, To do more for me than mine own desert, And hang more praise upon deceased I Than niggard truth would willingly impart: O! lest your true love may seem false in this, That you for love speak well of me untrue, My name be buried where my body is, And live no more to shame nor me nor you. For I am sham'd by that which I bring forth, And so should you, to love things nothing worth.
Chapter 9 Dramatic stylistics
Chapter 9 Dramatic StylisticsReview of last chapter1. Narrating points of view2. Devices for representing time and place in fiction3. Presentation of speech and thought in fiction4. Foregrounding in fiction5. Pragmastylistic analysis of fictionContents of this chapter1. Introduction2. Approaches to dramatic stylistics3. Approaches to drama analysis4. Differences between speech and writing5. Analyzing dramatic language6. Case study7. Suggested areas for further study8. Summary1. IntroductionDramatic stylistics deals with the relation between dramatic texts and linguistic theories. In other words, dramatic stylistics aims at the application of methods of linguistic analysis to the literary genre of drama. The stylistic applications to drama are based on linguistic theories such as pragmatics, discourse analysis, and cognitive linguistics.Stylistics has tended to have less to say about drama than about the two genres of literature with which it has been principally concerned, poetry and fiction. There are several reasons why this has been the case. One reason is that a play exists in two ways — on the page, and on the stage; this presents something of a dilemma for the literary critic, since the two manifestations are quite different and need different analytic approaches. When stylistics has focused on drama, it has almost invariably been concerned with the text, rather than the performance. The text is static and unchanging. The (live) performance of a play, on the other hand, is transient. When we take all the following elements into account —the variations which may occur between different performances of the same play, and the variations in the conditions under which a member of the audience can experience a performance — it becomes clear why most analysts prefer to devote their labour to written copies of the play. (Thornborrow and Wareign, 2002: 116) However, such a state of research suggests that dramatic stylistics is a promising area full of space for further research.2. Approaches to dramatic stylistics2.1 Feng Zongxin’s approach: pragmastylistic analysis of dramatic textsBased on a detailed introduction to the discipline of pragmastylistics, Feng Zongxin (2002) discusses the pragmastylistics of drama, focusing on the investigation into the application of the interpersonal relationships and the violation and observance of conversational maxims to the stylistic analysis of drama, especially of dramatic texts.Models for pragmatics-oriented dramatic analysisThere have been various approaches for analyzing dramatic discourse. Most of them are based on models of conversation analysis at the level of discourse. Earlier models focused on the analysis of spoken discourse, based on the discovery that spoken discourse is highly organized and amenable to analysis using traditional linguistic concepts such as sequential and hierarchical organization, system and structure, and so on. More recent models are pragmatics-oriented and are more reliable for analyzing the contextual situations of dramatic texts in which communication is carried out. However, like traditional studies of drama, such studies focus only on dialogue, leaving out stage directions as their predecessors did in dramatic analysis and their counterparts do in theatrical criticism.Based on the studies of Pratt (1977), Tannen (1986), Carter (1989), Short (1989), and Birch (1993), who have applied theories of pragmatics to the study of dramatic texts, a pragmastylistic approach to drama aims at dealing with what is more than the actual dialogue of the characters in the play, e.g., implicature, unsaid intentions, exercise of power, struggle for talk control, change of social intentions, etc. and with the relationships between the playwright and the various readers on the macro level of communication.A major advantage of pragmastylistic analysis lies in its heuristic power on both levels. While the characters observe the Cooperative Principle and implicate their intentions, and to achieve their ends, the audience exploit the Cooperative Principle and maxims to infer thespeakers‘motives and uncover their conversational goals. While the playwright observes the Cooperative Principle to implicate their intentions and achieve their ends in producing the play texts, the readers exploit the same Cooperative Principle and maxims to infer the writer‘s motives and uncover his goals in the process of literary interpretation.Two case studiesOn the base of the above discussion, the interpersonal relationships in the play The Lesson is dealt with from the three aspects of writer-reader relationship, character-character relationship, and language and patterns of communication. And the violation and observance of conversational maxims in The Bald Soprano is addressed from the two aspects of violations on the macro-level of communication as well as violations on the micro-level of communication including nonverbal feedback, illogical discourse control, silence and delayed response, phatic communion and relevance, and nonsense and communicative incompetence.2.2 Y ang Xueyan’s approachYang Xueyan (1991) deals with the role of discourse analysis in dramatic analysis by applying the theories of four schools of discourse analysis to the analysis of a passage of dialogue taken from H. Pinter‘s The Lover from the following aspects: speech act theory and dramatic analysis, principles of rhetorical and dramatic analysis, theories of the structure of conversation and dramatic analysis, and theories of ranking scales and dramatic analysis.A very important approach to dramatic stylistics is offered by Thornborrow and Wareign (2002: 115-144) fundamentally from the perspective of discourse analysis. The hold that the text of a play is a legitimate and interesting object of study, and with a point Short (1996) makes, that discourse analysis is a way of analyzing the text which can take account of its dramatic properties. The approach will be introduced in detail below.3. Approaches to drama analysis3.1 Drama as poetryStylistic analysis of dramatic texts has tended to follow one of three approaches. The first of these is to treat an extract of the text as a poem. Since sound and metre are as relevant in many dramatic texts as they are in poetry, everything to do with metre, sound patterning, syntax and figurative language already discussed in the previous chapters might be appropriate areas to analyze.3.2 Drama as fictionSecondly, the play can be analyzed for character and plot, treating it more or less like fiction. The two components of plot and character clearly are as significant in dramatic texts as in fiction, so again, this is an obviously relevant way to proceed; some of the approaches described in the chapter on fictional stylistics can be used to do this.Drama however differs fundamentally from fiction in that it usually lacks a narrative voice, and this absence can make a novel difficult to dramatize successfully.There are ways, in drama, of attempting to deal with the function of the narrative voice. A chorus, as was used in Greek Tragedy, has also been used in plays by T. S. Eliot (Murder in the Cathedral and The Cocktail Party, for example), and can give another perspective on the actions of the characters or plot development. Dylan Thomas used a narrative voice reading over the play in Under Milkwood, and Dennis Potter, in the television play The Singing Detective, uses a voice-over technique.Information about the plot and the characters is sometimes given through explicit interjections by the playwright in the text of the play, as stage directions. George Bernard Shaw, for example, gives very precise instructions about the appearance of his characters and the set. Explicit notes such the opening stage directions to Arms and the Man can be interpreted by the director, actors, costume and set designers into audible signals through the voice of accent and other features of the speech of the characters, and into visual signals such as clothing, posture and movements, which can give the audience information about character not dissimilar to that whicha narrative voice might deliver.3.3 Drama as conversationOne crucial aspect in which drama differs from poetry and fiction is in its emphasis on verbal interaction, and the way relationships between people are constructed and negotiated through what they say. This is where linguistics really comes into its own.Linguistics, and techniques of discourse analysis in particular, can help us analyze the exchanges between characters.4. Differences between speech and writingIt may appear a self-evident truth that speech in plays is quite unlike naturally occurring conversation. However, even apparently naturalistic contemporary dramas usually use language ina way which is quite unlike the language of ordinary, private conversations.4.1 Pauses and pause fillersShort pauses are very common when people speak; we often pause while we organize our thoughts. There are also some pause fillers: the noises we make when we have not finished what we want to say, but are hesitating. Sounds we make in those circumstances include umm, uh, mmm and er. Pauses and umms and ers do occur in drama too, of course, but usually in controlled ways. On the radio, recordings of people who umm and er too much when they are interviewed are often edited before they go on the air, so they sound smoother, briefer, faster-moving and more confident.4.2 Unclear speechNatural conversations often have unclear parts to them, especially when they are recorded –because speakers turn away from the microphone, because they laugh or cough or eat while they are talking, because they whisper or mutter to themselves or to someone very close to them, because they pronounce words or phrases in a way unfamiliar to the hearer/transcriber, or because they speak very quickly. In contrast, on the stage or in films, it is usually the actor‘s job to make sure that every word the audience is supposed to hear is clear and audible.4.3 Repetition and recyclingA lot of repetition takes place when we talk. When we speak, we generally make a lot of what might be termed ‗production errors‘, which we repair as we go along. It is common to repeat the first sound of a word (b. b. biro). Recycling occurs when we get halfway through a phrase or an utterance and decide we need to amend some aspect of the grammar; we then return to the beginning and repeat it with the amendment in place.These features occur selfdom in scripted plays, but are evident in some modern films, in which the dialogue is ab-libbed, or deliberately made to appear like natural speech. Directors like Mike Leigh Woody Allen do this in their films.4.4 Turn-takingOne of the linguistic features of conversations which tends to be modified in dramatic texts is the way turns are taken, i.e. the way people having a conversation organize who is going to speak next. Simultaneous talk is sometimes described as ‗interruption‘. Overlap is frequent in conversations, but usually relatively short-lived.In plays, compared to in naturally occurring speech, there is usually a reduction in interruptions and overlaps. In scripted dialogue, the writer has already decided which character is going to speak next; it is not the participants, in this case the actors, who are organizing their turns at talk. Interruptions and overlapping speech tend to be quite carefully organized in plays, to appear to be overlapping and competing for the floor without making the speeches difficult to follow.Research suggests (Coats, 1994; Wareing forthcoming) that overlapping speech is a more common feature in the conversations of women than that of men.4.5 Back channel supportWhen we are listening closely to someone, or when we want to indicate that we are listening, we signal our attention to the speaker in a number of ways. We may turn towards them, lean towards them slightly, nod and / or make sounds which are called back channel support, or sometimes minimal responses. These are speech sounds like uhuh, yeah, and mmhmm.On stage, an actor might indicate that they are listening through body posture, but they are less likely to have back channel support scripted in for them – their listening is more likely to take place in silence. If you try not giving any back channel support, and not nodding when someone is talking to you in real life, what usually happens is that the speaker will become increasingly hesitant and unsure of themselves. This is not what usually happens on the stage, although there is no reason why this type of interaction cannot be dramatized.4.6 Discourse markersIn ordinary conversations, people frequently use words and phrases that have various, and sometimes rather ambiguous, functions. These include items like well, you know, like and others.These markers can signal a number of things, such as uncertainty, or the wish to disagree but politely, or they can be ‗in-group markers‘, or even all three things at the same time. These expressions are often imitated in plays — they can be important features of characterization and are one of the devices that writers use in pursuit of verisimilitude.4.7 Discourse cohesionThe term ―cohesion‖literally means ―sticking together‖. For a conversation or indeed any text to be understandable, it must be cohesive. One of the things that makes a conversation or text ―cohesive‖ is that all the information in it relates to something we have already been told or know anyway. In a scripted exchange, the writer or writers usually make sure that everything the reader or member of the audience needs to know is made explicit.5. Analyzing dramatic languageThe previous section is a discussion of the differences between language which occur naturally, and language which imitates speech in dramatic texts. In this section we look at the speech in dramatic texts and show how analytic techniques which linguists have applied to naturally occurring conversations can be applied to dialogue in plays to explore the interaction between characters.5.1 Turn quantity and lengthHow much a character talks can be indicative either of their relative importance in the play, or of how important they appear to think they are. Generally, central characters have longer and more speeches than minor characters. However, Bennison (1993: 82-84) argues that as the main character, Anderson in Tom Stoppard‘s play Professional Foul, develops as a character, he has fewer longer speeches — indicative of his increased ability to listen to others5.2 Exchange sequencesA model frequently proposed as a common structure for exchanges between speakers is the adjacency pair, a concept originally developed during the late 1960s in the work of American sociologist Harvey Sacks (1995), and used subsequently in much work in conversation analysis. Typical adjacency pairs are two-part exchanges such as greeting-greeting, question-answer, and request-response. Another model for structuring conversational exchanges is the so-called IRF model, developed in the approach to discourse analysis of Sinclair and Coultlhard (1975) who identify a three-part exchange structure, which is commonly found in teaching situations, when a teacher may ask a question (the initiation, coded I), to which the student replies (the response, code R). The teacher then gives feedback on the student‘s answer (feedback, coded F). Another frequently observed variation is what Sinclair and Coulthard term ‗skip-connecting‘, which is similar to the pattern of insertion sequences (see Levinson, 1983), where one exchange pair is embedded within another.The model of exchange structure can be useful when analyzing a dramatic dialogue which does not seem to conform to the expected pattern of exchange. Harold Pinter‘s plays, for example, are famous for the very strange dialogues between characters, where these expected patterns do not occur. The extract put on page 132 is from A Night Out. The characters, Albert and a Girl, are in the Girl‘s flat, where she has brought him back with her after picking him up on the street. This dialogue does not ‗fit‘ our model of exchange structure in several respects. First, Albert does not respond to the girl‘s exclamations about the dropped cigarette, and her commands to pick it up. Second, she asks him a series of questions, none of which he gives a direct answer to. Ignoring her questions and commands is one way he demonstrates the unequal distribution of power between them, which culminates in his threat of physical violence.Although people‘s real life conversational exchanges do not necessarily always conform to the type of models described above that analysts build for them, the analysis of exchange structure in dramatic texts can nevertheless be a useful approach to exploring aspects of character‘s relationships with one another through the kind of interactive talk that they do.5.3 Production errorsAs has been suggested above, so called production errors such as hesitation, repetitions and incomplete turns are common in ordinary, naturally occurring conversation, but less typical of dialogue in plays (except in films which deliberately imitate natural discourse). However, sometimes a writer will deliberately use forms such as hesitations to convey something about the character – that they are distracted, for example, or uncertain or shy, or confused, or embarrassed.5.4 The cooperative principleThe philosopher Grice (1975) developed the theory of a cooperative principle, which he asserted people used to make sense of their conversations by enabling them to distinguish between ―sentence-meaning‖and ―utterance-meaning‖, i.e., between what a sentence ―means‖(out of context) and what the speaker ―means‖ when they say that sentence (in a particular context).According to Grice, the cooperative principle is made up of four conversational maxims: themaxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of manner and the maxim of relevance. Grice suggested that people actually break these maxims quite often when they talk and that speakers also flout them in a way that is apparent to the addressee, but that we take this for granted in the way we conduct our conversations. For example, in another extract from Pinter‘s A Night Out, Albert apparently flouts the maxim of relevance when he responds to the Girl‘s questions: p.134.5.5 Speech actsThe philosophers Austin and Searle were very interested in the way language can be described as action, and Speech Act Theory is an account of what we use language for. For example, we can make promises, threats, give orders, and make suggestions. Sometimes saying an utterance explicitly accomplishes an action like when someone says ‗I declare this supermarket open‘, or ‗I name this ship Clara‘. Opening supermarkets and naming ships is usually done by people with some publicly recognized status, whereas promising and making threats can be accomplished by most of us, given the right conditions. The sets of contextual conditions which have to be in place if a speech act is to work are called felicity conditions, and if a speaker produces an utterance in a context where the appropriate conditions do not hold, then their speech act will be infelicitous.Speech acts can be quite explicit; for example, if a character in a play says: ‗Take this letter to the post‘, it is clear an order is being given (which the addressee can choose to obey or disobey). The fact that one character gives an order to another gives the reader / audience information about the relationship between the two characters (i.e. that one may have, or assumes they have, higher status than the other). Speech acts like this which are intended to produce some form of action as a response are called directives.Directives can also be considerably less explicit, and generally, the less obvious they are, the more polite they are. Consider the following:Take this letter to the post.Would you mind posting this letter?Are you going past the post box?What time does the post go today?These might all be interpreted as directives in particular contexts.One of the challenges for a dramatic critic is to identify speech acts and the ways characters respond to them. Characters may produce speech acts which are appropriate to their status within the play, relative to other characters or ones which appear inappropriate, which mark either a misapprehension on the part of the character about their status, or a change in their status.5.6 PresuppositionsWhen we talk, we are constantly making assumptions about what kind of knowledge is available to our addressee(s), and what we have to make explicit in our utterances. Sometimes this knowledge is described in terms of ―given‖ and ―new‖ information – i.e. what is already known, and what has to be made known to the addressee. One way of encoding given information is through semantic presupposition, for example, in the sentence:Jane was late for school yesterday.the information that there is someone called Jane, and that she went to school yesterday, is presupposed, or ―given‖ information, while the assertion that she was late is the new information.The concept of presupposition has been widely discussed in both linguistic and philosophical literature, sometimes in a highly technical way (see Levinson, 1983 for a thorough discussion of the issues involved). It is useful to distinguish between this kind of presupposition, which is encoded in the sentence or utterance, and a rather different kind of presupposition, which is to do with participants‘ mutual knowledge, and the cultural background assumptions they bring to bear on their interpretation of utterances.Humour in dramatic texts can sometimes be explored by comparing the background assumptions of our own world, or culture, with those produced by the world of the text. Short says that ‗some texts, particularly comic and absurd works, create special effects by assuming ―facts‖that are so at odds with our normal assumptions that we cannot ―take them on‖ in the usual way‘.5.7 Status marked through languageMany of the properties of language can be used to signal the relative status, and changes in status, of characters. In particular, language can be used to signal to what extent the relationship between a speaker and an addressee is based on a social power difference (or asymmetry), and to what extent it is based on solidarity. How people address one another usually signals where they perceive themselves to be socially in relation to their addressee: their equal, or their social inferior or superior. A considerable amount of our language use is grounded in these perceptions.The social ‗rules‘ which make it acceptable for a head teacher to call a child by their first name: ‗Simon‘or ‗Kate‘, while the child would respond with the teacher‘s last name and title: ‗Mrs Griffiths‘, or with just a title such as ‗Sir‘, are largely taken for granted by both parties. On the other hand, some relationships are negotiated moment to moment. A mother calls her child ‗Kate‘ when she is happy with her, may call her ‗Katherine‘ in the next instant if she is angry with her and wants to assert her parental status. Playwrights can indicate to an audience this kind of information about the relationships between characters through the ways they address one another on stage.The so-called tu / vous (T/V) distinction which existed in Elizabethan English, and which still exists in many languages, but which has been lost in modern English, is often used by Shakespeare to indicate relationships between characters.5.8 RegisterRegister is the term used in linguistics to describe the relationship between a particular style of language and its context of use. An example of a linguistic register is legal discourse –we recognize a legal document when we see one, but lawyers are generally the only people who are trained to produce them using appropriate linguistic choices.In Shakespeare‘s A Midsummer Night’s Dream, social order, and the importance of acting appropriately for your station in life are very important themes. Characters in the play include fairies, nobility and ordinary working people, and the different social status of each group is marked through their style of language. The ‗ordinary‘ fairies talk in rhyming couplets of iambic pentameter. The King and Queen of the Fairies, Oberon and Titania, use both rhyming couplets and blank verse. The ‗mechanicals‘ (who work as a carpenter, a joiner, a weaver and other similar jobs) talk in unscanned speeches to indicate their lowly status. Thus every line spoken in the play reminds us of the status of that character in the scheme of things.Modern drama uses devices such as rhyme and regular metrical patterning infrequently, butsocial status of a character can still be suggested their dialect or accent, and by the register they use. Humor can also be produced through the incongruity between the choice of register for a particular context.5.9 Speech and silence — female characters in playsA considerable amount of work in linguistics has gone into looking at the distribution of talk between women and men, and there is some evidence that men tend to talk more than women in mixed sex conversations (see for example, Spender, 1990: 41-42 for an overview of this research). Spender has suggested that the reason why it is accepted that women are the talkative sex is that the amount they talk is not compared with the amount that men talk, but with silence, arguing that in fact silence is the preferred state for women in a patriarchal society. There is certainly some support for her hypothesis at least in our dramatic heritage: some of Shakespeare‘s characters notably regard silence in women as a virtue. Coriolanus, for example, greets his wife as ‗My gracious silence, hail!‘(Coriolanus Act 2 scene 1). Anne Varty (1994) looks at how some contemporary women playwrights have handled the issue of women‘s rights to speak in drama. She suggests that women characters who appear strong in plays generally achieve their appearance of strength by manipulating the kinds of discourse they use, and adapting the stereotypes of masculine and feminine behavior to serve their own ends:The ability to command many voices and to play many parts have emerged from this survey [of plays by Timberlake, Wertenbaker, etc.] as survival strategies for women. … those who can switch linguistic codes according to context enjoy greater power whatever their status. Related to power generated by the switching of codes, is the ability to step in and out of both behavioral and linguistic stereotype. But, as Wertenbaker‘s plays seem to show, only so much female transgression will be tolerated by a male hegemony before there isa complete breakdown of the social order.(Varty, 1994: 88)In the representations of women she looks at however, she finds clear limits beyond which women trespass at their peril on men‘s authority.6. Case StudyHere we are to take Shakespeare‘s play The Merchant of Venice (Act 5) as the case for an analysis from the perspectives like turn quantity and length, adjacency pair and preference option.1) Turn quantity and exchange sequenceHow much a character talks can be indicative either of their relative importance in the play, or of how important they appear to think they are. Generally, central characters have longer and more speeches than minor characters. In Act V, the numbers of turn of the following characters are respectively 16 times for Portia, 10 for Bassanio, 9 for Gratiano, 7 for Nerissa, 6 for Antonio, and 1 for Lorenzo. Judging from the turn quantity of the characters, Portia is in a dominant position, for her turn quantity is the most and from the exchange sequence, she is in a central position in the exchange, for she not only has the chance to talk with his beloved but also with others. Comparatively, Antonio, the ―merchant‖, is not the centre and almost an outsider. His turn quantity, only 6 turns out of the total 49, is the fewest except Lorenzo. The one who he dialogues with is Portia for most occasions with only one turn with Bassanio. This indicates that Antonio has few chances to speak. Comparing his turn quantity with that in the previous acts, we may infer that his。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)-章节题库-第9章 语言与文学【圣才出品】
第9章语言与文学Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.1. The part of linguistics that studies the language of literature is called _____. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.【答案】Stylistics【解析】文体学作为语言学的分支，主要研究文学文体中语言的特征，并试图建立一些规则，以解释个体和社团在语言使用过程中的特殊选择。
2. The term _____ was originally coined by the philosopher William James in his principle of Psychology (1890) to describe the free association of ides and impression in mind. It was later applied to the writing of William Faulkner, James Joyce and Virginia Woolf.【答案】stream of consciousness【解析】意识流写作起初是由威廉姆·詹姆斯用来描述思维中印象和观念的自由联系，这种方法的句子结构高度省略。
之后许多作家如威廉·福克纳，詹姆斯·乔伊斯，弗吉尼亚·伍尔夫也都在写作中有所用到。
3. At different times, different patterns of metre and sound have developed and become accepted as ways of structuring poems. Among them, _____ consists of lines in iambic pentameter which does not rhyme.【答案】blank verse【解析】不同时代，诗会有不同的韵律模式和语音模式。
语言学教程第9章
第9章：Literary stylistics文学文体学p211: It deals with the relationship between language and literature; it focuses on the study of the linguistic features related to literary style.Foregrounding前景化p211: it is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”This deviation, or uncommon usage, involves all levels of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning,etc.In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.Simile明喻p214: It is a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing. And it explicitly signals in a text, with the words as or like. Metaphor隐喻p214: It always makes a comparison between two unlike things, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated, (and it is a way of transferring qualities from one thing to another, but it is more powerful. )Metonymy借喻p214: It is a change of name, for example, “crown” represents “king”.Synecdoche提喻p215: It is a type of metonymy. The name of a part of an object is used to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.Rhyme押韵p217: It serves a two-fold purpose: first, as a combining agency for the stanza; second, as a musical device giving pleasure in itself. Alliteration头韵、双声p217: the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of a series of words, or at the beginning of stressed syllables within words:Assonance元音叠韵p217: the repetition of similar (not necessarily identical) vowels situated within words:Consonance假韵、辅音叠韵p217: the repetition of the final consonant, functioning as the end rhyme:Reverse rhyme反韵、掉尾韵p218: describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonants:Pararhyme类尾韵p218: when two syllables have the same initial and final consonants but different vowels, they Pararhyme.Repetition重复p218: the repetition of the same word, it is also a kind of deviation as it violates the normal rule of usage by over frequency.Metre格p218: when stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the word for it is metre.Iamb抑扬格: an iambic foot contains two syllables: an unstressed syllablefollowed by a stressed one:Trochee扬抑格: a trochaic foot contains two syllables: a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable:Anapest抑抑扬格: an anapestic foot contains three syllables: two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one:Dactyl扬抑抑格: A dactylic foot contains three syllables: a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones.Spondee扬扬格: a spondaic foot contains two stressed syllables, but lines of poetry rarely consist of only spondaic feet:Couplet对句: two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme, and It consists of two lines that usually rhyme and have the same meter. Quatrain四行诗: stanzas of four lines, very common in English poetry. Blank verse无韵诗: consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme:Narrator:叙述者 The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event.Schemata图式p224: Schema theory suggests the knowledge we carry around in our head is organized into interrelated patterns. They are constructed from our experience of the experiential world and guide us as we make sense of new experience. In language schemas are the underlying structures which accounts for the organization of texts or discourse. Different participants in the same situation will have different schemas, relating to their different viewpoints.New information新信息p224: information that is presented by the speaker as not recoverable, it is new.Given information已知信息p224: information that is presented by the speaker as recoverable, it has already been motioned before.Direct speech直接引语p225: it contends a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks: “Am I too late?” she asked.Indirect speech间接引语p225: the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause: She asked whether she was too late.Free direct speech自由直接引语p226: a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both: “Am I too late?”Free indirect speech自由间接引语p226: more of the narrator’s contribution, it is closer to the original words form of the question. Was she too late? She asked.。
语言学——精选推荐
Chapter 6Cognition（概念，选择题）I n psychology, it is used to refer to the mental processes and can be understand as information processing.Another definition of”Cognition”is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment.There are three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach, and the conceptual approach.Psycholinguistics（概念，选择题）Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspect of language; it is usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious use of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences.Psycholinguistics is also concerned with how languages are learned, and the rules they play in our thinking.It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within Psycholinguistics: Acquisition, Comprehension, Production, Disorder, Language and Thought, Neurocognition.Cognitive Linguistics （名词解释）Cognitive Linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It’s an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.Construal and Construal Operations （名词解释，三种分类）Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation.Construal Operations are conceptualizing processes applied in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.1)Attention/ SalienceThe operations grouped under salience have to do with our direction of attention towards something that salience to us.We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about.2)Judgment/ComparisonThe Construal Operations of Judgment/Comparison have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. This is quit a fundamental cognitive capacity and the cognitive operations of judgment are also very fundamental to the human experience.3)Perspective/SituatednessWe view a scene in terms of our situatedness. Perspective generally depends on two things. Firstly, it depends on where we are situated in relation to the scene we are viewing. Secondly, itdepends on how the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness.Categorization （名词解释、三种分类）Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. It is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge, and it allows us to relate present experiences to past one.1)Basic levelThe categories at the Basic Level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the most.2)Superordinate levelSuperordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level.3)Subordinate levelThey have clearly identification gestalts and lots of individual specific features. At this level, we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.Image Schemas （名词解释、各个分类的特点-选择题）Mark Johnson defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.1) A center-periphery schema2) A containment schema3) A cycle schema4) A force schema5) A link schema6) A part-whole schema7) A path schema8) A scale schema9) A verticality schemaMetaphor （名词解释）Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.1）ontological metaphorsHuman experiences with physical objects provide the basic for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, ect, as entities and substances.2）structural metaphorsIt allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.3）orientional metaphorsIt gives a concept a spatial orientation. They are characterized not so much by structuring one concept in terms of another, but by a co-occurrence in our experience.Metonymy （名词解释）Metonymy, in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain.Chapter 7Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis （重点-大题）Our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different language may probably express speaker’s unique wayside of understanding the world.Linguistic Determinism, language may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic Relativity, language is relative in similarity. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Firth-theory of context of situation（重点-大题）1)The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.The verbal action of the participants.The non-verbal action of the participants.2)The relevant objects.3)The effects of the verbal action.That is, who speaks what to whomever and when for what.Culture in language teaching classroom（重点-大题）To get the students familiar with culture differences;To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will;To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture though various classroom practices.Chapter 8Pragmatic （名词解释）Pragmatic is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of meaning in speaker’s meaning.Speech act theory （名词解释）It was proposed by John Austin in his book How to Do Things with Words. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question” What do we do when using language?”1.Performatives and Constatives （大题举例子）Performatives are statements which are used to do something, which do not state or describe a fact and not verifiable.Performative verbs: mane, bet, ect.Constatives are statements that state or describe a fact and are thus verifiable.2.Felicity ConditionsThere must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevant participants andcircumstances must be appropriate;The procedure must be executed, correctly and completely;Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thought, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.A theory of the Illocutionary act （大题）The theory of the illocutionary act was set up by Austin. There are three acts, locutionary act, illocutionary act, perlocutionary act.locutionary act: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.Illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something, that is to say something is to do something. It is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.Conversational implicature: （大题or名词解释）It is the use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.in order to avoid the logical use of implication (in the section on logical semantics), Grice coined the term implicature.The characteristics of Conversational implicature:CalculabilityThe fact that speakers try to convey conversation implicature and hearers are able to understand them indicates that implicature are calculable.CancellabilityIf the linguistic or situational contexts change, the implicature will also change.Non- detachabilityIt means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore, it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact.Non- conventionalityConversational implicature is by definition different from the conversational meaning of words. It is indeterminate and it varies with context.The Cooperative Principle （大题）A speaker can mean more than what is said and the hearer can understand the speaker’s meaning. Grice argues that there is a set of assumption guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls The Cooperative Principle. CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows:Quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required; do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Quality: try to make your contribution one that is true. Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Relation: be relevant.Manner: be perspicuous. (avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly)Relevance Theory （名词解释）This theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Wilson in their book Relevance, Communication and Cognition in 1986. They believe that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to single principle of relevance, which can be define d as: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.Chapter 9（名词解释）Literary StylisticsThe branch of linguistics that studies the relationship between language and literature is Literary Stylistic, which focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.StylisticsStylistics is the study of varieties of language which properties position that language in context.ForegroundingOriginally coming from usual arts and in contrast with back grounding, the concept of foregrounding, a popular term in stylistics, was applied in literary studies by the Prague School, modern stylisticians. It is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”. This deviation, or uncommon usage, involves all levels of language, sound, syntax, meaning, etc.RegisterIn linguistic, a register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.。
文体学chapt 9 Stylistic Analysis of Poetry
iii. Semantic and grammatical features of the poem We should also check for literal and figurative uses of language, interesting uses of syntax, punctuation and register (formality of language), and for intertextual allusion.
Analysis based upon the above-described methods: 1) Relevant information Title: The Solitary Reaper Poet: William Wordsworth (1770-1850) Period: 1803 (early 19th century) Genre: lyric Topic: a poem describing vividly and sympathetically a young peasant girl working in the fields and singing as she works.
2) Structural features Layout: 4 stanzas of equal lengths (Cf. poems of unequal lengths) Number of lines: 32 lines Length of lines: most of the lines in each stanza are tetrameter / octosyllabics (four feet with 8 syllables) Regular metre: iambic End rhyme: the rime-scheme for each stanza is ababccdd (with the first stanza irregular as abcbddee) Other forms of sound patterning: no Comment on the effect of the above forms:
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Therefore, stylistics looks at what is ‗going on‘ within the language; what the linguistic associations are that the style of language reveals.
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Literary Stylistics: Crystal (1987) deal with the complex and ‗valued‘ language within literature
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• In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language.
• It covers a much wider area in terms of seriation, apposition, modification, clause types , sentence complexity and so on. 1.Some books are to be tasted ,others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. 2.A man so various, that he seemed to be Not one, but all mankind′s epitome Who in the course of one revolving moon Was lawyer, statesman, fiddler, and buffon.(Dryden)
Literary style: ways of writing employed in literature and by individual writers; the way the mind of the author expresses itself in words
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• Stylistics ―studies the features of situationally distinctive uses (varieties) of language, and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language.‖ (Crystal 1980)
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⑤ Implicature
• To live a life half-dead, a living death. (Milton) • Cowards die many times before their deaths. (Shakespeare) • He was like a cock who thought the sun had risen to hear him crow. (George Eliot) • Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay. (Pope) • We are lucky. It′s the other side on the 13th of December. That makes us feel good. (David Parks)
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• Stylistics is the study of varieties of language whose properties position that language in context. • Eg: the lg of advertising, politics, religion, individual authors, etc., or • the lg of a period in time, all belong in a particular situation. In other words, they all have ‗place‘.
考研九 Stylistics
Chapter 9 Language and Literature
1. Style and Stylistics
• Style: variatin individual, such as formal/informal style
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Levels of Analysis
① ② ③ ④ ⑤ Sound effects Vocabulary Phraseology Grammar Implicature
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① 题一 Onomatopoeic effect
• My souls, how the wind did scream along! And every caps or two there‘d come a glare that lit up the white-caps for a mile around，and you‘d see the islands looking dusty through the rain，and the trees thrashing around in the wind ；then comes a h-whack——bum！bum！bumble-bumbleumbum-bum-bum-bum——and the thunder would go rumbling and grumbling away，and quit——and then rip comes another flash and another sockdolager. (Mark Twain ，The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn) • Key: These sounds in the underlined words imitate lightning and peals of thunder.
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• Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and people‘s dialects, descriptive language, the use of grammar, such as the active voice or passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language registers语域, etc.
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• Many linguists do not like the term ‗stylistics‘. The word ‗style‘, itself, has several connotations that make it difficult for the term to be defined accurately.
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题二Onomatopoeic effect
• Thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours .(Keat) • Key :The consonance of /st/ and /z/ are felt to imitate the sound of apples being squeezed in the cider-press.
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③ Phraseology
• Keat Ode to a Nightingale • Coinages such as Lethe-wards, light-winged, deep-delved, purple-stained, spectre-thin, leaden-eyed…
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④ Grammar
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题三：Chiming 谐音
• So foul and fair a day I have not seen. (Shakespeare) • Key:the alliteration of ―foul and fair‖ shows that the two words act in accordance and implies that ―fair is foul and foul is fair.‖
– The scope is sometimes narrowed to concentrate on the more striking features of literary language, for instance, its ‗deviant‘偏离 and abnormal features, rather than the broader structures that are found in whole texts or discourses. – For example, the compact language of poetry is more likely to reveal the secrets of its construction to the stylistician than is the language of plays and novels.
However, in Linguistic Criticism, Roger Fowler makes the point that, in non-theoretical usage, the word stylistics makes sense and is useful in referring to an enormous range of literary contexts, such as John Milton‘s ‗grand style‘, the ‗prose style‘ of Henry James, the ‗epic‘ and ‗ballad style‘ of classical Greek literature, etc. (Fowler, 1996: 185).