英语语言学期末复习
英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结归纳
英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性:One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位:2.Allophone音位变体:3.Minimal pair最小对立体:第三课1.Morphology形态学:which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes第四课1.Syntax语法句法:classes,4.Surface to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstractmeaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology:It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．language?The important characteristicssystematic, arbitrary and vocalFirst of all,language in a wrong way.3．1) Arbitrariness:2)Productivity:provides and forunderstanding novel messages.3) Duality:4)5)第二课1.语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromSuffix: -ist2. Think of three morpheme be1)prefix: un-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The1.2.3.4.5.6.Hyponymyare called its hyponyms. For example,第六课答：way to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development andand 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics.traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in thattakes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, tothe truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type答：Make your conversational(1) The maxim of quantity①②(2) The maxim of quality①②(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.①②③④(】。
英语语言学期末考试重点
第一章1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.Design features of language①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)3.Functions of language① Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③ Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥ Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performance6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down rules for “correct and standard” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar: “never use a double negative”)7.Synchronic study (共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (历时)— description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)第四章1．What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2．Four Approaches :The traditional approach传统语言观(Parts of speech、Syntactic Function不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系)、The structural approach结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach功能语言观3．The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words , so it pays great attention to the study of words , such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech , the identification of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.5．The term Category范畴in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:the categories of the noun名词的范畴, include number, gender, case and countability（case）;the categories of the verb动词的范畴: tense, aspect, voice, etc.6．Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格, and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格In English, the case of noun is realized in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense时态: the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present.Since the future time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect体: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed. Perfective（完成体）and Imperfective（进行体）Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. Voice语态: describe the relationship between verb and subjectPassive被动语态and active主动语态12. Concord and government①Concord (一致关系) refers to agreement between words, especially between a verb and the subject of a sentence.②Government (支配关系) is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a sentence.In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach ，由Ferdinand de Saussure提出14.Syntactic Relations：Positional relations位置关系、Relations of substitutability替代关系、Relationsof co-occurrence同现关系15.Immediate constituent (直接成分) is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.16.An endocentric construction(向心结构) is a construction that contains:1) a head, which is the single obligatory element in the construction;2) one or more optional elements subordinate to the head.17.them e(主位) refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listenerRheme (述位) refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or listenerThe linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side.subject, predicate (grammatical side)theme, rheme (functional side)第五章1. What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:①Conceptual meaning概念意义②Connotative meaning内涵意义③Social meaning社会意义④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）⑤Reflected meaning反射意义⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义⑦Thematic meaning主位意义3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义) is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）：① The Referential Theory② The Semantic Triangle③ Sense and Reference7.The referential theory指称理论is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle语意三角is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.12. Sense Relations涵义关系①Synonymy（同义关系）②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）③Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) 、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relations between sentences① Synonymity (同义)a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence②Inconsistency(矛盾)a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.③Entailment (蕴涵)a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.④Presupposition(前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.⑤Contradiction(矛盾)⑥Semantic anomaly(语义反常)18. An integrated theory﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules ﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.第八章1.What is PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in context / use / communication.2 Semantics and PragmaticsSimilarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaningDifference：Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning ；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context ；Pragmatic = meaning - semantics3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Conversational Implicature、Post-Gricean Developments4.Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论)：① Performatives and Constatives② A theory of the illocutionary act5.The utterance which performs an act is called a performative(行事话语)。
成人教育《英语语言学》期末考试复习题及参考答案
一、单项选择题1.The manager would rather his daughter _____ in the same company.DA、would not workB、will not workC、does not workD、did not work2.Mike promised to keep me ______ how our business was going on.BA、informedB、informed ofC、to be informedD、to be informed of3.I have no objection ______ for a hike on the mountains with Cynthia.CA、to goB、goingC、to goingD、of going4.____ a teacher in our college, it is necessary to have at least a master’s degree.AA、To becomeB、One becomesC、Becoming ofD、Who becomes5.All the task ______ ahead of time, we planned to go on holiday for a week.DA、had fulfilledB、having fulfilledC、were fulfilledD、having been fulfilled6.Not until the game had begun ______ the sports ground.AA、did Peter arrive atB、Peter arrived atC、didn’t Peter arrive atD、Peter didn’t arrive at7.I didn’t send out my application form last week, but I ________.DA、had toB、might have toC、have hadD、should have8.I will give the ticket to _______ wants to have it.BA、whomeverB、whoeverC、some oneD、anyone9.The reason _______ I did not go to the lecture yesterday was that I had something important to do.DA、whichB、for thatC、becauseD、why10.Be careful with those explosives _______ end up killing ourselves.CA、then we won’tB、but we won’tC、or we willD、and we will11.The two scholars worked at the task of writing a preface to the new dictionary for three hours ____ last night.CA、at lengthB、in fullC、on endD、in time12.I don’t play basketball any more, _________ when I was a child.AA、but I used toB、I used toC、but I used to doD、I used to do13.Living here at the top of the mountain with no one else near, the old man must be very ____. DA、onlyB、aloneC、loneD、lonely14.I can’t read the marks and notes Jim made in the margin. They are too____.AA、faintB、foggyC、transparentD、misty15. A highly organized system of irrigation is ____ Chinese agriculture.AA、typical ofB、consistent withC、famous forD、subject to16.Jack is very ____ about wines.BA、awareB、knowledgeableC、learnedD、informed17.As for Ann, I am not sure about her ____ in Italian.AA、fluencyB、clarityC、coherenceD、excellency18.It was _____ that we went for a picnic in the country.CA、such nic e a dayB、such nice dayC、so nice a dayD、so nice day19.By the end of next month I ______ here for five years.DA、will workB、have been workingC、have workedD、will have been working20.Much research _______ into the possible causes of the disease in the past few years.AA、has been doneB、was doneC、have been doneD、were done21.The teacher told us that we didn’t have to _____ every new word we ran into when reading. CA、look overB、look throughC、look upD、look into22.When he wrote to his father that he wanted to ____ his education and get married, his father cut off his allowance.AA、give upB、give outC、give inD、give away23.His speech was warmly received. It was several minutes before the applause _______.AA、died downB、died ofC、died outD、died off24.Mr. Zhang makes _____ a point to keep up with the latest development in his field.CA、thisB、thatC、itD、these25.In many countries now seat belts are _____ for the driver and front seat passengers at least.。
英语语言学期末复习宝典
LinguisticsChapter 1 Language and LinguisticsLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Features of language: displacement, arbitrariness, productivity/creativity, cultural transmission, duality, discreteness不连续性1.1考论述①language is systematic. In natural verbal communication, people can learn and use alanguage consistently. This shows that language is systematic. This property is usually claimed to be unique to humans.②language is symbolic. As we know, people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs. The conception of sign through has evolved through a long history of philosophical discussions, dating to the Middle Age.③language is arbitrary. (convention) Arbitrariness does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable. The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.④language is primarily vocal. All languages use sounds. Children learn to speak before they learn to read and write; children automatically learna language as they grow up; the spoken form came earlier than the written in human history; writingis based on speech; people use spoken language more often than writing⑤language is human specific. There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication systems of any other species. Although most animals are assumed to communicate in some way, they convey limited information and only express emotions such as fear and warnings.⑥language is used for communication. Language is the result of our communicative needs. Itsattractiveness comes from its social utility. Language enables us to communicate our general attitudes toward life and others.1)language is systematicEach human language is organized into two basic systems, a system of sounds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language.Linguistics is concerned not only with characteristics of the two systems but also with their relationship.Sounds are units which combine to make words or parts of words, different sequences of sounds have difference in meaning. Elements have no meaning themselves. The number of words in a language is relatively finite but their possible combination can be infinite.In a language we can find agreed-upon sound-meaning relations and agreed-upon sequences.These principles can be called rules. These rules make up the syntax of the language.2)language is symbolicLanguage involves signs whose conception can be date back to the Middle Ages. There has been a discipline to study the working of signs, Sassure calls it “semiology”, and Peirce terms it “semiotics”.Charles Peirce views semiotics as a branch of logic and philosophy. Signs are divided into natural signs and conventional signs. Signs are ubiquitous in human society and can be categorized into three major types: icon象征符, index标记符and symbol代码符.3)language is arbitraryAccording to Saussure, the linguistic signs unites, not a thing and a name, but a concept and a sound-image. The sound-image is not the material sound but the psychological imprint of the sound, the impression it makes on our senses.考判断Arbitrary does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable but that human languages use neutral symbols. Concept and sound-image are replaced by signified所指and signifier能指respectively. The most arbitrary level of language is that of the distinctive units ofsound. It is because sound units are distinctive. Syntax句法is less arbitrary than words. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use.4)language is primarily vocalVerbal communication can involve various forms. Speech and writing are the most common. The primary medium of language is sound. Writing is based on speaking and can influence speaking.Writing systems represent some levels of the spoken language, such as distinct words, syllables, or sounds.5)language is human specific (purely human)Human language is generally said to be different from animal communication in the following aspects:nguage has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space.2.Humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite无限期的，不明确的numberof novel utterance.（openness or productivity）3.Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.nguage is complex in its structure.5.Animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6.According to speech act theory, humans can perform acts with language just as they can withobjects of different kinds.6)language is used for communicationA conversation s assumed to be a pattern of two-way communication.1.2The functions of language: general functions of language; metafunctions of language元功能.1)General functions of languagePhysiological function（or emotive/expressive function）, phatic function交际功能（creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers）, recording function, identifying function, reasoning function(as a tool of thought), communication function, pleasure function(or recreational function)……Informative function, performative function施为功能（ppt补充）2)Metafunctions of languageIdeational function 概念功能:Divide into experimental function and logical function; as a symbolic code to represent the world around usInterpersonal function 人际功能:The participatory function of language/enable the speakers (writers) and the listeners (readers) maintain interactions and thus enact a social and intersubjective relationshipTextual function 语篇功能: represent the speaker‟s text-forming potential. Relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.1.3The origin and classification of language1)The origin of language(divine source, the natural-sound source, evolutionary source)The belief that all languages originated from a single source is found in Genesis. Many scientists today believe that man arose in many different places of the world.Three broad categories of the origin of language: creation, evolution and invention.Creation/Divine Origin: almost every religion has stories about how man received language from God. But it is impossible for man to name things without acquiring languageEvolution：Man evolved from lower forms of life. Language evolved as an adjunct to early communicationInvention: believe that there is natural connection between the forms of language and the essence of things. (onomatopoetic words)2)Language families语系Two main ways of classifying languages: genetic classification and typological classification (group language into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary---isolating, infecting屈折语, agglutinating 黏着语language)1.4What is linguistic ( Phonetics. Phonology. Morphology. Semantics. Pragmatics. Syntax)1)to do with sounds, vocabulary, grammar, meaning and historical development of language.The main purpose of linguistics is to develop a general theory of language and theories on aspects of language.2)语言by all members of a community of speakers.(social, conventional side of language, collective body of knowledge, abstract knowledge)Parole言语is the particular realization of language. (individualized speech, the use of language in utterance, concrete)Prescriptive陈述的and descriptive 描述的：Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.Prescriptivism describe what should be in language, but descriptivism describes the way people actually speak and write their language.---what is in the language.synchronic 共时and diachronic历时:Synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.Diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a language. (two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries)speech and writing:language is primarily vocal. No community has a written form only. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech---the spoken first, then the writtenSpeech has the restriction of both time and space. Without writing, human progress would be extremely slow.With modern technology, the distinction between speech and writing is being blurred.syntagmatic and paradigmatic:Syntagmatic relation refers to the relations between units which combine to form sequences.(re+write)Paradigmatic relation refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative terms (foot-feet) competence and performance:Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relations.Performance refers to the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies and errors.Chomsky sees the linguist‟s task as primarily describing competence because performance is impossible without competence.functionalism and formalism.For Chomsky, competence is not a social but a psychological phenomenon, not a shared generality but a genetic endowment in each individual.1.5The scope of linguistics1)Use of linguisticsPragmatics, anthropological linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics 神经语言学, applied linguistics, computational linguistics.2)Recent developments考小题Corpus linguistics, discourse analysis, cognitive linguistics, systemic functional grammar.Chapter 2 phonetics and phonology1.1production of sounds1)scope of phoneticsMaking sounds consists three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message, and the reception of the message.Phonetics is composed of three separate fields:articulatory phonetics, acousctic phonetics, auditory phonetics.2)articulation of sounds发音V oice: sound may be either voiced or voiceless.Two perspectives to examine how sounds are articulated:manner of articulation & place of articulationManner of articulation: plosives and nasal stops; fricatives; affricates; approximants; trills and taps Place of articulation: bilabial; dental; post-alveolar; retroflex; uvular; glottal; labiodental; alveolar;palatal; velar; pharyngealV owels:The primary criteria for the classification of vowels are: 1) the distance between the top of the tongue and the roof of the mouth 2) the retraction and extension of the tongue. A secondary criterion is the rounding of the lips.the height of the tongue raising---high, mid, lowthe position of the highest part of the tongue---front, central, backthe length or tenseness of the vowel---lax or tensethe shape of the lips ---rounded, unrounded3)characteristics of English speech soundsEnglish vowel s: There are 7 short vowels, 5 long vowels, 8 diphthongs双元音, and 5 trip thongs 三元音.P5 monophthongs单元音English consonant s: consonants are usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation. English is said to have 24 consonants: 6 plosive consonants,9 fricatives 摩擦音, 2 affricates塞擦音, 3 nasals 鼻音, 3 approximants and 1 lateral consonant. P534)the transcription of soundsA phonetic alphabet can represent speech in the form of segments, or individual speech sounds. Aphonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper. The best-known system, the International Phonetic Alphebet (IPA), has been developing since 1888. This system of transcription attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol. There are two kinds of transcription: narrow transcription and broad transcription.1.21)definition of phonemesThe segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes. Phonemes equal distinctive sounds. Phoneme is the minimum phonetic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.Human languages use a large number of orally transmitted units called phonemes.2)minimal pairs最小语音主力: a pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair. When twodifferent forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, deed and seed. Phonemic distinctions can occur in any position within a word. The substitution of one feature for another does not result in a change in meaning. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation.3)Distinctive features are often shown in the form of a binary opposition. The features can be shown as either present [+] or absent [-]. Most distinctive features are binary, that is, they can have only one of two values--plus or minus. [s] is [-voiced] and [z] is [+voiced]1.3refer to the set of sounds that occur in a given language, the permissibleIt is highly unlikely that any two languages have exactly the same sound pattern.1）sequential constraints（语音）序列的限制All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes, though different languages have different constraints. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.2）★complementary distribution互补性分布When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. The aspirated and the unaspirated phones(pea [Ph] and speed [P; hit and sing [h][n])are in complementary distribution. According to Wardhaugh, phonetically similar sounds in complementary distribution are allophones音位变体of a single phoneme.1.4suprasegmental features 超音段特征of a center which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds loud; before and after this center there is greater obstruction to airflow and/or less sound. According to Roach, a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation.Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak(vowel), and the coda.首音，音核，音节尾。
英语语言学期末复习
语学特征prescriptive-descriptive;synchronic-diachronic; speech-writing;langue-parole(Saussure,sociological); competence-performance(Chomsky,psychological); traditional grammar-modern linguistics语言特征1system;arbitrary;vocal;human-specific2Arbitrariness;productivity;duality;displacement;cultural transmission语言function:descriptive;expressive;socialJakobson:Addresser-emotive;addressee-conative;context-referential;message-poetic;contact-phatic communion;code-metalinguisticHalliday macrofunction:ideational;interpersonal;textual器官:lips;teeth;teeth ridge;hard palate;soft;uvula;tip of tongue;blade;back;vocal cords;pharyngeal cavity;nasal Phonology rules:sequential;assimilation(ir- im-);deletion(sign-signature)词分类open/closed class words词素分类free and bound;allomorphsComplex words:a root+N affixes构词法conversion;derivation;compounds短语结构head+specifier+complementTree structure:a static representation-a dynamic formatThe XP rule(revised):XP→(Specifier)X(Complement*)扩展XP→(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod) Coordination rule :X→X*Con X句The S rule:S→NP VP同义synonyms:dialectal(autumn-fall)stylistic(father-dad)differ in emotive meaning;collocational(搭配)semantically different(amaze-surprise)反义antonymy:gradable(cold-cool-warm)complementary(alive-dead)relational(buy-sell)Context:situational;linguistic句关系X is synonymous with Y;X is inconsistent with Y一正一误;X entails Y(Y包含X)X presupposes Y(Y为前提)X is a contradiction自我矛盾X is semantically anomalous荒谬Searle’s classification of 言外representative阐述directives请指commissives承诺expressives;declaration宣告Principle of conversation(Grice)CP(cooperative principle)the maxim of quantity(过多) quality(假)relation(无关)mannerLeech:face value(1) Both Saussure and chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Saussure defines langue as the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole ( as) the realization of langue in actual use. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user' s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance ( as) the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Linguistics:the scientific study of language(base on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure)1 Phonetics:is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language2 Phonology:aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication3 Morphology:is concerned with word formation and word structure4 Syntax:is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentencesPhrases:syntactic units that are built around a certain word category5 Semantics:can be simply defined as the study of meaning6 Pragmatics:the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language useAntonymy:word that are opposite in meaning Homonymy:words have different meanings have the same formHyponymy:the sense relation between a more general.more inclusive word and a more specific wordInflectional morphemes:bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify Language:is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationMorpheme:the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or functionMorph:distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morphemePolysemy:different words have the same or similar meaning,the same one word have more than one meaning Reference:a linguistic form refers to in the real world Sense:is the inherent meaning of a linguistic form,the collection of all its featuresSynonymy:words that are close in meaningSyntactic categories:a fundamental fact about words in all human languagesSpeech act theory(John Austin)a philosophical explanation of the nature os linguistic communication(locutionary act言内,illocutionary act外,perlocutionary act后)(2) Both made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. Both think that what linguists should do is to study the abstract language system rather than the actual use of language and to discover the rules governing the actual use of language(3) While Saussure' s distinction and Chomsky' s are very similar, they differ at least in one aspect That is, Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual。
英语专业语言学期末复习资料
Phonetics (sound)语音学；phonology(sounds) 音系学；morphology(word) 形态学；syntax(words, sentence)句法学；semantics(meaning)语义学；pragmatics(meaning ina context)语用学1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2. Synchronic static state grammer; diachronic dynamic historical developmentngue (language): the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, stable.; Parole (speaking): the realization of langue in actual use, concrete, specific, changeable. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole.sociological or sociolinguistic point of view4. American linguist N. Chomsky Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,stable,prerequisite; Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations,changeable.psychologically or psycholinguistically.5.Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features of Language.1:Arbitrariness2:duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters in spoken language).1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic unitsbine small units into big units3.productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.4.Displacement: which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.cultural transmission7.Six Functions of language:Addresser---Emotive the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic or situation of communication; Addressee---Conative使动xx aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking；Context---referentia所指, xx conveys a message or informationl;Message---Poetic xx uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself;Contact--Phatic communication寒暄, xx tries to establish or maintain good interpersonalrelationships with the addressee；Code--Metalingual xx uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.8.M. A. K. Halliday.Metafunctions of Language:Ideational function:About the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness; Relates to the context of culture. Interpersonal function:About the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer ; Relates to the context of situation. Contextual function:About the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text; Relates to the verbal context.9.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a phonological unit;It is aunit that is of distinctive value;It is an abstract unit;It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.10. phones are placed within square brackets: [ ], and phonemes in slashes: / /.11./p/ in [pi:k] (peak) : an aspirated [ph]12./p/ in [spi:k] (speak): an unaspirated [p]13.Both [ph] and [p] are called as allophones of /p/14. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. [p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.15. Minimal pairs: Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound; More precisely: two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.16.Sequential rules The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules;The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.Refer to the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.17.Assimilation rule—assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in-18. When pitch, stress, and sound length are tried to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.19.单元音monophthongs 双元音diphthongs20.Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning. It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.Morphs:The smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.The phonological or orthographic forms which realize morphemes. Allomorphs:A member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.21.Free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “-al”in “national”, “dis-”in “disclose”, “-ed”in “recorded”, etc.22.Derivational morphemes—the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class,or meaning of words. e.g. modern —modernizeInflectional morphemes:purely grammatical markers;signifying tense, number, and case;not changing the syntactic category; never adding any lexical meaningpounding (合成词) blackboard; Derivation(派生词) --ful ---able;Back-formation逆构词法television televise; Borrowing—loan words (外来词); Clipping（缩略词）labtory lab; Blending（混成法）motel; Acronym（词首字母）APEC；Coinage/Invention (Neologism) 创新词nylon24.Open: n. V. Adj. Adv. Bound morphemes :roots and affixes25.①traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun….②non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).26.Three criteria are used to determine a word’s category: meaning, inflection, distribution.27.the structure or elements of phrases:XP rule specifier+head+complement28.NP (Det) + N + (PP)…29.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)…30.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)…31.PP (Deg) + P + (NP)…32.S →NP VP33.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called ds. Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ss. Do insertion, WH movement.34.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformation. A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.35.Head: A V N P36. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.37. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form And what it refers to (i.e.between language and real world ); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle by ogden and richards: symblo/form, thought/ reference/, refrent.38.Contextualism: Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---- elements closely linked with language behavior. JR forth39.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The relationship between sense and reference:And, if等只有sense, 而无reference.一个sense可以有许多reference同一referenece可有不同的sense，Mrs Thatcher, & the Iron Lady. Morning Star & Evening Star.40.Major sense relations: Synonymy (同义关系)Antonymy (反义关系)Polysemy (多义关系)Homonymy (同音/形异义) Hyponymy (上下义关系)41.Antonymy: Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)非A即B; Gradable antonyms (程度反义词) :AB有中间, very .. How..; Relational opposites （关系对立词）丈夫妻子42.Sense relations between sentences: Synonymy (同义关系) inconsistency (自相矛盾)Entailment (蕴涵)Presupposition (预设)X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)X is semantically anomalous (反常的43.man [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] women [+HUMAN +ADULT －MALE]girl [+HUMAN －ADULT －MALE] child [+HUMAN －ADULT OMALE]father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.44.predication analysis: G.leech: argument 名词predicate 动词45. Pragmatics --- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration). Pragmaticists regard meaning as something that is realized in the course of communication.Semantics --- the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Semanticists take meaning to be an inherent property of language. Essential difference is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 不senmantics.46.Sentence meaning: It is abstract and context-independent; it’s the literal meaning of a sentence. Utterance meaning: It is concrete and context-dependent; It’s the intended meaning of a speaker.It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.47.John Austin’s speech act theory.Performatives (行事话语): I promise Constatives (述事话语)48.A locutionary act (言内行为) is the act of saying words, phrases, clause; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act (言外行为) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 关注A perlocutionary act (言后行为) is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.act performed by saying sth.49.Searle’s classification of speech acts:Representatives (陈述) Directives (指令)Commissives (承诺) Expressives (表达) Declarations (宣布)50.CP Grice:The maxim of quality: ck adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity信息充足; The maxim of relation继续下去; The maxim of manner方式表达清楚模糊词绕口1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.context3. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.abstract4. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Performatives1. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the actperformed in saying something.illocutionary2. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.commissive3. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.expressive4. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.quantity4. ____C______ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act5. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is _B_____.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T3. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F4. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F5. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. T6. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T7. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. F1. A __bound_____ morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.2. On, before and together are__close_____words—they are words which do not take inflectional endings.3. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __affix__ and __root__ root.4. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions and articles are all_close__class items.5. handsome consists of 2 morphemes, one is the _free___ morpheme hand, the other is the __bound__ morpheme some.1.There are _C__ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. 3B. 4.C. 5.D. 62. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called___A_ morphemes.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD. Derivational1. Major lexical categories are___N__, __V__, __adj__and____prep_.2. The deep structure refers to ____.3. when the affirmative sentence "Jack sold his textbooks to jill after the final examination' is transformed into "When did jack sell his textbooks to Jill?", three transformational rules are applied. they are__Do insertion__, subject-aux inversion and __Wh movement__.4. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called __transformation______.5. The head is the word __n v a p___.1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.F2. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F3. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.T1. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )2. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )3. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. ( T )4. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )5. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal /N/ never occurs in the initial position in English nor in Chinese.( F )The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the __C____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords2. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be___B__.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel3. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ___A___.A. /t/ and /d/B. /k/ and /g/C. /p/ and /b/D. / N/ and / W/4. The phoneme is an abstract ___B_ unit.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical5. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate __B____.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. Allomorphs。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性: One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2.Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.Minimal pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.第三课1.Morphology形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammarwhich studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课1.Syntax语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.Syntactic categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.3.Deep structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure or D- structure.4.Surface structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties. It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language. 2．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules forpeople to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2) Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be moreinterested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and th e i r f i n d d i f f e r e n c e s . / p > p > P h o n o l o g y d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o u n d s y s t e m s o f p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e s a n d h o w s o u n d s f u n c t i o n t o d i s t i n g u i s h m e a n i ng . / p > p > A p h o n e t i c i a n w o u l d b e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s c o s s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l n o t c o s d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n i n g . / p > p > 2 . W h a t i s p h o n e ? H o w i s i t d i f f e r e n t f r o m a p h o n e m e ? h o w a r e a l l o p h o n e s r e l a t e d t o a p h o n e m e ? / p > p > P h o n e i s a p h o n e t i c u n i t , i t h a s n o m e a n i n g . / p > p > P h o n e m e i s a p h o n o l o g i c a l u n i t w i t h d i s t i n c t i v e v a l u e . / p > p > T h e p h o n e m e / l / c a n b e r e a l i z e d a s d a r k / l - / a n d c l e a r / l / , w h i c h a r e a l l o p h o n e s o f t h e p h o n e m e / l / / p > p > A l l o p h o n e s - - - a c t u a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f a p h o n e m e i n d i f f e r e n t p h o n e t i c c o n t e x t s . / p >。
英语语言学期末复习
Chapter5Semantics1. Definition1.命名论The naming theoryProposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.(缺点：仅限于名词)2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and RichardsIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, intheinterpretationof meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaning fromorreducemea ningtoobservablecontexts.Herearetwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandt helinguisticcontext.4.行为主义论BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.2.Lexicalmeaning:Sense:itisconcernedwithinherentmeaningoflinguisticform;itisthecollectionofallfeaturesoflinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized. Reference:itmeansthelinguisticformreferstothereal,physicalworld.Itdeals withtherelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticwo rldofexperience.3. Main sense relations1.同义词Synonymy Itreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsa recloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects（方言）British Americaautumnfallflatapartment(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体）Old man daddy father male parent(3)Synonyms that different intheiremotive or evaluative meaning（情感）Collaborator VS Accomplice(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）Accuse VS Charge（accuse…of; charge…with）Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）AmazeVSAstoundItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilar meaning;thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Ball:1. anroundobjectusedingame.2.alargeformalsocialeventatwhichpeopledance.3.同音(形)异义HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.1). Homophones同音异义It refers to two words are identical in sound. E.g. rain/reign.2).Homographs同形异义It refers to two words are identical in form.E.g. tear v. /tear n.3). Complete homonyms同形同音Itreferstowordsthatarebothidenticalinsoundandspelling.E.g.tearv./tearn.4.上下义关系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusive wordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningis calledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms. Superordinate:animalSubordinate:cat,dog,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear,It is the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.a) gradable:等级反义词old-youngb) complementary：互补反义词male-femalec) relational:关系反义词father-son buy-sell4.Sentencesenserelations:1）.X is synonymous with Y（同义）E.g. He is a bachelor all his life.He never married all his life.2）. X is inconsistent with Y（不一致/反义）E.g. John is marriedJohn is a bachelor.3）.X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)（包含于）E.g. He has been to France.He has been to Europe.4）. X presuppose Y（Y是X的先决条件）E.g.John’s bike needs repairing.John has a bike.5）. X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6). X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）E.g. The table has bad intensions.5.Analysisofmeaning1. Componential Analysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义It’s awayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmea ning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedis sectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.E.g.Man=Adult+Male+Animate+Human2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British Linguist G.Leech提出)It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc.(通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)3.先设前提PresuppositionIt’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.4.蕴涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentencesinwhichsent enceAentailssentenceB.A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.B:Markmarriedablonde.第6章pragmatics本章要点：1.speech act theory言语行为的理论2. cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3.Grice an theory of conventional implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。
语言学期末复习练习及答案
语言学期末复习练习及答案英语语言学期末预测及答案Translate the following terms into Chinese: (0.5%×10=5%)1) affricate 2)distinctive feature 3) parole 4) generative grammar 5) bilingualism 6) felicity condition 7) design feature8) denotation 9) labiodental 10) linguistic relativity Translate the following terms into English:(0.5%×10=5%)11)人际功能 12) 真值条件 13)女性语域 14)音节划分 15)结构主义16)社会语言学 17) 论元 18)单元音 19)衔接 20)对比分析III. Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the corresponding letter A, B, C orD on the answer sheet. (1%×20=20%)1). language is a system of arbitrary _________ symbols used for human communication.A. culturalB. conventionalC. decodedD. vocal2). A word with several meanings is called _________.A. an abnormal wordB. a polysemous wordC. a synonymous wordD. none of the above3). There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned” is known as a(n) __________.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form4). The syntactic rules of any language are ________ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite5). “I picked some tulips.” __________ “I picked some flowers.”.A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous with6). Y's utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of __________.X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner7) “Can I borrow your bike?” _____ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes8) The study of language at one point of time is a _______ study.A. synchronicB. historicC. diachronicD. descriptive9) Which of the following is a typical tone language?A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above10) Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in ___________.A. phonemic contrastB. complementary distributionC. minimal pairD. none of the above11) In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][d][s][z][n] share the feature of _________.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental12) Transformational Generative Grammar was introduced by _______ in 1957.A. L. BloomfieldB. N. ChomskyC. F. SaussureD. M. A. K. Halliday13) Which of the following is a correct description of reference?A. a relationship between an expression and other expressions which have the same meaningB. the set of all objects which can potentially be referred to by an expressionC. a relationship between a particular object in the world and an expression usedin an utterance to pick out that objectD. an intra-linguistic relationship between lexical items14) What is function of the sentence “How do you do’?A. DirectiveB. PhaticC. InformativeD. Evocative15) In the following sounds, ________is a central vowel.A. /?/B. /u/C./?/D. /з/16) Which of the following languages has the syllabic writing system?A. ChineseB. JapaneseC. EnglishD. French17) Which description of the meaning components of the word “father” is right?A. [+human, +adult,-male]B. [+human, -adult, +male]C. [–human, +adult, -male]D. [+human, +adult, +male]18) Once the notion of ________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content19) Black English has a number of distinctive features in its phonological, morphological and syntactic systems which are _______.A. rule-governedB. systematicC. arbitraryD. both A and B20) “Hot dog” with the first syllable stressed means _________.A. an overheated animalB. a kind of foodC. a barking dogD. a dead dogIV. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:(15 pts, 1 point for each)Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false: (1%×15=15%)1)Animal call systems are not genetically transmitted.2)According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the actual realization of his knowledgein utterance.3)A syllable without a coda is a closed syllable.4)Parole refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.5)Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentences patterns of alanguage.6)Languages differ in their selection of contrastive sounds.7)The English spelling exactly represents its pronunciation.8)Constituents that can be substituted for one another with loss of grammaticalitybelong to the same syntactic category.9)According to semantic triangle, there is no direct link between a symbol andreferent, i.e. between a word and a thing it refers to.10) A referring expression can be used to refer to nonexistent things.11) All the grammatically well-formed sentences are semantically well-formed.12) Pragmatics studies the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.13) An illocutionary act is the consequence of or the change brought about by theutterance.14) Social dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by peoplebelonging to particular social classes.15) The structural tests focus on the communicative and linguistic competence.V. Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.(1%×10=10%)1)The three branches of phonetics are labeled as a____________ phonetics, auditoryphonetics and acoustic phonetics respectively.2)One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacyof speech overw_________.3)S_________ studies the sentence structure of language.4)C____________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word canbe divided into meaning components.5)The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are h_____________.6)H. Sweet made a distinction between narrow and b_________ transcription.7)Linguistics’ found that it would be impossible to give an adequate descriptionof meaning if the c_________ of language use was left unconsidered.8)Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a_______of messages.9)Language may determine our thinking pattern and similarity between languages isrelative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. This has often been called the Sapir-Whorf h___________.10)S______ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.II.Translate the following terms: (0.5%×20=10%)Translate the following terms into Chinese: (0.5%×10=5%)1)塞擦音 2)区别性特征 3) 言语 4)生成语法 5)双语现象6)适切条件 7)结构特征 8)外延 9)唇齿音 10)语言相对论Translate the following terms into English:(0.5%×10=5%)11)interpersonal function 12) truth condition 13)women register14)syllabification 15) structuralism 16) sociolinguistics 17) argument 18) monophthong 19)cohesion 20) contrastive analysis III. Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets.(1%×20=20%) 1-5 DBCCA 6-10 CDABB 11-15 BBCBA 16-20 BDBDBIV. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.(1%×15=15%)1-5 FFFFF 6-10 FFFTT 11-15 FTFTFV. Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the firstletter of which is already given as a clue. (1％×10=10％)1) articulatory 2) writing 3) syntax 4) contituent5)homograph6) broad 7)context 8)receiver 9) hypothesis 10) Speech。
英语语言学概论笔记(期末复习资料)
英语语言学概论笔记（期末复习资料）【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?―Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like ―book‖) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languag es have different ―books‖: ―book‖ in English,―livre‖ in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, ―check‖ in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or―new‖. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?―Design features‖ here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell thedifference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By ―arbitrariness‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like ―bang‖, ―crash‖, ―roar‖, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. ―Type‖ and ―write‖ are opaque orunmotivated words, while ―type-writer‖ is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguist s refer ―duality‖ (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into aninfinite更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person totalk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking si tuation. No one has ever said or heard ―A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon‖, but he cansay it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called ―rule-bound creativity‖ (byN.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?―Displacement‖, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless,has a small share of ―displacement‖, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. Ifa human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak thewolf’s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, ―Please do something to make me happy.‖ Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that 更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 ―speaking‖ and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six ―design features‖ whichanimal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F.Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a hum an child. She was taught ―American sign Language‖, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the ―Wolf Child‖in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three ―Macro-Functions‖: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin etal., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The ―phatic function‖ refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic langua ge (e.g. ―How are you?‖ ―Fine, thanks.‖) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say ―Hello‖ to a friend you meet, orif you don’t answer his ―Hi‖, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The ―directive function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., ―Tell me the result whenyou finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin an d J.Searle’s ―indirect speech act theory‖(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278)at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an ―informational function‖ when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s―Cooperative Principle‖(see HuZhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the ―Maxim of Quality‖, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an―interrogative function‖. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the ―indirect speech act theory‖, may have this function as well, e.g., ―I’d liketo know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I’m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urgecustomers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to ―do things‖ or perform actions. On certain occasions theutterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, ―OK‖, which means more than speech, and more than an average socialindividual may do for the construction. The j udge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?―Linguistics‖ is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, butto investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave nolinguistic ―stone‖ unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjectivein the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective,matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes partof the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if itstopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled ―On the Use of THE‖, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle oflinguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speechis primary; because it existed long long before writing systems cameinto being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds:更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing aswritten codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches? A linguistic study is ―descriptive‖ if itonly describes and analyses the facts of language, and ―prescriptive‖ if it tries to lay down rules for ―correct‖ language behavior. Linguisticstudies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on ―high‖ (literary or reli gious) written records. Modernlinguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believesthat whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers ―langue‖to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers ―parole‖ to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. Thelangue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, ―competence‖ is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and ―performance‖ is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. Aspeaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence,rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造native language.(3) C homsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as,though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on manytopics. What he actually says (i.e. his ―actual linguistic behavior‖) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means ―knowing‖, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for ―doing‖ or―performing actions‖. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?―Phonetics‖ is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making,especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods fortheir description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin etal., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch ofphonetic research from the hearer’s point ofview, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and theresonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g.Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h]. Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed ―labial-velar‖.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The ―manner of articulation‖ literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unroundvowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of ―International Phonetic Alphabet‖, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phoneticvariation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between―narrow‖ and ―broad‖ transcriptions, which he called ―Narrow Romic‖. The form er was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology? (1) ―Phonology‖ is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speechsounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they areconceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign ―accent‖, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A ―phone‖ is a phonetic unit or segment. T he speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and threedifferent[p]’s, readily making possible the ―narrow transcription or diacritics‖. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A ―phoneme‖ is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its ―allophones‖,i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are theallophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random.In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a ―minimal pair‖, e.g.,―pill‖ and ―bill‖, ―pill‖ and ―till‖, ―till‖ and ―dill‖,―till‖ and ―kill‖, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in ―free variation‖. Theplosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation.更多精华请登陆考研1号网 。
英语语言学概论期末复习
英语语言学概论期末复习English Linguistics Overview Final ReviewIntroduction:1. Phonetics:Phonetics deals with the physical sounds of human speech. It examines speech sounds, their production, transmission, and perception. It includes articulatory phonetics (how sounds are produced), acoustic phonetics (how sounds are transmitted), and auditory phonetics (how sounds are perceived).2. Phonology:Phonology focuses on the systematic organization of sounds in a particular language. It studies phonemes—the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning—and phonological rules, which determine how sounds interact in a language. It also explores the distribution of sounds, syllable structures, and phonological processes like assimilation and vowel harmony.3. Morphology:4. Syntax:Syntax explores the structure of sentences and the rulesthat govern their formation. It analyzes the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses to create well-formed sentences.Syntax also investigates sentence constituents, grammatical relations, word order, and sentence types.5. Semantics:6. Pragmatics:7. Sociolinguistics:Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society. It investigates how language varies and changes based on social factors such as gender, age, social class, and geographical location. Sociolinguistics also examines language attitudes, language variation, language contact, and dialectology.8. Psycholinguistics:Conclusion:。
英语语言学期末复习考点
1. Define the following terms.1）structureIt consists of the way in which the words are organized into phrases and the phrases are organized into larger phrases.2）grammarIt is the process of describing the structure of phrases and sentences in such a way that we account for all the grammatical sequences in a language and rule out all the ungrammatical sequences; or can be defined as the study of phrases and sentences structure.3）structural ambiguityIt happens when two distinct underlying interpretations are represented differently in deep structure. There are two different underlying structures with the same surface structure.4）deep structureIt is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented.5）SyntaxIt deals with how sentences are constructed with words.2. Draw the phrase structure tree for the sentence "Bill ran to the park slowly."Bill ran to the park slowly.3. Draw two different phrase structure trees to illustrate the ambiguity involved in the sentence" I once shot an elephant in my pajamas.” Under each tree write the way to understand the sentence embodied by the tree.I once shot an elephant in my pajamas.I once shot an elephant, and the elephant was in my pajamas.I once shot an elephant in my pajamas.I once shot an elephant when I was wearing my pajamas.4. Draw two different phrase structure trees to illustrate the ambiguity involved in "tall boys and girls." Under each tree write the way to understand the phrase embodied by the tree.tall boys and girls.Both boys and girls are tall.tall boys and girls.Only the boys are tall.5. Define the following terms.1) semanticsSemantics is the study of meaning in human language.2) lexical gapLexical gap is the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language. 3) semantic rolesSemantic role is a way of categorizing the relation between a sentence’s parts and the event that it describes. to categorize the relation between a sentence’s parts and the event that it describes.6. Define the approaches to meaning and state their problems.1) meaning as naming:the meaning of an expression is what it refers to.Problem: it is not always immediately clear what is being named. What do conjunctions like but and and refer to? What do prepositions like for and to stand for? What do we say about names for imaginary objects or actions? The concert word tree can stand for a particular tree or any tree or all trees in the world.2) meaning as concept:expressions mean the concept or idea associated with them. Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept.Prob: To state that meaning is a concept does not overcome all the problems that the naming theory has. We can still ask what are the concepts that and or but stand for?3) meaning as behaviour:a STIMULUS (S) produced a linguistic response (r), which works as a stimulus (s), and results in a non-linguistic response (R). The meaning of a linguistic form is defined as observable behaviours.Prob: Since the practical stimulus S is not always obvious, so how do we identify it?4) meaning as context:meaning is found in the context within which a particular expression is uttered. It suggests thatwe can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, the observable context.Prob: What are we actually observing in a context?5) meaning as truth conditions:the sense of a declarative sentence permits you to know under what circumstances a sentence is true. Those circumstances are called “truth conditions” of the sentence. The truth conditions of a declarative sentence are the same as the sense of the sentence. Knowing the meaning of a sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true or false.Prob: This approach limits semantics to being concerned principally about meaning in relation to truth and falsehood. How can we discuss the meaning of interrogatives and imperatives?7. Define the seven types of meaning with one example for each.1) Conceptual meaning:what words denote or refer to.It can be studied in terms of contrastive features or binary feature format.e.g. man: [ +HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] woman: [+HUMAN +ADULT +FEMALE]2) Connotative meaning:the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual meaning.e.g. dragon in Western countries means an evil monster, but in China it refers to an auspicious animal.3)Social meaning:the meaning which an expression conveys about the contexts or social circumstances of its use.e.g. larceny, used in court of law, is of French origin; theft, used in informal settings, is of Anglo-Saxon origin. There is no real difference in conceptual meaning. The differences have to do with levels of formality.4) Affective meaning:the level of meaning that conveys the language user’s feeling, including his attitude or evaluation in shaping his use of language.e.g. statesman indicates a wise and respected political leader, while politician refers to someone who is good at taking advantage of different conditions in an organization.5) Reflective meaning:the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms parts of our response to another sense.e.g. nuclear family6) Collocative meaning:the associations a word gets because of the meanings which tend to occur in its linguistics context.e.g. clear could mean free from complications (as in a clear case), free from guilt (as in a clear conscience) or clear from clouds (as in a clear sky).7) Thematic meaning:meaning that arises out of the way in which the writer or speaker organizes his message.e.g. an active sentence has a different meaning from its passive equivalent although in conceptual meaning they seem to be the same.8. What are the differences between less marked and more marked terms in the same semantic field?1) The less marked members of a semantic field will usually be easier to learn and remember than more marked members.2) A less marked word consists of only one morpheme, in contrast to more marked words.3) The less marked member of a semantic field cannot be described by using the name of another member of the same set, while more marked members can be thus described.4) Less marked terms tend to be used more frequently than more marked terms.5) Less marked terms are broader in meaning than more marked terms.6) Less marked words are not the result of the metaphorical usage of the name of another object or concept, whereas more marked words often are.9. Use contrastive features to illustrate the conceptual meanings of the words "boy","girl", "mare" and "stallion".boy: [+HUMAN -ADULT +MALE]girl: [+HUMAN -ADULT +FEMALE]mare: [+ANIMAL +HORSE -MALE +ADULT]stallion: [+ANIMAL +HORSE +MALE +ADULT]10. Identify the difference between homonymy and polysemy. Make sure you include examples.HOMONYMY is words that have the same linguistic forms but are different in meaning, e.g. bank (of a river)- bank (financial institution); while POL YSEMY is one world which has two or more meanings that are related conceptually or historically, e.g. foot.11. Identify the difference between hyponymy and meronymy. Make sure you include examples.HYPONYMY is when a word is a member of the denotation of another word, e.g. Potato is a hyponym of vegetable ; while MERONYMY is when a word is a part of the denotation of another word, e.g. wheel, door, window, etc. are all meronyms of car.12. Define semantic roles with one example for each.1)Agent:the responsible initiator of an action; the entity that performs an actione.g. David washed the dishes.2) Patient:the entity that undergoes a certain change of state; the entity that undergoes the effect of some action.e.g. The sun melted the ice.3) Experiencer:the entity that experiences a physical or mental sensation; the one that receives a sensory input.e.g. John likes blueberry pancakes.4) Instrument:the means by which an action is performed or something comes aboute.g. They signed the treaty with the same pen.5) Cause:any natural force that brings about a change of statee.g. The snow caved in the roof.6) Recipient:the entity that receives a physical objecte.g. He sold me this camera.7) Benefactive:the entity for which an action is performed.e.g. They baked me a cake.8) Locative:the location of an action or state.e.g. The band performed in a park.9) Temporal:the time at which the action or state occurred.e.g. She left home yesterday.13. Define semantic relationships between sentences with one example for each.1) Entailment:when the truth of one sentence guarantees the truth of another sentence. In terms of truth value: when a is true, b is necessarily true; when b is false, a is false; when b is true, a may be true or false.e.g. a: That person is a bachelor.b: That person is a man.2) Presupposition:the assumption or belief implied by the use of a particular word or structure. When a is true, bis necessarily true; when a is false, b is still true; when b is true, a can be either true or false; when b is false, no truth value can be said about a.e.g. a. John’s son is an engineer.b. John has a son.3) Paraphrase:two sentences have the same meaning.e.g. a: I gave the book to John.b: I gave John the book.4) Contradiction:two sentences have contradict meaninge.g. a: Charles is a bachelor.b: Charles is married.5) Implicature:when one sentence can be concluded from another sentencee.g. Speaker 1. I’d like a cup of coffee.Speaker 2: There’s a place around the corner called Joe’s.14. Define the following concepts.Pragmatics is the study of what speakers mean, or “speaker meaning”. It is the study of language in use.Micropragmatics is the study about the mechanisms by which speakers/writers encode their message in skilful ways and how hearers/readers arrive at the intended meaning in spite of the differences between the literal meaning and the intended meaning.e.g. I was waiting for the bus, but he just drove by without stopping.15. Define speech acts and classify.Speech acts: the acts people perform by using language.1) Locutionary act: the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance.2) Illocutionary act: the extra meaning of the utterances produced on the basis of its literal meaning.3) Perlocutionary act: the effect of the utterance on the hearer depending on specific circumstances16. Classification of illocutionary acts1) Representatives:speech acts stating that the speaker is committed to the truth of a statement. e.g. statements of fact, assertions, conclusions and descriptions.e.g. The earth is flat.2) Directives:speech acts that the speaker uses to get the hearer to do something. e.g. commands, orders, requests, suggestions, begging and pleading.e.g. Could you le n t me a pen, please?3) Commissives:speech acts that the speaker uses to commit himself to some future action. e.g. promises, threats, refusals and pledges.e.g. I’ll be back.4) Expressives:utterances stating that the speaker expresses an attitude about the situation. e.g. pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy or sorrow.e.g. I’m really sorry.5) Declarations:those utterances that the speaker uses to change a situation.e.g. Jury foreman: We find the defendant guilty.17. Sentence forms & speech act18. Common Speech Acts & its Function19. Indirect speech acts1) QuestionsDirecta: Did John marry Helen?b. I ask you whether or not John married Helen.Indirecta. I don’t know if John married Helen.b. I would like to know if John married Helen.c. Do you know if John married Helen?2) RequestsDirecta: Please take out the garbage.b. I request that you take out the garbage.Indirecta. The garbage isn’t out yet.b. Could you take out the garbage?c. Would you mind taking out the garbage?d. I would like for you to take out the garbage.。
英语语言学概论期末复习
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic ）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness ）与理据性（motivation ）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion ）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification ）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family ）——语族（group ）——语支（branch ）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation ）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating isolating languagelanguage ）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language ）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional inflectional languagelanguage ）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis polysynthesis languagelanguage ）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
语言学-期末考试-复习材料
语言学-期末考试-复习材料一、选择（20个）二、判断（10~20个）三、填空（5分）四、词语解释（3个，各5分）五、简答（2个，各10分；其中一个是语用学）六、句子分析（4个）IC analysis 是倒着的树形图Chomsky 是有S, NP,VP…与其中的树形图。
1. Phonetics & Language Introduction:1. There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. This is __B____one of the design features of language.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement2. Language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is __B__ . It makes people possible to talk everything within his knowledge.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement3. __C___ refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that he has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement4. ___D__ refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. The dog couldn?t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for some lost love or a bone to be lost.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement5. ___D___ means language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the linguistic system must be learnt anew by each speaker.A. dualityB. ArbitrarinessC. interchangeabilityD. cultural transmission6. ___C___ means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.A. dualityB. ArbitrarinessC. interchangeabilityD. cultural transmission7. To say “How are you. ”“Hi”to your friends is the ___C____of language.A. directive functionB. informative functionC. phatic function (adj. 交流感情/交际应酬的)D. interrogative function8. “Tell me the result when you finish.”If you want to get your hearer to do something, you should use the ___B__ function of language.A. directive functionB. informative functionC. phatic functionD. interrogative function9. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as _____.A. unnaturalB. something to be fearedC. natural C. abnormal10. A linguist is interested in _______.A. speech sounds onlyB. all soundsC. vowels only C. consonants only11. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop?A. [t]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]12. Which of the following sounds is a voiced affricate?A. [y]B. [t∫]C. [z]D. [dЗ]13. Which of the following sounds is a central vowel?A. [ ? ]B. [ i ]D. [a: ]14. In the following sounds , ______ is a palatal fricative ?A. [ s ]B. [∫]C. [ l ]D. [θ]15. In the following sounds , ______ is a voiceless affricative ?A. [dЗ]B. [ v ]C. [t∫]D. [θ]16. In English if a word begins with a [ l ] or [ r ],then the next sound must be a ____.A. fricativeB. nasal soundC. semi-vowelD. vowel17. Of the “words”listed below, _____ is not an English word ?A. [r∧b ]B. [ l? b ]C. [m?sta:∫]D. [lm?p]18. _____ are produced when the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and audibly released.A. Back vowelsB. StopsC. Fricatives C. Glides19. The International Phonetic Association devised the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET in ______.B. 1957C. 1888D. 178820. ____ is a phonological unit , and it is a unit that is of distinctive value.A. PhoneB. PhonemeC. AllophoneD. SoundII. Tell which statements are true or false.1. [ f ] is a dental consonant.2. Phonology studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methodsfor their description, classification and transcription.3. Phoneme is a phonological unit.4. Phone is a phonetic unit.5. When we study the different [ p ]’s in “[ pit ], [tip ], [spit ]”, they are similarphones which belong to phonetics.6. But the three [ p ] belong to the different phoneme / p /.7. The three / p / are allophones.8. ‘peak’is aspirated , phonetically transcribed as [ph]; ‘speak’isunaspirated （不送气的）phonetically[ p=].9. [ph ], [p=] do not belong to the same phoneme / p /.10. [p h] and [ p=] are two different phones, and are variants of the phoneme / p /,which is called ALLOPHONES of the same phoneme.key: BACDD CCACA DDABC DDBCB FFTTT FTTFTI. Choose the best choice(语音)1. Which is a voiced bilabial stop?A. [m]B. [v]C. [p]D. [b]2. Which is a voiceless affricate?A. [w]B. [f]C. [t∫]D. [n]3. Which is monophothong?A. [i]B. [au]C. [ai]D. [ei]4. Which is a voiceless bilabial stop?A. [p]B. [m]C. [b]D. [t]5. Which is a voiced affricate?A. [j]B. [z]C. [t∫]D. [dЗ]6. Which is a central vowel ?A. [i]B. [?:]C. [ou]D. [a:]7. In English if a word begins with [l] or [r] , then the next sound must be a ____.A. fricativeB. nasal soundC. semi-vowelD. vowel8. Which is a palatal fricative?A. [s]B. [k]C. [∫]D. [l]9. Which is not a English word?A. [r ?b]B. [l?b]C. [sta:∫]D. [ lm?p]10. Which is a unaspirate?A. skyB. killC. likeD. kite2. Semantics 练习1._______ is not included in Leech?s associative meaning.A. Connotative meaningB. Social meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Thematic meaning2. Among Leech?s seven types of meaning is concerned with the relationship betweena word and the thing it refers to _______.A. conceptualB. affectiveC. reflectedD. thematic3. According to the referential theory, a word is not directly related to the thing it refers to. They are connected by ______.A. meaningB. referenceC. conceptD. sense4.”Big” and “Small” are a pair of ______ opposites.A. complementaryB. gradableC. completeD. Converse5. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are ______.A. gradable opposites B, converse opposites C. co-hyponymsD. synonyms6. A word with several meaning is called ______ word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC. an abnormalD. a multiple7. The semantic compone nts of the word “gentleman” can be expressed as ___.A. +animate, +male, +human, -adultB. +animate, +male, +human, +adultA. +animate, -male, +human, -adult D. + animate, -male, +human, +adult8. _____ is a phrase which can only be understood as a unit, not as a summation of themeaning of each constituent word.A. CollocationB. IdiomC. Semantic componentD. Synonym9. In the triangle advanced by Ogden and Richards, “thought or reference” is____A. word, sentenceB. the objectC. conceptD. symbol10. A linguistic is interested in _____.A. What is said.B. What is right both in syntax and in semantics.C. What is grammaticalD. What ought to be said.11. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are _____.A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. synonymsD. co-hyponyms12. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as _____.A. Lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words13. What is t he meaning relationship between the two words “flower/tulip” ?A. PolysemyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. Antonymy14. The words “railway” and “railroad” are _____.A. synonyms differing in emotive meaningB. dialectal synonymsC. collocationally-restricted synonymsD. synomyms differing in styles15. The pair of words “wide/narrow” are called____.A. gradable oppositesB. complementary antonymsC. co-hyponymsD. relational opposites16. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementaries?A. single/marriesB. lend/borrowC. hot/coldD. old/youngDACBB _BBBB BACBA AII. Answer the questions with “Yes”or “No” .1.Is reference tied to a particular time and place? Y2.Every word in a language can find at least one referent in the objective world. ?N3.Can different expressions have the same referent? Y4.Can reference be applied to words such as “and” ,”very” in English? NIII.State the following sentences “True” or “False”.1. Sense is regarded as a kind of intra-linguistic relationship. T2. In most cases, “sense” and “meaning” are different terms for the same thing. T3. Every word has its own sense. F4. A word may have several different senses and several words may have the samesense. T5. Extension, like denotation, is a kind of relation between elements and theobjective world. T6. Extension can only be applied to the things at present. F7. The relation between extension and intension is the same as that betweendenotation and sense. T8. People of different cultures may choose different prototype for the same predicate,e.g. …bus?. T9. All the words in a language can be used to refer , but only some have sense. F10. Two synonymous words must be identical in sense in every dimension. F11. There are very few perfect synonyms in a language. T12. Entailment is more inclusive than paraphrase. T13. Almost every word in a dictionary is polysemic. T14. Dry and wet are a pair of gradable antonyms. T15. Innocent and guilt are a pair of relative antonyms. F Complementary16. The relationship between the Argument and Predicate is Subject to predicate.F17. The meaning of each expression can be defined in terms of its semanticcomponents so as to contrast with the meaning of all the expressions in the same language. T18. The proposition of a sentence may be more simply stated as a verb and a selection of case ---categories. T19. According to case grammar, the part of proposition in a sentence is a tensed set of relationships between a verb and a noun phrase ( or noun phrases).4. Exercises to Chapter 4 SyntaxI. General view of syntax1. Syntax: studies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences.2. gender: as masculine, feminine, neuter, or animate, and inanimate.3. case: the syntaxtic relationship between words. Teacher?s , kiss him宾格，主格，与格，芬兰语有15种格4．Concord: agreement: a syntactic relationship agree with each other.5. Government : A word determines the form of others.支配关系6. langue and paroleLangue: abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity. StabilityParole: actual speech7. signified (concept) and signifier (sound image)1. 所指 2 能指之间的关系是任意的8. syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: what precedes or follows9. synchronic and diachronic linguistics10. “Rheme” “Theme”负载交际能力最小的是主位。
语言学-期末复习资料-整理版
语言学-期末复习资料-整理版Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言language$Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性￥Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophisticationand it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send."⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal u ser’s knowledge of the rules of his langu age.。
语言学期末考试复习(英语专业).doc
LinguistsFerdinand de Saussure: Course in General LinguisticsEdward Sapir: Language: An Introduction to the Study of SpeechNoam Chomsky: Syntactic StructuresJohn Lyons: Language and LinguisticsR. H. Robins: General LinguisticsStuart C. Pool: An Introduction to LinguisticsWhat is language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System: Elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary: no close connection between a word and the object it refers to. Vocal: all human languages have sound and speech.Symbolic: Words are associated with objects, actions, ideas, concepts etc. by nothing but convention.Human: language is human specific.Design Features of LanguageArbitrarinessDualityCreativityDisplacementArbitrariness: --The forms of language signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (Saussure)--Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words.--Language has 2 levels of structures: sounds & meanings.-A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning.--The units of meanings can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences, (lyons)Creativity:-We can understand and create sentences that we never heard before.--It comes from 2 features: duality & recursiveness (递归性) Displacement: People can use language to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.What is linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.The sounds and the sound system orpatternsMain branches of linguisticsPhonetics （语音学）、Phonology （音系学）- Morphology （形态学）：the structure of wordsSyntax （句法学）：the structure of phrases and sentencesSemantics （语义学）：the meaning of words and sentencesPragmatics （语用学）：the way language is used to communicate Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs. Prescriptive 描写式 VS 规定式Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性 VS 历时性Langue vs. Parole 语言 VS 言语Competence and Performance 语言能力&语言运用Etic vs. Emic 非位学（素学）VS 位学 Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveDescriptive: how things arePrescriptive: how things ought to beModern linguistics is mostly descriptive, not prescriptive. Why?--Objective description helps to see the nature of language.--Language changes through time.Svnchronic vs. Diachronic （Saussure ）Synchronic Study: the study of language in a fixed instant, take language as unchanged.Diachronic Study: the study of language through the course of its historyLangue vs. Parole (Saussure)Language: the linguistic competence of the speaker, abstract, stable, systematic Parole: the exact way of speaking, specific and changeableSaussure's purpose to distinguish 'langue' and 'parole': To discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of the study of linguistics.Competence and Performance (Chomsky)Competence: A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to and different from Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?--Similarities: both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Saussure's parole and Chomsky's performance are essentially the same thing.-Differences: Saussure's notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psycholoRical point of view. Thus, langue is quite different from competence.Etic vs. Emic (Pike)Chapter 2Major branches of phonetics：1.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学)2.Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学)3.Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学)Phone [ ] Phoneme / /The IPAInternational Phonetic AssociationInternational Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888. Consonants and vowelsRP: Received English (BBC English, Oxford English, King's / Queen's English) GA: General AmericanIn what ways consonants differ from vowels?1)Air-stream in Articulation--consonants (24): the flow of air comes out with some obstructions.--vowels (20): the flow of air comes out freely2)Function: --consonants are used to separate the vowels. --vowels are used to help the speech organs to get from one consonant position to the next. Consonants[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricativeVowelsCoarticulation and Phonetic TranscriptionCoarticulation: Sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.E.g. map, lambAnticipatory coarticulation 先期协'同发音lambPerseverative coarticulation 后滞协'同发音map[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].Broad transcription [ ] Narrow transcription / / or []Phone and PhonemeA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't, e.g. [tin— [t] [i] [n]A phoneme can be defined as a minimal unit of sound that can distinguish words of different meanings. E.g. [tin] [din] 9 /t/ /d/ 9 tin dinDifferences Between Phone & PhonemeMinimal Pairs: e.g. "pat" "bat”, “pig" "big”Allophone: the phonetic variants of a phoneme, e.g. the 2 allophones of the same phoneme /p/ are [p h] as in pin and [p] in spin.SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal suprasegmentals are: syllable, stress, tone, intonationThe syllable structureoMonosyllabic word: cat, dogPolysyllabic word: festival, transplantOpen syllable: a syllable without coda, bar, tieClosed syllable: a syllable with coda, bard, tiedChapter 3 LexiconWhat is word?Definition: It is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition, whether in spoken or written form.Identification of wordsStability: the internal structure is the most stable e.g. chairman namirahc Relative uninterruptibility: new elements can not be inserted into a word e.g. dis appoint mentA minimum free form (Bloomfield):maximum 9 sentenceminimum 9 wordClassification of words1)Variable vs. Invariable Words:Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats. (n. v.) Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.2)Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns. Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.3)Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:Closed-class words —grammatical words): New members cannot normally be added, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.Open-class words (=lexical words): New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.4)Word class: known as Parts of Speech (词性)in traditional grammar, noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.Some new word class: -Particles (小品词):Infinitive "to",Negative "not”,Subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”, “look back”, etc.-Auxiliaries: do, have-Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.-Pro-form-DeterminersPre-determiners (coverage): all, both, twice, one-fifth, etc.Central- determiners (所指):this, that, every, my, etc.Post-determiners (cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, general ordinals and quantifiers): last, past, many, little, etc.Morpheme and MorphologyMorpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, its meaning will change if further divided. E.g. dis appoint ment (3)Morphology: the study of word-formation (the internal structure of words).A phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology; a morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.(1)Free morphemes & Bound morphemes-Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Content words (open-class words)Function words (close-class words)Compounds: polymorphemic words consisting wholly of free morphemes, e.g.mooncake-Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, unBound morphemes are mainly affixes.(2)Root, affix and stemRoot: the free morpheme inside of the wordE.g. friend as in unfriendlinessAffix: the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.prefix (dis-, un-)suffix (-en, -ify) andlnfix( feet, goose)Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.E.g. friend (friends), friendship (friendships)(3)Inflectional and Derivational AffixInflectional affixes (all are suffix): number, tense, degree (-er. -est), and case(-s') Derivational affixes: e.g. -tion, -ness, un-, en-, -less etc.Inflection and Word FormationInflection: adding inflectional affix, such as number, person, case, (tables, opens, boy's ) do not change the grammatical class of the stemsDerivation (a relationship between roots and affixes):lengthen, foolish, (word class changed)nonsmoker, disobey (word class unchanged)Word FormationCompounds: to join two or more separate words to produce a new word. Endocentric & Exocentric compounds向心复合词和离心复合词Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of "a kind of〃E.g. self-control: a kind of control; armchair: a kind ofchairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of "a kind of something"E.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crow; breakneck: not a kind of neckWritten forms of compounds-Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard-Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length -Open: coffee table, washing machine Chapter 4Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)the girl (NP)ate the apple (VP)The girl ate the apple (S)The girl ate the appleIf two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A.Syntactic FunctionNames of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.Subject: "what the sentence is about" (i.e., topic)John was bitten by a dog.u grammatical subject" (John) and 'logical subject" (a dog)Predicator: verb or verbs included in a predicate, it usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.Object:Direct Object and Indirect ObjectMother gave my sister a doll.IO DOThe accusative case （受格）for direct objectThe dative case （与格）for indirect objectObject can become subjectJohn broke the glass. 9 The glass was broken by John.Peter saw Jane. 9 Jane was seen by Peter.Category-Number: singular, dual, pluralIn Englishnouns: dog, dogspronouns and verbs: He laughs: They laugh; this man: these men.-Gender: contrasts as "masculine : feminine : neuter", "animate : inanimate", etc. In English gender only in pronouns and nouns:he: she: itprince: princess author: authoress-Case: teacher: teacher'swith/ to a manJohn kicked Peter: Peter kicked John-Agreement:a pronoun agrees with its antecedent: Whose is this pen? --Oh,Ji's the one I lost.a verb agrees with its subject: Each person has one coin.number between nouns and verbs:This man runs. The bird flies.These men run. These birds fly.Chapter 5 Meaning (semantics)SemanticsDefinition: Semantics is the study of meaning in language.Geoffrey Leech. Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning 9 DenotationConnotative meaning 、9 Connotation (unstable, vary according to culture)Social meaningAffective meaning > Associative meaningReflected meaningJCollocative meaningThematic meaningDenotation & ConnotationE.g. words with the same denotation, but differ in the connotative meanings: politician (derogatory)statesman (favorable)The Referential TheoryReferential theory: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for.Leech's conceptual meaning has 2 sides:Sense (Connotation): the abstract properties of an entity;Reference (Denotation): concrete entities;Concept: the abstract thing, no entity.Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. E.g. "but ", “if”, “God”,“dragon”.Sense Relations--Synonymy:buy/purchaseautumn/fall flat/apartmenttube/underground--Antonymy(1) Gradable antonymy (degree)分级反义词good ---------------------- badlong ----------------------- shortbig ------------------------- small(2) Complementary antonymy (Not A = B; not B= A)互补反义词一个个体的两种情况alive : dead odd : evenmale : female pass : failpresent: absent boy : girlinnocent: guilty hit: miss⑶Converse antonymy回转反义词两方两个事物buy : sell teacher: studentlend : borrow above : belowgive : receive before : afterparent: child host: guesthusband : wife employer: employeeChapter 8 Language in Use (Pragmatics)Definition of Pragmatics:The study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers' meaning, utterance meaning, & contextual meaning. Utterance Meaning vs. Sentence MeaningSentence meaning: What does X mean?Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X?Contextual Meaning: meaning in contextSpeech Act TheoryJohn Austin (1911-1960)How to Do Things with Words (1962)Speech acts: actions performed via utterancesIllocutionary Act TheoryJohn Searle (1932-)Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels:the locutionnary act 发话行为the illocutionnary act 行事行为the perlocutionnary act取效行为/言后行为E.g.lIt's cold here.Locutionary act: the literal meaning, the sentenceIllocutionary act: a request of the hearer to shut the window.Perlocutionary act: the hearer's shutting the window or his refusal to shut it. E.g.2Conversations between The illocutionary act:husband and wife:H: That's the phone. 9 Not describing something. Just making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.W: I'm in the bathroom.— Not describing her action in the bathroom, just (i) a refusal to comply with the request and (ii) issuing a request of her husband to answer it.H : Okay. 9 Accepting his wife's refusal and accepther request, meaning "all right, \'\\ answer it."Conversational ImplicatureHerbert Paul GricePeople do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.The Cooperative Principle (CP)A speaker can mean a lot more than what he says, most the time the hearer could understand that, then the problem is how the speaker can convey more than what is said and how the hearer can arrive at the speaker's meaning. Grice believed there exists a set of mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of these utterances, this is what he called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Grice introduced 4 categories of maxisms:--Maxim of Quality:Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence;--Maxim of Quantity: no more, no less--Maxim of Relation: Be relative.--Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous.Pragmatics violates CP. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature. 会话含义E-g.He is made of iron.CP (quality) > He is strong-willed.He (lecturer) is a good cook.CP (relation'The lecturer is no good.Violation of the maxims (Quantity)1.No lessA:昨天上街买了些什么？B:就买了些东西。
英语语言学概论期末复习电子版本
英语语言学概论期末复习第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
英语语言学期末复习1
英语语⾔学期末复习1期末考试语⾔学复习范围2：名词解释复习范围language，speech community, bilingualism, semantics, context, locutionary act, language acquisition, phonology, psycholinguistics, langue, phoneme, culture, intercultural communication, linguistics, phonetics, competence，interlanguage, neurolinguistics, sense, morphology3：术语翻译都选⾃教材最后的glossary；4：简答题复习范围（主要限定在第⼀章、第五章、第六章、和第⼗章）1.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?3.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?4.What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?5.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?6.According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance? Give an example.7.What are the three variables that determine register? Interpret them with an example.8.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?9.What are the major types of synonyms in English?10.What are the five design features of language specified by C. Hockeet to show that human language is essentially differentfrom any animal communication system?11.What are the four major views concerning the study of meaning?12.Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication?13.What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle (CP)? List their names and explain them briefly.14.To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experience?15.What is the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) concerning language acquisition?16.Explain the definition：“Linguistics is the scientific study of language”.17.What are suprasegmental features? Use examples to illustrate your points.18.What is grammaticality? Is a grammatically meaningful sentence necessarily a semantically meaningful sentence?19.How are “sentence” and “utterance” and “sentence meaning” and “utterance meaning” related and how d o they differ?20.What distinction, if any, can you draw between bilingualism and diglossia?Ⅰ.For each question, there is only ONE correct answer. Choose the one from A, B, C and D.1.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle____A. arbitrariness and creativityB. generalizations and abstractions2. Using language for the sheer joy of using it shows that language has a ____ function.A. recreationalB. metalingualC. informativeD. performative3. According to_____, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.A. Roman JacobsonB. Leonard BloomfieldC. Kenneth PikeD. Noam Chomsky4. Whose Cardinal V owel system is still in use?A. A.J. EllisB. A.M. BellC. Daniel JonesD. A. C. Gimson5. Which of the following words involves“nasalization”?A. rapB. readC. roseD. running6. Which of the following words is likely to have stress in sentences?A. aB. andC. toD. sun7. “_______” is the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language.A. WordB. LexemeC. MorphemeD. Vocabulary8. Word Class is known as in traditional grammar as _______.A. ConstructionB. parts of speech9. Which of the following are NOT prefixes?A. paraB. disC. irD. ion10._________is NOT included in the studies of traditional grammar.A. Classifying words into parts of speechB. Defining the properties of sentencesC. Identifying the functions of wordsD. Recognizing certain categories, like number and tense11. “Concord” has the same meaning as_____A. perfectiveB. progressiveC. agreementD. government12. Which of the following is NOT related to Noam Chomsky?A. Deep StructureB. Surface StructureC. Transformational ComponentD. Theme and Rheme13. The “semantic triangle” was proposed by______A. Plato and AristotleB. Ogden and RichardsC. Chomsky and HalleD. Leech and Palmer14. Which of the following are NOT converse antonyms?A. clever: stupidB. boy: girlC. give: receiveD. teacher: student15. “ I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of ________A. arbitrarinessB. creativity16. “Don’t end a sentence with a preposition.” This is an example of _____ rules.A. prescriptiveB. descriptiveC. transformationalD. functional17. According to G.B. Shaw’s ridicule of English orthography, the non-existed word ghoti can be pronounced in the same way as______A. goatB. hotC. fishD. floor18. Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A. voiceless labiodental fricativeB. voiced labiodental fricativeC. voiceless labiodental stopD. voiced labiodental stop19. “New elements are not to be inserted into a word even though there are several parts in a word.” This is known as________A. uninterruptibilityB. stabilityC. extremityD. variability20. Which of the following word class is the closed-class?A preposition B. adverb C. adjective D. noun21. Which of the following are NOT suffixesA. inB. iseC. lyD. ful22. Traditional grammar sees a sentence as _________A. a sequence of morphemesB. a sequence of clausesC. a sequence of wordsD. a sequence of phrases24. Which of the following are gradable antonyms?A. good---badB. male----femaleC. alive----deadD. buy-----sell25. The fact that sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages proves the ________of language.A. dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacement26. Which of the following are correct descriptions of Langue and Parole?A. It was Chomsky that distinguished langue from parole.B. It was Martin Joo that distinguished langue from parole.C. Langue constitutes the immediately accessible data.D. The linguist’s proper object is the langue of each community.27. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in ________.A. the manners of articulationB. the places of articulationC. the position of the soft palateD. the obstruction of airstream28. When the different forms, such as tin and din, are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form_______A. allophonesB. a minimal pairC. a maximal pairD. phonemes29. The process of word formation in which a verb, for example, blacken, is formed by adding–en to the adjective black, is called_____A. inflectionB. derivationC. compoundD. homonymy31.Which of the following are NOT instances of blending?A. transistorB. classroomC. boatelD. brunch32. The one that is NOT one of the suprasegmental features is ________A. syllableB. stressC. coarticulationD. intonation33. What the element”-es”indicates is third person singular, present tense, and the element “-ed”past tense, and “-ing”progressive aspect. Since they are the smallest unity of language and meaningful, they are also called_______A. phonemesB. phonesC. allophonesD. morphemes34. The term“_______”in linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparative35. Since early 1990s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar known as the _______theoryA. speech actB. TGC. minimalist programD. principles-and- parametersII Decide whether the following statements are true(T) or false (F) .1.Arbitrariness means you can use languages in any way you like.（F）2.“Radar” is an invented word.(F)5.Leech’s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.(T)6.Historical linguistics is a synchronic study of language.(F)7. A good method to determine the phonemes in a language is the Minimal Pairs Test.(T)8.Phonology is concerned with speech production and speech perception.(F)9.Leech uses the term “connotative” in the same sense as that in philosophical discussion.(F)10.Duality is the physical manifestation of the “ infinite use of finite terms”(T)11.The idea of a system of cardinal vowels was first suggested by Danniel Jones.(T)12.Word is the smallest unit of meaning which can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.(T)Ⅲ. Fill in each blank with ONE word.1. There are two aspects to meaning: denotation and connotation .2. Phonology is the branch of theoretical linguistics concerned with speech sounds at a higher level thanPholotics i.e. their structure and organization in human languages.3. The fact that a word may have more than one meaning is called___ in semantics.4. There are at least 4 design features of language: Arbitrariness, , __________, and ___________5 Relational antonyms are pairs in which one describes a relationship between two objects and the otherdescribes the same relationship when the two objects are reversed, such as parent and child, teacher and student.6 antonyms are pairs that express absolute opposites, like mortal and immortal.7. F.de Saussure , founder of modern linguistics, taught linguistics in Geneva University during 1907-1911.His theory has put great influence on semiotics, humanities study and literary studies.8. Lexical semantics is concerned with the meanings of words and the meaning among words; and phrasal or semantics is concerned with the meaning of syntactic units larger than the word.9. Reference theory in semantics holds the viewpoint that there is a___direct__ relation between forms of language and those the relevant language forms refer to.10.Nominalism refers to the idea that there is no conventional relation or link between the words that people choose and the objects that the words refer to. That is to say, language is .11. Complementery antonyms are pairs that express absolute opposites, like mortal and immortal.12. 荀⼦（约公元前298～前238）在《正名篇》中说，“名⽆固宜，约之以命。
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英语语言学期末复习Chapter5 Semantics1. Definition1.命名论The naming theoryProposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.(缺点：仅限于名词)2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and RichardsIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Here are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4.行为主义论BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.2. Lexical meaning:Sense: it is concerned with inherent meaning of linguistic form; it is the collection of all features of linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Reference: it means the linguistic form refers to the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.3. Main sense relations1.同义词SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regionaldialects（方言）British Americaautumn fallflat apartment(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体）Old man daddy father male parent(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning（情感）Collaborator VS Accomplice(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）Accuse VS Charge（accuse…of; charge…with）Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）Amaze VS Astound2.多义词PolysemyIt refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning.Ball: 1. an round object used in game.2. a large formal social event at which peopledance.3.同音(形)异义HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.1). Homophones同音异义It refers to two words are identical in sound. E.g. rain/reign.2).Homographs同形异义It refers to two words are identical in form. E.g. tear v./tear n.3). Complete homonyms同形同音It refers to words that are both identical in sound andspelling. E.g. tear v. /tear n.4.上下义关系HyponymyIt refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Superordinate: animalSubordinate: cat, dog, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear,5.反义词AntonymyIt is the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.a) gradable:等级反义词old-youngb) complementary：互补反义词male-femalec) relational:关系反义词father-son buy-sell4. Sentence sense relations:1）.X is synonymous with Y（同义）E.g. He is a bachelor all his life.He never married all his life.2）. X is inconsistent with Y（不一致/反义）E.g. John is marriedJohn is a bachelor.3）.X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)（包含于）E.g. He has been to France.He has been to Europe.4）. X presuppose Y（Y是X的先决条件）E.g. John’s bike needs repairing.John has a bike.5）. X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6). X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）E.g. The table has bad intensions.5. Analysis of meaning1. Componential Analysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.E.g. Man=Adult +Male+ Animate+ Human2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British LinguistG.Leech提出)It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis.Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc.(通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)3.先设前提PresuppositionIt’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.4.蕴涵EntailmentEntailment can be illustrated by the following two sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.A: Mark married a blonde heiress.B: Mark married a blonde.第6章pragmatics本章要点：1. speech act theory言语行为的理论2. cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3.Grice an theory of conventional implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。