lexiology Lecture 1
《英语词汇学》English Lexicology知识点归纳
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: al most arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. （2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter) Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs ofintensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It isa process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. Inother words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms （俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom. The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literalmeaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典) （1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization,。
1. Lexicology
But what is language?
- Code system, linguistic rules - communicative abilities
6
English as a Tool
communication
Bridging gaps
Learning/studying How to make the tool usable/workable?
Computer language Business language Scientific language Influential language Cosmopolitan language (Esperanto) Native language First language Mother tongue Second language Foreign language Official language International language Widely-used language Common/popular language Universal/global language
a social action and a carrier of inf. a system of structure. a social phenomenon. a physiological phenomenon. a psychological phenomenon. a physical phenomenon. A system of symbols based on physiology, psychology and physics; a social action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society. (赵世开) (rft.2/p.)
lecture 1
How many sub-branches does linguistics have? pronunciation→
phonetics,phonology. grammar → syntax meaning → semantics, pragmatics vocabulary → lexicology, mophology
handshake: n. ? v. ? The manager welcomed him with a warm handshake. They handshook their way right up to the gate. 他们握着手一直走到大门口. 他们握着手一直走到大门口
You are the salt of the earth: a person who is regarded as kind-hearted and dependable. Tom cut his teacher dead in the playground: Pretend not to see
1.3.4 meaning: dog: n. ? v. ? If you dog someone, you follow them very closely and never leave them. E.g. He has been dogging me all day long. If problems or injuries dog you, they keep affecting you. The project has been dogged by a number of technical problems.
E.g. the same user may use different varieties ---for different purposes, ---in different situations, ---in conversations with different people, ---or to produce different effects.
lecture1(1)
Lecture 1 Introduction to lexicologyObjectivesAfter learning the lecture, you are expected to be able to answer the following questions:? How to interpret and distinguish the terms with ‘lexi-’?？What is lexicology?? How can lexicology be classified?? What does lexicology study?? What is English lexicology?? What are the two approaches to the study of English lexicology?? What is the character of the English language?? What are the characteristics of English words/vocabulary?? How is lexicology connected with other branches of linguistics?Interpretation of some terms in lexicology1.Lexicon & lexis: the total bank of words and phrases of a particular language, the artifact ofwhich is known as a lexicon.2.Lexeme: A lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughlycorresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the English language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme, conventionally written as RUN.[1]In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term ‘word’, the term ‘lexeme’is postulated as an abstract unit which refers to the smallest unit that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken and written texts. For example, ‘write’ is the lexeme of the following words: write, writes, wrote, written, writing. 3.Lexical units: Lexical items composed of more than one word are also sometimes calledlexical chunks, gambits, lexical phrases, lexical units, lexicalized stems or speech formulae.4.Word is the smallest free form (an item that may be uttered in isolation with semantic orpragmatic content) in a language, in contrast to a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning. A word may consist of only one morpheme (e.g. wolf), but a single morpheme may not be able to exist as a free form (e.g. the English plural morpheme -s).Typically, a word will consist of a root or stem, and zero or more affixes. Words can be combined to create other units of language, such as phrases, clauses, and/or sentences.5.lexicology:●Lexicology (from lexiko-, in the Late Greek lexikon) is that part of linguistics which studieswords, their nature and meaning, words' elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon.●Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a givenlanguage. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words.6.Lexicology has developed such branches asa)semantics——study of meaning of words (and sentences)b)etymology——study of origins of wordsc)historical lexicology——study of the development of vocabulary as a whole on the basisof etymology and other sciencesd)phraseology——study of individual words and set expressions, stock phrases, cast-ironidioms, i.e. the study of formation and usage, classification and characteristics of idiomse)lexicography——study of the form, meaning, usage, origin of vocabulary and themaking of dictionaries7.lexicographyA good example of lexicology at work, that everyone is familiar with, is that of dictionariesand thesaurus. Dictionaries are books or computer programs (or databases) that actually represent lexicographical work, they are opened and purposed for the use of public.A thesaurus is a work that lists words grouped together according to similarity ofmeaning (containing synonyms and sometimes antonyms), in contrast to adictionary, which contains definitions and pronunciations. The largest thesaurus in the world is the Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary, which contains more than 920,000 words and meanings.A dictionary is a collection of words in a specific language, often listed alphabetically, withusage information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, and other information;or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon. Exercise 1Exercise 2accept (accepted, accepted, accepting)__________ lexemes__________ word forms__________ lexical units__________ wordsExercise 3Use examples to tell the different branches of lexicology. For example, in English, many roots and affixes are from Latin or Greek. This is the branch etymology.How can lexicology be classified?General lexicology & Special lexicologyDistinction is made between GENERAL LEXICOLOGY & SPECIAL LEXICOLOGY. General lexicology is a part of General linguistics. It is concerned with the study of vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language. Special lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language (Russian, German, French, etc.).Research methods of English lexicologyThere are two main approaches to the study of English lexicology, that is, synchronic and diachronic.The term ‘synchronic’means describing a language as it exists at one point in time. The term diachronic means, concerned with historical development of a language.A synchronic approach is an approach to the study of a language at one period of time, whereas a diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.Character of the English languageThe English language is of a mixed character. On the one hand, it shares with West Germanic languages many common words and similar grammatical structures. On the other hand, more than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin and French. Besides, English has accepted words from other languages of the world in the course of historical development.Characteristics of English vocabulary or words1.Native words are the foundation and the core of the English vocabulary. In structure they aremostly monosyllabic words. In meaning they express the fundamental concepts dealing with everyday objects and things. In grammar they include most parts of speech. Native words have the following three characteristics: 1) the polysemous character; 2) the collocability; and3) word-formation ability.2.There is large amount of English vocabulary. There are3.There are various Englishes all over the world.4.and it is increasing at a surprising speed.5.…How is lexicology connected with other branches of linguistics?1)with phoneticsPhonetics is closely related wit lexicology. Without sound there is word because every word is a unity of sound and meaning.2)with grammarV ocabulary and grammar are originally related to one another. In learning language, attention to grammar is as important as attention to vocabulary. The vocabulary of a language assumes tremendous importance when it comes under the control of grammar, which is concerned with the modification in form of words and the combination of words into sentences.3)with stylisticsLexicology studies stylistic variants on the basis of meanings of words and their changes, synonyms, antonyms, figures of speech etc.Exercise 41.The words such as ‘export’, ‘increase’, ‘process’ and ‘progress’ with different pronunciationserve different parts of speech, which indicates that lexicology is connected with __________.2.In the sentence ‘O ther school managers are also eyeing the program’, we study the word ‘eye’,which shows that lexicology is connected with _______.3.Bill Gates and his friend Paul Allen laid the first brick in the foundation of Microsoft.4.The word advisable in ‘It is advisable that we take immediate measures to enhance teaching’can’t be replaced by advise or advice, which demonstrates that lexicology is related to _______.Exercise 5Fill in the blanks to consolidate your understanding of the terms in the unit.1.The artifact of the total bank of words and phrases of a particular language is called_________.2. A _________is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughlycorresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word.3._________is the smallest free form (an item that may be uttered in isolation withsemantic or pragmatic content) in a language.4._________is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of agiven language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application.5._________ is a study of origins of words6._________ is a study of the form, meaning, usage, origin of vocabulary and the makingof dictionaries.7. A _________ is a work that lists words grouped together according to similarity ofmeaning (containing synonyms and sometimes antonyms), in contrast to a dictionary, which contains definitions and pronunciations.8._________lexicology is a part of General linguistics. It is concerned with the study ofvocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language.9._________lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language (Russian, German,French, etc.).10.There are two main approaches to the study of English lexicology, that is, _________and diachronic.11.The term ‘_________’ means describing a language as it exists at one point in time. Theterm _________ means, concerned with historical development of a language.12.A _________ approach is an approach to the study of a language at one period of time,whereas a diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.13.Lexicology studies stylistic variants on the basis of meanings of words and their changes,synonyms, antonyms, figures of speech etc. in this case, we say that lexicology is connected with _________.。
词汇学第一讲
1.3 Sound and Form
• It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural language is the orthographical(拼法) record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form. In other words, the sound should be consistent with the form. • Question: Do you think such viewpoint lies in our real language world?
• To sum up, the definition of a word will cover the following points: • (1)a minimal free form of a language • (2)a sound unity • (3) a unit of meaning • (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. • Then can you give a definition according to the above points?
• Example, some short vertical strokes such as “i, u, v, m, w, n” looked all alike, consequently, their handwriting caused misunderstanding, to solve the problem in part, they changed the letter “u” to “ o ”when it came before “m, n, v.”（we have no “uv”, immoral, impolite, illegal, irregular）
English Lexicology chapter1 (2)
• When we talk about a language, we are actually talking about three things: sounds(phonology), words(morphology) and rules (grammar). Compared with the other two, vocabulary is obvious the most active and sensitive one and it changes the fastest and the most.
• Features of lexeme 1）form: people can tell a lexeme from its form (length, combination) 2) grammar: Lexeme can play a role in the sentence to make it grammatically 3) stability 4) independence
• 1) new words are created quickly with the development of the society and the advancing of history. e.g. Google, blog. (from noun to verb, from a proper name to a common word) Reaganomics (n. 里根经济学) ; euro; winwin; stakeholder(负责任的利益攸关方)； mouse potato（计算机迷），couch potato； PK（对决）
• 2) the new development of English lexicon shows a trend of briefer, clearer and more explicit. People are enjoying more and more freedom in creating new words. e.g. network; online; cyber; internet; www; hypertext; hypermedia; home page; telnet(远程登入)；browser； firewall；domain name/DN; spyware; electronic shopping; internet addiction disorder; digital divide; web intelligence;
英语词汇学chapter 1 Lexicology
With stylistics: Leech defines stylistics as the study of the use of language in literature and considers stylistics a meeting ground of linguistics and literary study. To put it here concerning lexicology, Stylistics is the study of optional variations in the sounds, forms, or vocabulary of a language, different situations of use, or different literary types.
Lexicology
The
first semester of 2013-2014
Chapter one the definition of lexicology
1.1 Lexicology
The term lexicology contains two Greek morphemes: lexicon and logie. The former means word and the latter means learning or the study of. The literal meaning of the term is the science of words
Chapter one the definition of lexicology
Students will use the basic knowledge of English lexicology to understand the material already familiar to them from English classes and apply it in their further study of English.
Englishlexicology_英语词汇学重点讲解
Englishlexicology_英语词汇学重点讲解English lexicology英语词汇学Chapter1 basic concepts of words and vocabularyClassification of wordsChapter2 the development of the english vocabularyModes of vocabulary development 1150Chapter 3 word formationMorphemes , allomorphsChapter 4 word formation21.Affixation, prefixation suffixation ,/doc/214202390.html,pounding (characteristics formation )3.Conversion , blending , clipping , acronymy4.Initialisms , acronyms5.Back-formation , words from proper namesChapter5 word meaning1.The meanings of ‘meaning’2.Reference ,concept ,sense3.Motivation(onomatopoeic,morphological ,semantic , etymological)4.Types of meaning < grammatical , lexical , conceptual , associative> Chapter 6 sense relations and semantic field Polysemy , homonymy , synonymy , antonymyChapter 7 changes in word meaningExtension , narrowing , elevation , degradationChapter 8 meaning and context1.Types of context (extra-linguistic, linguistic)2.Role of contexta.elimination of ambiguityb.indication of referencec.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaningChapter9 english idioms1.Classification of idioms(nominal , adjectival , verbal , adverbial )2.sentence and useChapter 10 english DictionariesTypes of dictionary , three good Dictionarya.Longman dictionary of contemporaryb.Collins COBUILD english Dictionaryc. A Chinese-english DictionaryUnit 1Methods of study ,there are generally two approaches to the study of words ,namely synchronic and diachronicAims and significance of the courseLanguage study involves the study of speech sounds ,grammar and vocabulary .vocabulary has proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult .Willkins asserts ‘without grammar very little can beconveyed ,without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed’ A good knowledge of morphological structure of english words and rules of word-formation will help learners develope their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power.V ocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary .The term vocabulary is used in different senses1.It can refers to the total number of the words in a language2.It can stands for all the words used in a particular historical period3.Also used to all the words of a given dialectClassification of wordsWords may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency ,into content words and function words by notion ,and into native words and borrowed words by originBasic word stock have characteristics1.All national character2.Stability3.Productivity4.Polysemy5.Collocability6 Neutral in style7 Frequent in useWords void (lack)of the stated characters ,do not belong to the common core of the language ,they include the following: Terminology 术语，专有名词JargonSlang 俚语，黑话ArgotDialectal wordsArchaismsNeologismsContent words(=notional words) and function words (=empty words) Native words and borrowed wordsApart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock ,in contrast to borrowed words ,native words have two other features Neutral in styleFrequent in useBorrowing words :words taken over from foreign languagesare known as borrowed words and loan words or borrowings in simple terms Loan words under four classesDenizens 同化词Aliens 异化词Translation-loans 译借词Semantic-loans 借意词The Indo-European language familyWhich can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar ,theIndo-Europe is one of them .it is thought to be a highly inflected language They accordingly fall into eight principle groups ,which can be grouped into an Eastern set : Balto-slavic, Indo-Iranian, American and Albanian; a Western set; Celtic , Italic, Hellenic,GermanicA historical overview of the english vocabularyThe first people known to inhabit the land were CeltsThe second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions450- < old > -1150-（Middle）-1500- -NOWModes of vocabulary developmentWe can concluded that modern english vocabulary develops through three channels < > creation , semantic change , borrowing Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials namely roots ,affixes and other elementsSemantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new needBorrowing has palyed a vital role in the development ofvocabulary ,particularly in earlier timesMorphemes :minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes,in other words ,th e morphemes is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words ’Chapter 5Word meaningWords are but symbols , many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference .1.reference is the relationship between language and the word .The reference a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary <随意的>and conventional <传统的>2.Concept<概念>=notionIn many cases meaning is used in the sense of ‘concept ’meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical3.Sense :generally speaking ,the meaning of ‘meaning’is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’ . ‘sense’denotes the relationships inside the language.Motivation <理据>Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaningOnomatopoeic motivation 拟声的理据Morphological motivation 形态的理据Semantic motivation 语义<联想>的理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a wordEtymological motivation 词源的理据The meaning if many words often related directly to their origins, Types of meaninga.Grammatical meaning an Lexical meaning语法和词汇意义b.Conceptual meaning and associative meaning 概念和联想意义Chapter 6The subjects that have long held the interest and attention ofsemanticists are ,polysemy 多义的, homonymy , synonymy , antonymy , and hyponymyTwo approaches to polysemyDiachronic approach and synchronic approachThe meanings were acquired by extension ,narrowing ,analogy ,transfer The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation HomonymyBased on the degree of similarity ,homonyms fall into three classes:perfect homonyms ,homographs and homophones1.Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling but different meaning .Bank n. The edge of the river ,lakeBank n . An establishment for money businessBear n. A large heavy animalBear v. To put up withDate n. A kind of fruitDate n. A boy or a girl friend2.Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaningBow n. Bending the head as a greetingBow n. The device used for shooting arrowsSow v. To scatter seedsSow n. Female adult pig3.Homophones are words identical only in sound butdifferent in spelling and meaningDear n. A loved personDeer n.a kind of animalRight a. correctWrite v.to put down on paper with a penRite n. Ceremonial procedureSon n. A male child of someoneSun n. The heavenly body from which the earth gets warmth and light Of three types ,homophones constitute the largest number and are most commonOrigins of homonymsChange in sound and spellingBorrowingShortingAs homonyms are identical in sound or spelling ,particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns<双关>for desired effect of ,say, humor,sarcasm or ridicule<嘲弄> On Sunday they pray for you and on Monday they prey <折磨>on you So-called pious<虔诚的>gentleman and ladies 善男信女The sardonic tone is unmistakable 讽刺的语气是不言而喻的SynonymySynonymy is one of the characteristic features of vocabulary of natural languagesTypes of synonyms1. Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning ,including conceptual and associative meanings2. Relative synonymy also called near-synonyms are similaror nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of given quality.For example .to change a thing is to put another thing in its place ;to altera thing is to alter it in different manner and at different times .’A man change his habits ,alters his conduct ,and varies his manner of speaking’Look at stagger /reel/totter.stagger implies unsteady movement characters by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course . Stagger under a heavy load ;reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling .Silent沉默的，无言的，寂静的/ tacit , shine闪耀，发光/ glitter 华丽夺目，炫耀/sparkle闪耀，活跃，焕发活力和才智/glare强光，瞪眼，炫耀, different/ various, idle空闲的，懒惰的，无意义的/lazy/indolent , strange奇怪的/odd 古怪的/ queer,古怪的，可疑的large / huge庞大的/tremendous极大的，巨大的，惊人的，极好的/colossal Sources of synonyms1.BorrowingAs a result of the borrowing ,words of native origin form many couplets and triplets with those from other language2.Dialects and regional english3.Figurative an euphemistic4.Coincidence with idiomatic expressionsDiscrimination of synonymsThe differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation , connotation ,and application1.Difference in denotation .‘I did not comprehend his arguments ,although i understood the language , and all the sentences’A lump of sugar一块糖, a slice of meat一片肉, a chunk ofwood , a sheet of paper A cake of soapTypes of antonyms1.Contradictory termsThe assertion of one is the denial of the otherAnother distinctive feature of this category <类型>is that such antonyms are non-gradable2.Contrary terms3.Relative termsHolds water <站得住脚的>Characters of antonyms1.Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms2.A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3.Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion .pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respectively4.Contrary terms are gradable antonymsDestitute / opulent dull / livelyHyponymyHyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.That is the meaning of more specific word word is included in that of another more general word .For instance ,tulip and rose are hyponyms of flowerSuperordinate termsHammer , saw , screwdriver ,spanner, plaice, cod , herring ,sole Semantic field <领域>The massive word store of a language like english an be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas.An integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense 语义相互关联It is general belief that.....Personal address system 个人称呼KinshipTypes of changesWord-meaning changes by modes ofExtension< 扩展>,narrowing<缩小> ,degradation< 降格>,elevation< 升格>,and transferCauses of changes: it is in response to some needExtra-linguistic factors1.Historical reason2.Class reason3.Psychological 心理学的，精神上的reasonThe role of context <语境>1.Elimination of ambiguity <消除歧义>2.Indication of referents <限定所指>3.Provision of clues for inferring word -meaning <为猜测词义提供线索>①Definition②Explanation③Example④S ynonymy⑤Antonymy⑥Hyponymy⑦Relevant details⑧Word structureChapter 9Idioms consists of set phrases and short sentences ,which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas .therefore, idioms are colorful ,forcible andthought-provoking.For example ,fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with ( tolerate)In a board sense ,idioms may included colloquialisms ,slang experience, proverbs .Character of Idioms1.Semantic unityBeing phases or sentences ,idioms each consist of more than one word ,but each is a semantic unity. Idiom have their respective literal meanings .for instance, till the cows come home Keep in mind take offto no avail like a breeze2.Structural stability 结构稳定First the constituents of idioms cannot be replacedLip service <support only="" in="" words="" ,not="" fact="" bdsfid="283"> is not to be changed into mouth service . Kick the bucket bury the hatchet。
English lexicology 教案
Norwegian Icelandic Danish Swedish English German Celtic Hellenic
Armenian
Irish Breton Scottish
Greek
Basic Concepts
language
A social action, a carrier of information A system of structure A social phenomenon
Expansion New words
2-2-1 Words of native origin
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The polysemic character of native words in English The collocability of native words in English Word-forming ability of native words in Modern English
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4. 5.
The Scandinavian element The French element The Latin element The Greek element Other foreign element
French loan-words in the Middle English period
The English people are of a mixed blood. The three dialects of---the Angles, Saxons and Jutes---grew into a single language, the English language. Anglo-Saxon Sino-American relationship
大学英语词汇学Chapter 1 English Lexicology--Introduction
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unilateral, bilateral, trilateral, multilateral monogamy, polygamy inflexible, imbalance, irrational, illegal download, copyright, mother wit(天生的智 力）, green wealth • We summered in Qingdao last year.
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English lexicology has close relations with other branches of linguistics, such as phonetics, grammar, stylistics, and so on. But it embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics and lexicography. Each of them has been established as a discipline in its own-right.
Morphology studies the structures or forms of words through the use of morpheme construct Etymology studies the origins and history of the form and meaning of words. Semantics studies the meanings of words and sense relations: polysemy,homonymy,synonymy,antonomy, hyponmy, and semantic field
英语词汇学各个章节的内容
英语词汇学各个章节的内容Introduction 部分：Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics.Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization第一章：What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。
1) A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail management 可以次划分为manage 和-ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和fortune blackmail 次划分为black 和 mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is …no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds.What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record ofthe oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differencesoccur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship orirregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet wasadopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter torepresent each sound in the language so that some letters must dodouble duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidlythan spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by theearly scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel ofenriching the English vocabulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音、拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是…sound and form ?不一致。
英语词汇学-第一章
Modern English vocabulary
The Future Development of English Vocabulary
Summary: The future development of English vocabulary is likely to be influenced by globalization, technology, and cultural exchange.
Communication: A sound knowledge of Lexicology aids in effective communication, whether in writing, speaking, or translation.
Educational: Teachers and students of English can benefit from a better understanding of the vocabulary they are working with.
Words are grouped according to their meanings or semantic fields.
Words are grouped according to their internal structure and the formation processes that led to them.
Definition and characteristics
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Definition and characteristics
Characteristics
Practical: The knowledge gained from Lexicology is applied in areas like translation, education, and lexicography.
Vocabulary Lecture I
Your Vocabulary for IELTSChapter I Ways to Expand Your VocabularyI. Basic knowledge About IELTS vocabulary1. Why we have to learn IELTS Vocabulary?Reasons:1) is one of the fundamental elements of learning English; and(Pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar)examinations40% - 60% reading; 30 –2. What Is IELTS Vocabulary?The very key to your IELTS score保5争6词汇：大学英语四级词汇保6争7词汇：大学英语六级词汇朗文：雅思常考词汇 Other statistics about vocabulary:1,000 words: 80.5% 2,000 words: 89%3,000 words: 93%4,000 words: 95%5,000 words: 97% C.K. Ogden: BASIC English(1930, only includes 850 words)British, American, Scientific, International, and Commercial一个受过高等教育的英国人一般能掌握25,000个词以上。
II. Overcome the emotional gap in expanding your vocabulary for IELTS1. 词汇：各种语言虽然表层形式不同，但深层概念相同深层概念：一种无色无味的液体表层概念：水，water , l’eau启示：学习英语词汇时不要有心理障碍，不要因为英语单词与汉字不同就问为什么会有这么奇怪的东西？其实，这只不过是不同的地理、历史、文化等因素的综合作用而出现的差异。
英语词汇学教程全套课件精选文档
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Cultural studies
English vocabulary and cultural studies are also closely related, and the origin and development of many vocabulary are closely related to cultural backgrounds.
Functional classification
Dividing words based on their function in the presence, such as nouns, verbs, objections, or advertisements
Context classification
Etymological classification: Organizing words according to their physiological origin, such as Latinate or German words
Classification methods for English vocabulary
The Development of English Lexicology
Early English Lexicology
Early English Lexicology research mainly focused on word origins and meanings, with less attention paid to the composition and changes of vocabulary.
Classifying words based on the context in which they are used, such as formal or informational language
Lexicology Lecture 1
现代英语词汇学编者:陆国强主讲教师: 赵斌上海外语教育出版社第一章词的概述Ⅰ、词的定义词是语音、意义和语法特点三者统一的整体。
词又是语句的基本结构单。
也就是说，词具有固定的语音形式、代表一定的意义，并作为句子的基本结构单位使用。
但是，词不是语言中最小的有意义的结构单位。
Ⅱ、词的语音与意义音与义之间的两大学派之争:自然派(the Naturalists)：音与义之间有着一种必然的自然联系。
习惯派(the Conventionalists)：音与义不是同一的东西，没有必然的联系。
某个词的意义用一定的语音形式来表现，这是在长期的语言交际过程中固定下来的，是社会约定俗成的，是语言领域中“一种社会契约”(a kind of linguistic social contract)。
What’s in a name? That which we call a roseBy and other name would smell as sweet.Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet Act Ⅱ, Scene 2’Tis not enough no harshness gives offence,The sound must be an echo to the sense.Pope: Essay on Criticism在Shakespeare看来，rose若用其他名称来表示，玫瑰花同样香气馥郁，令人神往。
而Pope则相反，认为，只是不作刺耳之声是不够的，音必须成为义的一种回声。
前者支持习惯学派，而后者则站在自然派一边。
大量语言事实证明，习惯派所持的观点是正确的，而自然派的论点难以站住脚跟。
原因有二，一是代表同一意义的词在不同语言中具有不同的语音外壳，如meat与肉，法语为viande，意大利语carne，瑞典语kott等。
二是代表不同意义的词可以具有相同的语音外壳。
如sight, site, cite; vain, vein, vane.由此可见，语音和意义之间并没有必然的联系。
Lecture I
Lecture ILexicology As a Science. The Word As the Basic Unit of Lexicological Research.The term lexicology is composed of two Greek morphemes: “legis” (word) and “logos” (learning). Thus, the literal meaning of the term “lexicilogy” is “the study of words”.There is general lexicology and special lexicology. General lexicology studies vocabulary in different languages of the world. Special lexicology studies the vocabulary of one language.There is also historical lexicology and descriptive lexicology. Historical lexicology studies the changes of the vocabulary in the course of time. Descriptive lexicology studies the vocabulary at a given stage of its development. Historical lexicology uses the diachronic历时的approach to the vocabulary, it focuses on the regularities规律性 of the development of the vocabulary. Descriptive lexicology uses the synchronic共识的 approach to the vocabulary; it describes the principles of the organization of the vocabulary as a system.There also exist存在comp a rative lexicology, which studies the lexical systems of closely related languages aiming at their typological [ai] identity or differentiation; contrastive lexicology, which studies similarities and differences of related and non-related languages; and applied lexicology, which includes terminology and lexicography, translation, linguodidactics [i] and pragmatics of speech.Lexicology is connected with other subjects such as phonetics, grammar, stylistics and history of the language. All these subjects study the word, but from different angles. Phonetics studies the sounds that make up a word. Grammar studies the use of words in speech. Stylistics studies the use of words in different situations: formal and informal. The history of the language tells about the development of words in different periods of their history: how the words changed – lost their endings, began to sound differently; it tells about the change of the phonetical and grammatical structure of the language.Thus, in studying the word “information” the phonetician will investigate the phonemes that make up the phonetic shape of the word and the distribution of the stress (in-for-ma-tion – 4 syllables).The grammarian will point out the part of speech to which the word “information” belongs (the noun) and the fact that this noun has no plural and genetive case forms and is followed by a verb in the singular (The information is important).The lexicologist will state that the word consists of two morphemes: one root and one affixational词缀的morpheme, that it is built by affixation (the suffix “tion” is added to the stem 词干“inform”), that it is a borrowing –the morphemes are of Romanic origin, that it is polysemantic, having (at least) 5 meanings: 1) communication of knowledge; 2) knowledge; 3) the act of informing against a person; 4) (a term in jurisdiction司法权) a formal accusation控告 of a crime; 5) a numerical 数字的quantity that measures the uncertainty不确定的in the outcome of the experiment to be performed. The first meaning is the primary meaning, the rest are secondary meanings. In the second meaning – knowledge obtained 获得from investigation调查, study or instruction – it has synonyms: intelligence, news, facts, data.The stylist will state the fact that the word is referred to the neutral layer of words, and is distinguished辨别 from its synonyms –“knowledge”, “learning”, “science”.Lexicology consists of the following parts, or branches:1. Etymology词源学, which studies the origin of words and the connections of the vocabulary of the given language with the vocabularies of other languages.2. Word-structure (word-building), which studies the elements the word consists of (morphemes: roots, affixes) and the patterns according to which words are built: affixation, composition, conversion, shortening, sound imitation, etc.3. Semasiology语义学[meisi], which studies the meaning of words, its types, paradigmatic classifications of words according to meaning (into homonyms, synonyms, antonyms) and types of the change of meaning.4. Phraseology, which studies phraseological units (set expressions) and their classifications.5. Lexicography词典学, which deals with creation of dictionaries, their types and application.Lexicology also studies the stylistic differentiation (stratification) of the vocabulary and variants and dialects of the language.The methods used in lexicological research are componential analysis, transformational analysis, the contextual method, analysis of dictionary definitions, the statistical method and others. The componential analysis method is concerned with the components the meaning of the word comprises.2The method of transformation consists in using one word for another in order to see the likeness or the difference. The contextual method reveals the meaning the word is used in a certain context. But the main method is that of observation of linguistic facts, of the word functioning in written and oral speech.The basic unit of lexicology is the word. There are many definitions of the word, yet none of them is totally satisfactory. Despite the achievements of modern science, certain aspects of the nature of the word are still not clear to us. We know almost nothing about the mechanism by which a thought is converted into sound groups called words, or about the reverse process when the listener’s brain converts the sounds into thoughts. And yet, the word should be and can be defined, and the definition should be based on the most important characteristics of the word which are as follows:1. The word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication. So the word can be defined as a unit of communication.2. The word is the total of the sounds which compose it.3. The word possesses 拥有both external外部的 and internal 内部的characteristics.a) By external structure of the word we mean its morphological 词形的structure. For example, in the word “post-impressionists” the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-, im-, the root “press”, the noun-forming sufixes –ion, -ist, and the grammatical suffix of plurality –s.b) By the internal structure is understood the semantic structure of the word, or its meaning. Meaning is the word’s main aspect 方面and it is only due to their meanings that words can serve服务 the purposes of human communication.c) The word possesses both external, formal and internal, semantic unity.Formal unity implies 意指that no other elements can be inserted 插入between the component 组成的morphemes of the word which are permanently永远的 linked together (a blackbird vs a black bird– a black night bird).The word’s semantic unity consist s in the fact that it conveys only one concept. For example, the word “blackbird” conveys only one concept: the type of bird. The word-group “a black bird” conveys two concepts: a colour and a a type of animal.4. The word can be used in different grammatical forms.All that has been said about the word can be summed up as follows: the word is a unit used for purposes of human communication, materially有形的representing 代表 a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, characterised by formal形式上的and semantic unity and a capacity for grammatical employment.。
Lexicology复习要点
Lexicology复习要点Linguistics: Generally speaking, linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. To be more exact, linguistics studies the general principles upon which languages are constructed and operate as systems of human communicationLanguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a specific social action and a carrier of information.Lexicology: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage.1. Definition of Word:Word: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has given sound and meaning and syntactic function.A word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language(2) a sound unity(3) a unit of meaning(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence2. Sound and meaning:The symbolic connection between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary.3. Vocabulary:All the words in a language make up its vocabulary.4. Classification of words:Words fall into the basic words and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. they include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity, etc.Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. as their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words.5. Development of English vocabulary:Old English (450 ~ 1150):Celtic --- Latin of the Roman Legions --- Anglo-Saxon of the Germantic tribes (now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English) --- religious terms brought by the introduction of Christianity (6th century) --- Scandinavian words of Norwegian and Danish vikings (the 9th century)Middle English: French of Norman (1066) --- English came back (13th century)Modern English: Early Modern English (1500 ~ 1700): Latin and Greek were borrowed in the time of RenaissanceLate Modern English (after 1700): absorbing words from all major languages of the world with the growth of colonization. (Mid-seventeenth) --- new words created about science and technology (after World War II)6. Characteristics of English:Old English: Old English was a highly inflected language, language of full endings.Middle English: Language of leveled endings.Modern English:English has envolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language.8. Causes of the development:Generally, there are three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology; social, economic and political changes; the influence of other cultures and languages.9. Morpheme:The morpheme is “the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words”. Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units.10. Allomorph:Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discreet units known as morphs.Most morphemes are realized by single morphs and they coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.11. Classification of morphemes:Free morpheme: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.Free morphemes are free roots.Bound morpheme: Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.12. Root and affixRoot:A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.Free root: free roots can stand alone as words and provide the language with a basis for the formation of new words.Bound roots(粘着词根): A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss for identity. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a “root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.”A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.Affixes(词缀): Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes.Inflectional affix (inflectional morpheme):An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word.Derivational affix (derivational morpheme): it is so called because when it is added to another morpheme, it “derivates” a new word. Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning.The most productive word-formations are affixation, compounding and conversion.13. Derivation:Derivation:Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.Prefixation: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix or combing form to the base. Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base.(1) Negative prefixes: a-, dis-, in- (il-, ir-, im-), non-, un-(2) Reversative prefixes: de-, dis-, un-(3) Pejorative prefixes: mal-, mis-, pseudo-(4) Prefixes of degree or size: arch-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, micro-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, super, sur-, ultra-, under-(5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude: anti-, contra-, counter-, pro-(6) Locative prefixes: extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, tele-, trans-(7) Prefixes of time and order: ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re-(8) Number prefixes: bi-, multi- (poly-), semi- (hemi-), tri-, uni- (mono-)(9) Miscellaneous prefixes: auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-Suffixation:Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combing form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base.Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.(1) Noun suffixes:A. Denominal nouns:Concrete: The suffixes of this group are added to noun bases to produce concrete nouns: -eer, -er, -ette, -let, e.g. profiteer (person who makes unfairly large profits).Abstract: The following suffixes come at them end of noun stems to form abstract nouns: -age, -dom, -ery, -hood, -ing, -ism, -ship, e.g. wastage, mileage, officialdom (officials as a group)B. Deverbal nouns:The following suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people: -ant, -ee, -ent, -er (-or), e.g. assistant, informant (one who gives information to police, etc.) Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc.: -age, -al, -ance, -ation (-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), ence, -ing, -ment, e.g. linkage, carriage.C. De-adjective nouns: -ity, -ness, e.g. popularity, productivity, happiness, largenessD. Noun and adjective suffixes:A small number of suffixes, when added to stems related to human beings or nationality names, form words that can be both as nouns and adjectives: -ese, -an, - ist, e.g. Lebanese, Chinese(2) Adjective suffixes:A. Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y, e.g. wooded, simple-minded.B. Deverbal suffixes: -able (-ible), -ive (-ative, -sive), e.g. washable, arguable, permissible,active, decisive, productive.(3) Adverb suffixes:-ly, -ward(s), -wise, e.g. calmly, naturally, publicly, homewards, downward, onward, clockwise (in the direction in which the hands of the clock move), education-wise (so far as education is concerned).(4) Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -(i)fy, -ize (-ise), e.g. originate (have…as origin); darken, heighten, strengthen, solidify (make…solid), beautify (make more beautiful); modernize, symbolize.14. Compounding:(1) Compounding: Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compound is a “lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.”(2) Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:Phonetic features: In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed.Semantic features: Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.Grammatical features: A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in sentence.(3) Classification of compounds:Noun compoundsAdjective compoundsVerb compounds15. ConversionConversion: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Conversion is also known as functional shift; Conversion is also named zero-derivation for not adding an affix; The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.16. Abbreviation or shortening:Abbreviation:Abbreviation refers to word formation through clipping, initialisms and acronyms. These short forms are quicker and more convenient in use and for this reason they are becoming more and more popular especially in web English.(1) Clipping:A. Clipping:Clipping denotes the deletion of one or more syllables from a word. Words created by clipping are called clipped words.(2) Initialism:Initialism: Initialisms are words formed from the initial letters of words, and pronounced as a sequence of letters.(3) AcronymsAcronyms: Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as single words.(4) BlendingBlending: Blending is a process of word-formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. The result of such a process is called a blend, which combines the sounds_ and meanings of two others.17. Back-formation:Back-formation:Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.18. OnomatopoeiaMost English words are conventional, arbitrary symbols; consequently there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.19. Reference:Reference: Reference is the relationship between language and the world. In other words only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent does the sign become meaningful.Concept: which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.The meaning of “meaning” is perhaps what is termed “sense”.20. Motivation:Onomatopoeic / Phonetic motivation: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bow-wow, bang, cuckoo, tick-tckMorphological motivation: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. For instance, airmail means to “mail by air”, reading-lamp is the “lamp for reading”, miniskirt is a “small skirt” and hopeless means “without hope”.Semantic motivation:Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. e.g. pen and sword in “The pen is mightier than the sword” suggest “writing” and “war” respectively.Etymological motivation: The meanings of many words often relate directly to their origins. The word laconic meaning “brief” or “short” is derived from Lacons, a tribe of people who were known for their “brevity of speech” and for their habit of never using more words than necessary. Hence a laconic answer is a “short answer”.21. Semantic features:Semantic features:The analysis of word meaning is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components, which are known as semantic features or sense components.22. Semantic field:Semantic field: Semantic field refers to a set of words (or lexemes) related in meaning. Semantic field takes the view that the vocabulary of a given language is not simply a listing of independent items (as the headwords in dictionary would suggest), but is organized into areas or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways.23. Grammatical meaning(语法意义):Grammatical meaning(语法意义) refers to that part of meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as the word class, singular and plural forms of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms (forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting).24. Lexical meaning(词汇意义):Lexical meaning(词汇意义)is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word.Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning. 25. Conceptual meaning(概念意义):Conceptual meaning(概念意义) (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language.26. Associate meaning(关联意义):Associate meaning(关联意义)is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc.Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning, and collocative meaning.27. Connotative meaning (内涵意义):Connotative meaning : In contrast to denotative meaning, connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations which a word suggests or implies.28.Stylistic meaning(文体意义):Stylistic meaning: Words may have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.This stylistic difference is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and stylistic meaning.Degrees of formalityFormalNeutral/CommonInformal/ Colloquial29.Affective meaning(情感意义):Affective meaning: Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in conversation.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories:Appreciative or commendatory(褒义): words of positive overtones used to show appreciation or approval.Pejorative or derogatory(贬义):words of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism.30. Collocative meaning(搭配意义):Collocative meaning: Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.31. Polysemy:Polysemy: Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. The bulk of English words are polysemantic, such as albatross; one-meaning words are rare and are mainly scientific terms, such as hydrogen.32. HomonymyHomonym: Homonyms are words which have the same phonological or spelling form but differ in meaning. Such a linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Homographs （同形异义词）: Homographs are words identical in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.Homophones （同音异义词）: Homophones are words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）:Perfect homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning.The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meaning. one important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree. On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.33. Context:Context includes Linguistic context and extra-linguistic contextLexical context:This context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring words.Grammatical context:In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.34. SynonymyWords which have the same or nearly the same meanings as other words are called synomyms and the relationship between them is synonymy.35. Types of synonyms:Perfect synonyms/ strict synonyms: perfect / absolute synonyms are words whose meaning is fully identical in any context so that one can always be substituted for the other without the slightest change in meaning.Partial synonyms/ loose synonyms:Partial / relative synonyms share the nearly same or similar basic meaning, but still denote differences in other meanings.36. Origin of synonyms:BorrowingDialects and regional EnglishFigurative and euphemistic use of wordsCoincidence with idiomatic expressions37.AntonymyAntonymy is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. antonyms can be classified into three major groups.Contradictory terms/ complementaries: These antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them.Contrary terms: Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.Relative terms/converse antonyms: This third type consists of relational opposites such as parent / child.Directional antonyms: This kind of antonyms has to deal with the fact that the opposition involves deixis.Semantic incompatibleAntonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the meanings of words.Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought, often for the sake of contrast.Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together.38. HyponymyHyponymy:The relationship between specific words and general words are called hyponymy, so it is a relationship of inclusion.39.MeronymyMeronymy is a semantic relation specific to linguistics. A meronym denotes a constituent part of, or a member of something.[。
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• 2. What Are the Sub-branches of Lexicology • 1) Semantics: the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc. But lexicology will focus on the lexical level. • 2) Etymology: It studies the meaning of words from a historical point of view. It studies the meaning, origin and history of individual words and their development.
• 3. The Aims and Significance of this Course • theoretically-oriented • also practical
II. Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary
• 1. What Is a Word • (1) a sound unit • (2) a grammatical form • (3) a minimal free form of a language • (4) reflections of reality
A Practical Course on English Lexicology
by Gu Weiqin
Contents
• 第一章：英语词汇学的定义和范畴、 英语词汇发展的历史、词汇发展的 方式、词的定义、声音与意义、声 音与拼写。 • • 第二章：词素的概念、词素的分类、 常见的词根和词缀、词缀法、复合 法、转类法、拼缀法、截短法、首 字母缩略法、逆生法。 •
• 2. Various Foreign Elements Greek, Latin and French
References
• １．〈英语词汇学〉全国高等教育自学 考试指导委员会组编教材, 张维友编著, 外语教学与研究出版社 1997 年出版。 • ２．〈现代英语词汇学概论〉, 张韵斐 主编, 北京师范大学出版社 1986 年出 版。 • ３．〈现代英语词汇学〉, 陆国强编著, 上海教育出版社 1983 年出版 • ４．〈英语词汇学教程〉，汪榕培、卢 晓娟编著，上海. Sound, Meaning and Notion of a Word • 1) the Naturalists • 2) the Conventionalists
• 3. Lexical Meaning and Grammatical Meaning He walked down the hill. • They downed their beer and left.
• 3) Historical lexicology: It studies the development of the vocabulary as a whole on the basis of etymology and other sciences such as the history of the English language and English social history. • 4) Phraseology: It studies set expressions, stock phrases, cast-iron idioms. • 5) Lexicography shares with lexicology a common object of study: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they are pragmatically different. A lexicographer’s task is to record the language as it is used to the reader.
1. The Native Element in Modern English: Anglo-Saxon stock of words, which is estimated to make 25-30% of the English vocabulary They things. stand for fundamental
Assessment
• Attendance: 10% • Mid-term Paper: 30% • Final Exam: 60%
Unit One Introduction
• I. The Nature and Domain of English Lexicology • • 1. What Is Lexicology • Lexicology is a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as the main units of language
• 3. Meaning and Notion of a Word • Notion is a logical category, a category of thought. • Meaning is a category of language.
III. Development of the English Vocabulary
• 第三章：“意义”的意义、词 义的理据、词义的类别、多义 关系、同形同音异义关系、同 义关系、反义关系、上下义关 系、词义的扩大、词义的缩小、 词义的升华、词义的降格。 • • 第四章：英语习语的特点、分 类、使用、翻译。 •
• 第五章：各种英语的异体、英 语词汇的分类、美国英语的特 点、美国英语与英国英语的差 异。 • • 第六章：词典的种类、选择词 典应注意的问题、二本常用词 典的特色。