中级宏观经济学-Choice_of_consumption_and_Comparative_Analysis
《中级宏观经济学》课件
详细描述
经济周期的成因多种多样，其中内因是主要原因之一 。内因主要包括总需求和总供给的变化、经济结构的 变化等。例如，总需求的变化会导致生产过剩或需求 不足，进而引发经济衰退或通货膨胀；经济结构的变 化也会导致资源重新配置，从而引发经济波动。此外 ，外因也是不可忽视的因素之一，如政策调整、国际 经济环境的变化等也会对经济周期产生影响。
宏观经济学与微观经济学的关系
宏观经济学和微观经济学是现代经济学的两大分支，微观经济学主要研究个体经济活动，而宏观经济学则更关注 整体经济运行。
宏观经济学的研究对象
总需求与总供给
宏观经济学主要研究总需求和总供给 的关系，以及如何通过政策手段调节 经济活动，以实现经济的稳定增长。
国民收入决定
国民收入是衡量一个国家经济状况的 重要指标，宏观经济学研究国民收入 如何决定，以及如何通过政策手段影 响国民收入水平。
货币政策实施效果
评估货币政策的实施效果，包括政策目标的实现程度、政策副作用等 。
财政政策与货币政策的配合使用
配合使用的必要性
阐述为什么需要财政政策和货币政策 配合使用，以及配合使用的优点和挑
战。
配合使用的策略
探讨如何实现财政政策和货币政策的 配合，包括政策目标的协调、政策工
具的搭配等。
配合使用的效果评估
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财政政策与货币政策
财政政策及其效应分析
财政政策定义
财政政策效应分析
财政政策是指政府通过税收和支出等手段 来调节经济活动的政策。
财政政策对经济增长、就业、通货膨胀等 宏观经济指标的影响，以及如何通过财政 政策来稳定经济。
财政政策工具
财政政策实施效果
包括政府支出、税收、政府投资等，以及 如何根据经济形势选择合适的财政政策工 具。
中级宏观经济学
中级宏观经济学中级宏观经济学名词解释1.绝对趋同：具有相同储蓄率，人口增长率以及相同技术的不同国家的产出水平和增长率随着时间的流逝，会相互接近，并且其稳态值将达到相同的趋势。
2.自动稳定器：不要求进行具体的干预，就能减少经济冲击的影响的政策。
如比例所得税和失业救济金。
3.巴罗—李嘉图等价命题：参见“李嘉图等价”4.条件趋同：具有不同储蓄率和人口增长率的不同国家的经济随着时间的推移，稳态收入会不同，但增长率最终将相等。
5.挤出：由于政府支出的增加而引起的总需求中某些部分（通常是投资）的减少。
6.周期性失业：由于经济周期波动所引起的失业，又称总需求不足的失业。
7.需求冲击：能引起AD曲线移动的冲击。
8.效率工资理论：认为工资应该被设定得高于市场出清情况下的工资，以便给予工人激励的理论。
对于工资刚性、劳动市场非均衡的一种可能的解释。
9.摩擦性失业：在一个“标准的”时间内，伴随着工人找到工作和失去工作的变动的失业。
10.GDP紧缩（平减）指数：以名义GDP除以实际GDP所得到的对价格水平的衡量。
11.增长核算：对经济增长源泉进行衡量的理论。
增长核算方程（假定规模报酬不变）：12.高能货币：联储的通货（钞票和硬币）和银行存款，也叫基础货币。
13.呆滞：当一个变量的暂时波动对另一个变量产生持久影响时的情况。
见失业呆滞：持续的高失业率时期抬高了自然失业率。
14.通货膨胀税：也称铸币税，政府因为通货膨胀造成的持有的货币贬值而获得的收入。
15.生命周期假说：强调消费者的消费和储蓄基于其一生的收入，并为其退休做好提供收入的计划的消费理论。
16.LM曲线：所有实际利率和产出水平的一种表达，在该曲线上，对实际货币余额的需求等于实际货币余额的供给。
这是给定价格水平时的均势。
17.菜单成本：当一种商品的名义价格被更换时所发生的小额成本。
例如，当餐馆提高或降低其价格时，重新印制菜单的成本。
18.痛苦指数：由政治分析家使用的指数，用来衡量由于通货膨胀和失业双重问题所带给消费者的不愉快。
最新课件中级宏观经济学
➢ 有效需求管理：财政政策、货币政策
2 宏观经济管理目标
▪ 四大目标（熨平经济波动、实现经济增长）
➢ 经济增长 ➢ 充分就业 ➢ 物价稳定 ➢ 国际收支平衡
▪ 本部分的主要介绍
➢ 通货膨胀 ➢ 失业
2.1 通货膨胀
▪ 通货膨胀的定义、度量（回忆）
▪ 通货膨胀的分类
➢ 依据预期来分类
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M1，1929＝100
1939 1938 1937 1936 1935 1934 1933 1932 1931 1930 1929
1.4 大危机鸟瞰— 货币银行
▪ 国际金融系统崩溃
▪ 投资暴跌
0
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4
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1.5 大危机鸟瞰——物价、投资
CPI，1929＝100 i/gnp
➢ IS－LM模型和AS－AD模型
▪ 举例，政府支出带来的影响
价
利
IS
LM
率
格 水
平
i*
P
Y*
收入
Ａ D
产量 Y
大作业
▪ 任选一题
➢结合所学，尝试回答下面的问题：目 前我国面临的主要宏观经济问题是什 么？如何表述、分析？如何治理？
➢ 为什么会发生大危机？经济是否具有内在的不稳定性？ ➢ 是否可以避免？如何预防？
1.8 大危机的治理
▪ 大危机期间的治理
➢ 对内：平衡预算、美联储无作为 ➢ 对外：贸易保护、输出“紧缩”。 ➢ 结果：“盲人骑瞎马，夜半临深池”，危机更为严重
▪ 认识大危机
➢ 凯恩斯的解释：投资下降、有效需求不足 ➢ 弗里德曼的解释：美联储的无作为、货币存量下降
(NEW)张延《中级宏观经济学》课后习题详解
目 录第一篇 宏观经济学导论第一章 宏观经济学概述第二章 宏观经济指标的度量第二篇 总需求分析第三章 产品市场均衡：收入-支出模型第四章 产品市场和货币市场的同时均衡：IS-LM模型第五章 宏观经济政策第三篇 总供给分析第六章 对劳动力市场状况的度量第七章 凯恩斯主义的总供给曲线第八章 新古典主义的总供给曲线第四篇 长期经济增长理论第九章 索洛经济增长模型第一篇 宏观经济学导论第一章 宏观经济学概述说明：作为教材的第一章，本章系统地介绍了宏观经济学的发展史、研究对象和研究方法。
考虑到宏观经济背景非常重要，建议读者予以重视。
本章无相关习题。
第二章 宏观经济指标的度量1假设某农业国只生产两种产品：橘子和香蕉。
利用下表的资料，计算2002年和2009年该国实际GDP的变化，但要以2002年的价格来计算。
根据本题的结果证明：被用来计算实际GDP的价格的确影响所计算的增长率，但一般来说这种影响不是很大。
答：（1）以2002年的价格为基期价格：2002年该国的实际GDP为：GDP2002＝50×0.22＋15×0.2＝14；2009年该国的实际GDP为：GDP2009＝60×0.22＋20×0.2＝17.2；实际GDP增长率为：（17.2－14）/14×100%＝22.9%。
（2）以2009年的价格为基期价格：2002年该国的实际GDP为：GDP2002＝50×0.25＋15×0.3＝17；2009年该国的实际GDP为：GDP2009＝60×0.25＋20×0.3＝21；实际GDP增长率为：（21－17）/17×100%＝23.5%。
由22.9%与23.5%只相差0.6%，由此可见，用来计算实际GDP的价格的确影响所计算的增长率，但一般来说这种影响不是很大。
2根据国民收入核算恒等式说明：（1）税收的增加（同时转移支付保持不变）一定意味着在净出口、政府购买或储蓄-投资差额上的变化。
宏观经济学凯恩斯消费曲线名词解释
凯恩斯消费曲线是宏观经济学中提出的一种经济理论，描述了个人或家庭在不同收入水平下的消费行为。
以下是一些与凯恩斯消费曲线相关的名词解释：
1. 消费支出（Consumption Expenditure）：个人或家庭用于购买消费品和服务的支出金额。
2. 边际消费倾向（Marginal Propensity to Consume，简称MPC）：指当个人或家庭的收入增加一单位时，他们愿意增加的消费支出的比例。
MPC可以用来度量收入变化对消费支出的影响。
3. 储蓄支出（Saving Expenditure）：个人或家庭将剩余收入存储为储蓄的行为。
储蓄支出等于收入减去消费支出。
4. 边际储蓄倾向（Marginal Propensity to Save，简称MPS）：指当个人或家庭的收入增加一单位时，他们愿意增加的储蓄支出的比例。
MPS可以用来度量收入变化对储蓄支出的影响。
5. 收入（Income）：个人或家庭在一定时期内从各种经济活动中获取的总收入，包括工资、利息、股息、房屋租金等。
6. 消费函数（Consumption Function）：凯恩斯消费曲线的数学表达式，描述了收入与消费支出之间的关系。
一般形式为C = a + bY，其中C代表消费支出，Y代表收入，a是消费支出中与收入无关的固定支出（例如基本生活费），b是边际消费倾向，即每一单位收入增加导致的额外消费支出。
凯恩斯消费曲线的关键思想是消费支出受到收入水平的影响。
当收入增加时，个人或家庭倾向于增加消费支出，但增加的幅度可能不是收入的全部，而是根据边
际消费倾向来决定的。
这种理论对于宏观经济政策制定和经济增长预测有一定的指导意义。
亚伯《中级宏观经济学》(第6版)笔记和课后习题详解
亚伯《中级宏观经济学》（第6版）笔记和课后习题详解第一部分导论第1章宏观经济学概述1.1 复习笔记一、宏观经济学的研究内容宏观经济学（macroeconomics）是研究国民经济构成及其运行，以及政府用以调节经济运行的政策。
宏观经济学关注以下六个方面的问题：一国长期经济增长的决定因素是什么？一国经济波动的根源何在？失业产生的原因是什么？引起价格上涨的因素是什么？一国作为全球经济体系的一部分，如何影响其他国家的经济？政府政策能否用来改善一国经济的运行？1．长期经济增长（1）富国与穷国存在差距的原因富国在其历史的某一时点上经历过长期的经济高速增长，而穷国要么从未经历过持续的经济增长，要么其经济增长的成果因随后的经济衰退而损失殆尽。
（2）美国的长期经济增长的原因①人口增加为经济发展提供了源源不断的劳动力。
②给定劳动力数量的条件下劳动所带来的产量的增加。
单位劳动投入（如每位工人或每单位工作时间）所生产的产量被称为平均劳动生产率（average labor productivity）。
（3）经济增长率的决定因素①储蓄率和投资率的增加。
②技术进步率以及其他一些有助于提高机器和工人生产率的因素。
2．经济周期美国产出的增长历程表明：产出的增长路径并不总是平滑的，而是存在谷峰和谷底。
宏观经济学家用经济周期来描绘经济活动的短期收缩与扩张，但一些非常剧烈的收缩与扩张有时并不是经济周期。
经济周期的下降阶段为衰退期，在这一时期国民产出可能下降，也可能以极慢的速度增长。
衰退还是一个重要的政治焦点。
因为对于每个希望再次当选的政治家来说，经济在任期间内处于繁荣期（而不是衰退期）将使其再次当选的把握更大。
3．失业经济衰退往往伴随着失业（unemployment）。
失业是指有能力工作并正在积极寻找工作但未能找到工作的劳动者数目。
失业率是用来衡量失业最常见的指标，其计算公式为失业人口除以总劳动力人口，其中总劳动力人口指正在工作或正在寻找工作的劳动者的总数目。
中级宏观经济学题库（含答案）
一、概念辨析1．国内生产总值（GDP）与国民生产总值（GNP）2．政府支出与政府购买3．国民生产总值与国民收入4．消费者价格指数与GDP消胀指数5．固定汇率制与可变汇率制6．预算盈余与充分就业预算盈余7．真实汇率与购买力平价8．经常账户与资本账户9．商品市场均衡曲线（IS）与货币市场均衡曲线(LM)10．边际消费倾向与边际储蓄倾向11．法定贬值与真实贬值12．凯恩斯消费理论与LC-PIH消费理论二、简述题（图解题）1、恒等式“储蓄等于投资”（如果是四部门经济则为“国民储蓄等于国民投资”）在传统意义上很好理解，比如你把钱存银行，银行贷款给企业投资。
那么假设人把钱放枕头底下，该恒等式还成立吗？2.如果甲乙两个国家合并成一个国家，对GDP总和会有什么影响（假定两国产出不变）？3．在实行累进税制的国家，比例所得税为何能对经济起到自动稳定器的作用？4．写出现代菲利普斯曲线方程，配以图形简述其如何解释经济中的滞胀现象？5．货币需求对利率的弹性越大，货币政策就越无效的判断是否正确?6．政府采购支出增加一定会挤出私人投资和导致通货膨胀吗？7．古典学派和凯恩斯主义的总供给观点各自基于怎样的假定前提以及适合在什么情况下分析宏观经济问题？8．在国民收入核算中，Y≡C+I+G+NX；在均衡收入的决定中，只有当Y=AD 时，Y=C+I+G+NX才会成立。
这是否存在矛盾，并请说明理由。
9．名义货币存量的增加使AD曲线上移的程度恰恰与名义货币增加的程度一致，为什么？10．封闭经济中的IS曲线和开放经济中的IS曲线哪一个更陡峭？11．贸易伙伴收入提高、本国货币真实贬值将对本国IS曲线产生何种影响？12．凯恩斯学派认为货币政策的传递机制包含哪些环节？最主要的环节是什么？13．经济处于充分就业状态。
若政府要改变需求构成，从消费转向投资，但不允许超过充分就业水平。
需要采取何种形式的政策组合？运用IS—LM模型进行分析。
14．考虑两种紧缩方案，一种是取消投资补贴；另一种是提高所得税率。
中级宏观经济学（伯南克版）第二章参考答案
Answers to Textbook ProblemsReview Questions1. The three approaches to national income accounting are the product approach, theincome approach, and the expenditure approach. They all give the same answer because they are designed that way; any entry based on one approach has an entry in the other approaches with the same value. Whenever output is produced and sold, its production is counted in the product approach, its sale is counted in the expenditure approach, and the funds received by the seller are counted in the income approach.2. Goods are measured at market value in GDP accounting so that different types of goodsand services can be added together. Using market prices allows us to count up the total dollar value of all the economy’s output. T he problem with this approach is that not all goods and services are sold in markets, so we may not be able to count everything.Important examples are homemaking and environmental quality.3. Intermediate goods and services are used up in producing other goods in the same period(year) in which they were produced, while final goods and services are those that arepurchased by consumers or are capital goods that are used to produce future output. The distinction is important, because we want to count only the value of final goods produced in the economy, not the value of goods produced each step along the way.4. GNP is the market value of final goods and services newly produced by domestic factorsof production during the current period, whereas GDP is production taking place within a country.Thus, GNP differs from GDP when foreign factors are used to produce output in acountry, or when domestic factors are used to produce output in another country. GDP = GNP – NFP, where NFP = net factor payments from abroad, which equals income paid to domestic factors of production by the rest of the world minus income paid to foreign factors of production by the domestic economy. A country that employs many foreign workers will likely have negative NFP, so GDP will be higher than GNP.5. The four components of spending are consumption, investment, government purchases,and net exports. Imports must be subtracted, because they are produced abroad and we want GDP to count only those goods and services produced within the country. Forexample, suppose a car built inJapan is imported into the United States. The car counts as consumption spending in U.S.GDP, but is subtracted as an import as well, so on net it does not affect U.S. GDP.However, it is counted in Japan’s GDP as an export.6. Private saving is private disposable income minus consumption. Private disposableincome is total output minus taxes paid plus transfers and interest received from thegovernment. Private saving is used to finance investment spending, the governmentbudget deficit, and the current account.National saving is private saving plus government saving.7. National wealth is the total wealth of the residents of a country, and consists of itsdomestic physical assets and net foreign assets. Wealth is important because the long-run economic well-being of a country depends on it. National wealth is related to national saving because national saving is the flow of additions to the stock of national wealth.8. Real GDP is the useful concept for figuring out a country’s growth performance.Nominal GDP may rise because of increases in prices rather than growth in real output.9. The CPI is a price index that is calculated as the value of a fixed set of consumer goodsand services at current prices divided by the value of the fixed set at base-year prices.CPI inflation is the growth rate of the CPI. CPI inflation overstates true inflation because it is hard to measure changes in quality, and because t he price index doesn’t account for substitution away from goods that become relatively more expensive towards goods that become relatively cheaper.10. The nominal interest rate is the rate at which the nominal (or dollar) value of an assetincreases over time. The real interest rate is the rate at which the real value or purchasing power of an asset increases over time, and is equal to the nominal interest rate minus the inflation rate. The expected real interest rate is the rate at which the real value of an asset is expected to increase over time. It is equal to the nominal interest rate minus the expected inflation rate. The concept that is most important to borrowers and lenders is the expected real interest rate, because it affects their decisions to borrow or lend.Numerical Problems1. GDP is the value of all final goods and services produced during the year. The finaloutput of coconuts is 1000, which is worth 500 fish, because two coconuts are worth one fish. Of the 500 fish caught during the year, the 100 fish used as fertilizer are anintermediate good, so the final output is 400 fish. So in terms of fish, GDP consists of 500 fish worth of coconuts plus 400 fish, with a total value of 900 fish.To find consumption and investment, we must find out what happens to all the coconuts and fish. Gilligan consumes all his 200 coconuts (worth 100 fish) and 100 fish, so hisconsumption is worth 200 fish. The Professor stores 100 coconuts with a value of 50 fish.In an ideal accounting system, these stored coconuts would be treated as investment.However, in the national income accounts, because it is so difficult to tell when durable goods are consumed and when they are saved, they are counted as consumption. So the Professor’s consumption consists of 800 co conuts (value 400 fish) and 300 fish, for atotal value of 700 fish. Thus the economy’s total consumption is valued at 900 fish and investment is zero.In terms of income, Gilligan’s income is clearly worth 200 fish (100 fish plus 200coconuts worth 100 f ish). The Professor’s income is less easily calculated, because he uses 100 fish to fertilize the coconut trees. These 100 fish are therefore not income tohim. Thus the Professor’s income is800 coconuts (1000 coconuts minus the 200 coconuts paid to Gilligan) plus 300 fish(500 fish minus 100 fish paid to Gilligan and minus 100 fish used as fertilizer). In terms of fish, the Professor’s income has a value of 700 fish.This question illustrates some of the nuances of national income accounting. Manydifficult choices and measurement issues are involved in constructing the accounts. Here, for example, it is clear that what we call consumption really isn’t just the amount ofgoods consumers use up during the year, but also includes consumption goods that are purchased but saved for the future. Since there is no way to measure when goods areused after they are purchased, the accounts are unable to distinguish consumption from storage of goods.Another subtlety is the treatment of the fish used as fertilizer. If the fertilizer increases future output rather than current output, then the fertilizer is not used up during the year and represents investment of 100 fish. In this case, GDP would equal 1000 fish,consumption is 900 fish, investment is 100 fish, the Pr ofessor’s income is 800 fish, and Gilligan’s income is 200 fish.2. (a) Furniture made in North Carolina that is bought by consumers counts asconsumption,so consumption increases by $6 billion, investment is unchanged, governmentpurchases are unchanged, net exports are unchanged, and GDP increases by $6billion.(b) Furniture made in Sweden that is bought by consumers counts as consumption andimports,so consumption increases by $6 billion, investment is unchanged, governmentpurchases are unchanged, net exports fall by $6 billion, and GDP is unchanged.(c) Furniture made in North Carolina that is bought by businesses counts as investment,so consumption is unchanged, investment increases by $6 billion, governmentpurchases are unchanged, net exports are unchanged, and GDP increases by $6billion.(d) Furniture made in Sweden that is bought by businesses counts as investment andimports,so consumption is unchanged, investment increases by $6 billion, governmentpurchases are unchanged, net exports decline by $6 billion, and GDP is unchanged.3. (a) ABC produces output valued at $2 million and has total expenses of $1.3 million ($1million for labor, $0.1 million interest, $0.2 million taxes). So its profits are $0.7million. XYZ produces output valued at $3.8 million ($3 million for the threecomputers that were sold, plus $0.8 million for the unsold computer in inventory)and has expenses of $3.2 million ($2 million for components, $0.8 million for labor,and $0.4 million for taxes). So its profits are $0.6 million.According to the product approach, the GDP contributions of these companies are$3.8 million, the value of the final product of XYZ. ABC’s production is of anintermediate good, used completely by XYZ, and so is not counted in GDP.According to the expenditure approach, the GDP contribution is also $3.8 million,with$3 million (of sold computers) adding to the capital stock (as investment spending),and $0.8 million (the unsold computer) as inventory investment.The income approach yields the same GDP total contribution. The amounts are:ABC XYZ TOTAL Labor $1.0 million $0.8 million $1.8 millionProfit $0.7 million $0.6 million $1.3 millionTaxes $0.2 million $0.4 million $0.6 millionInterest $0.1 million $0.0 million $0.1 millionTotal of all incomes $3.8 million(b) If ABC pays an additional $.5 million for computer chips from abroad, the resultschange slightly. The correct answer is easiest to see using the expenditure approach.As in part a, there is $3.8 million spent on final goods, but now there are also netexports of –$0.5 million. So the total expenditure on domestically produced goods isonly $3.3 million. The product approach gets the same answer because the $0.5million is a contribution to GDP of the country in which the chips were made, and so must be deducted from the GDP of the United States. The value added in the UnitedStates is only $3.3 million. Finally, the income approach gives the same answer as inpart a, except that the cost of importing the chips reduces ABC’s profits by $0.5million, so the sum of the incomes is only $3.3 million.4. (a) Product approach: $2 =gas station’s value added = $28 product minus $26 value ofproduct produced in the previous year. Expenditure approach: $2 = $28 consumptionspending plus inventory investment of –$26. Income approach: $2 paid to the factors of production at the gas station (wages of employees, interest, taxes, profits).(b) Product approach: $60,000 broker’s fee for providing brokerage services.Expenditure approach: $60,000 counts as residential investment made by thehomebuyer. The important point here is that the transfer of an existing good, even ata higher value than that at which it was originally sold, does not add to GDP. Incomeapproach: $60,000 income to the broker for wages,profits, etc.(c) Product approach: $40,000 salary plus $16,000 childcare equals $56,000. Note thatthere is a sense in which the childcare is an intermediate service and should not becounted, because without it the homemaker would not be able to work. But inpractice there is no way to separate such intermediate services from final services, so they are all added to GDP. Expenditure approach: $56,000 ($16,000 consumptionspending on child care services plus $40,000 in categories that depend on what jobthe homemaker has). Income approach: $56,000 ($40,000 compensation ofhomemaker plus $16,000 income to the factors producing the child care: employees’wages, interest, taxes, profits).(d) Product approach: $100 million of a capital good. Since it is produced with locallabor and materials, and assuming no payments go to Japanese factors of production,this is all added to U.S. GDP. Expenditure approach: $100 million net exports, sincethe plant is owned by the Japanese. (It is not part of gross domestic investmentbecause the plant is not a capital good owned by U.S. residents.) Income approach:$100 million paid to U.S. factors of production.(e) Product approach: $0 because nothing is produced. Expenditure approach: $0because this is a transfer, not a government purchase of goods or services. Incomeapproach: $0, because this is not a payment to a factor of production, just a transfer.(f) Product approach: $5,000 worth of advertising services. Expenditure approach:$5,000 of government purchases. Income approach: $5,000 compensation ofemployees.(g) Product approach: $120 million composed of $100 million of new cars producedplus $20 million of sales services provided by the consortium ($60 million salesprice minus $40 million cost). Expenditure approach: $100 million by Hertz asinvestment plus $60 million by the public for consumption of the used cars minus$40 million of investment goods sold by Hertz, for a total of $120 million. Incomeapproach: $100 million to the factors of production of GM plus $20 million inpayments to the factors of production and profits for the consortium.5. Given data: I= 40, G= 30, GNP= 200, CA=–20 =NX+NFP, T =60, TR= 25, INT=15, NFP=7 –9 =–2. Since GDP=GNP–NFP, GDP= 200 – (–2) = 202 =Y. Since NX+NFP=CA,NX=CA–NFP=–20 – (–2) =–18. Since Y=C+I+G+NX, C=Y– (I+G+NX) = 202 – (40 + 30 + (–18)) = 150.S pvt= (Y+NFP – T+TR+INT) –C= (202 + (–2) – 60 + 25 + 15) –150 = 30. S govt= (T –TR–INT) –G= (60 – 25 – 15) – 30 =–10. S=S pvt+S govt= 30 + (–10) = 20.(a) Consumption = 150(b) Net exports =–18(c) GDP = 202(d) Net factor payments from abroad =–2(e) Private saving = 30(f) Government saving =–10(g) National saving = 206.Base-year quantities at current-year prices at base-year pricesApples 3000 ⨯ $3 =$ 9,0003000 ⨯ $2 = $ 6,000Bananas 6000 ⨯ $2 = $12,000 6000 ⨯ $3 = $18,000 Oranges 8000 ⨯ $5 = $40,000 8000 ⨯ $4 = $32,000 Total $61,000 $56,000 Current-year quantities at current-year prices at base-year prices Apples 4,000 ⨯ $3 = $ 12,000 4,000 ⨯ $2 = $ 8,000 Bananas 14,000 ⨯ $2 = $ 28,000 14,000 ⨯ $3 = $ 42,000 Oranges 32,000 ⨯ $5 =$160,00032,000 ⨯ $4 = $128,000Total $200,000$178,000(a) Nominal GDP is just the dollar value of production in a year at prices in that year.Nominal GDP is $56 thousand in the base year and $200 thousand in the currentyear. Nominal GDP grew 257% between the base year and the current year:[($200,000/$56,000) – 1] ⨯ 100% = 257%.(b) Real GDP is calculated by finding the value of production in each year at base-yearprices.Thus, from the table above, real GDP is $56,000 in the base year and $178,000 in thecurrent year. In percentage terms, real GDP increases from the base year to thecurrent year by[($178,000/$56,000) – 1] ⨯ 100% = 218%.(c) The GDP deflator is the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP. In the base year,nominal GDP equals real GDP, so the GDP deflator is 1. In the current year, theGDP deflator is $200,000/$178,000 = 1.124. Thus the GDP deflator changes by[(1.124/1) – 1] ⨯ 100% = 12.4% from the base year to the current year.(d) Nominal GDP rose 257%, prices rose 12.4%, and real GDP rose 218%, so most ofthe increase in nominal GDP is because of the increase in real output, not prices.Notice that the quantity of oranges quadrupled and the quantity of bananas morethan doubled.7. Calculating inflation rates:1929–30: [(50.0/51.3) – 1] ⨯ 100% =–2.5%1930–31: [(45.6/50.0) – 1] ⨯ 100% =–8.8%1931–32: [(40.9/45.6) – 1] ⨯ 100% =–10.3%1932–33: [(38.8/40.9) – 1] ⨯ 100% = –5.1%These all show deflation (prices are declining over time), whereas recently we have had nothing but inflation (prices rising over time).8. The nominal interest rate is [(545/500) – 1] ⨯ 100% = 9%. The inflation rate is [(214/200)– 1] ⨯ 100% = 7%. So the real interest rate is 2% (9% nominal rate – 7% inflation rate).Expected inflation was only [(210/200) – 1] ⨯ 100% = 5%, so the expected real interest rate was 4% (9% nominal rate – 5% expected inflation rate).9. (a) The annual rate of inflation from January 1, 2005, to January 1, 2007, is 10%. Thiscan be found by calculating the constant rate of inflation that would raise the deflator from 200 to 242 in two years. This gives the equation (1 +π)(1 +π) = (242/200),which has the solution π= 10%.An easy way to think about this question is this. A constant inflation rate of π raisesthe deflator from 200 on January 1, 2005, to 200 ⨯ (1 +π) on January 1, 2006, and to200 ⨯ (1 +π) ⨯ (1 +π) = 242 on January 1, 2007. So we need to solve the expression(1 +π)2= 242/200.(b) By similar reasoning, the inflation rate over the three-year period is (1 +π)3=266.2/200,or π= 10%.(c) We can derive a general expression in the same way:1 +π=P1/P01 +π=P2/P1⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅1 +π=P n/P n–1Multiplying all these lines together, we get:(1 +π)n= (P1/P0) ⨯ (P2/P1) ⨯⋅⋅⋅⨯ (P n/P n –1) =P n/P0Analytical Problems1. The key to this question is that real GDP is not the same thing as well-being. People maybe better off even if real GDP is lower; for example, this may occur because theimprovement in the health of workers is more valuable to society than the loss of GDP due to the regulation. Ideally, we would like to be able to compare the costs and benefits of such regulations; they should be put in place if the overall costs (the reduced GDP in this case) are valued less than the overall benefits (the workers’ health).2. National saving does not rise because of the switch to CheapCall because althoughconsumption spending declines by $2 million, so have total expenditures (GDP), which equal total income. Since income and spending both declined by the same amount,national saving is unchanged.3. (a) The problem in a planned economy is that prices do not measure market value.When the price of an item is too low, then goods are really more expensive than their listed price suggests—we should include in their market value the value of timespent by consumers waiting to make purchases. Because the it em’s value exceeds its cost, measured GDP is too low.When the price of an item is too high, goods stocked on the shelves may be valuedtoo highly. This results in an overvaluation of firms’ inventories, so that measuredGDP is too high.A possible strategy for dealing with this problem is to have GDP analysts estimatewhat the market price should be (perhaps by looking at prices of the same goods inmarket economies) and use this ―shadow‖ price in the GDP calculations.(b) The goods and services that people produce at home are not counted in the GDPfigures because they are not sold on the market, making their value difficult tomeasure. One way to do it might be to look at the standard of living relative to amarket economy, and estimate what income it would take in a market economy tosupport that standard of living.4. Under the old definition, old govt S = (T – TR – INT ) – G ; under the new definition, new govt S =(T – TR – INT ) – GCE , where GCE = government consumption expenditures, G = GCE + GI ,and GI = government investment. With those definitions: old govt S = (T – TR – INT ) – G= (T – TR – INT ) – (GCE+ GI )= [(T – TR – INT ) – GCE ]– GI= new govt S – GI .The uses-of-savings identity isS pvt = I + ()old govt -S + CA= I – ()new govt -S GI + CA= I + GI + ()new govt -S + CA .Using data for 2002, the old uses-of-savings identity is (where sd is the statisticaldiscrepancy):S pvt + sd = I + ()old govt -S + CA1595 + (–117) = 1593 + 374 + (–489)1478 = 1478 so the identity holds.The new uses-of-savings identity is:S pvt + sd = I + GI + ()new govt -S + CA1595 + (–117) = 1593 + 352 +22 + (–489)1478 = 1478 so the identity holds.。
中级宏观经济学(Macroeconomics)考试试题答案
2003－2004学年第二学期中级宏观经济学（Macroeconomics）考试试题答案(经济试验班021、022)Ⅰ.Choose the best answers (2＇×10)1.B2.A3.C4.B5.C6.A7.B8.C9.C 10.DⅡ. Explain the following terms. (20 points)1．Endogenous variables: 经济模型中要解释的变量。
Exogenous variables：模型给出作为既定的变量。
2. Menu costs：企业因通货膨胀改变价格的成本。
shoe-leather costs：为减少持有货币的损失而发生的成本。
3. GDP deflator ：名义GDP/实际GDP，是相对于基年商品和劳务价格的那一年的商品和劳务价格。
CPI：即消费价格指数，是相对于某个基年一篮子物品与劳务价格的同样一篮子物品与劳务的现期价格。
4. Adaptive expectation ：人们根据过去的经验或数据来预测未来。
rational expectation：人们尽可能地利用所有可以获得地信息，包括关于现在政府政策地信息预测未来。
5. Real exchange rate ：两国物品的相对价格。
nominal exchange rate：两国通货的相对价格。
Ⅲ.Answer the following questions by drawing or calculating. (10’ ×4) 1．We want to consider the effects of a tax cut when the LM* curve depends on disposable income instead of income: M/P = L[r, Y –T].A tax cut now shifts both the IS* and the LM* curves. Figure 12–22 shows the case of floating exchange rates. The IS* curve shifts to the right, from IS to IS . The LM* curve shifts to the left, however, from LM to LM .We know that real balances M/P are fixed in the short run, while the interest rate is fixed at the level of the world interest rate r*. Disposable income is the only variable that can adjust to bring the money market into equilibrium: hence, the LM* equation determines the level of disposable income. If taxes T fall, then income Y must also fall to keep disposable income fixed. In Figure 12–22, we move from an original equilibrium at point A to a new equilibrium at point B. Income falls by the amount of the tax cut, and the exchange rate appreciates. If there are fixed exchange rates, theIS* curve still shifts to the right; but the initial shift in the LM* curve no longer matters. That is, the upward pressure on the exchange rate causes the central bank to sell dollars and buy foreign exchange; this increases the money supply and shifts the LM* curve to the right, as shown in Figure 12–23. The new equilibrium, at point B, is at the intersection of the new IS* curve, IS , and the horizontal line at the level of the fixed exchange rate. There is no difference between this case and the standard case where money demand depends on income.2. a.将生产函数两边同时除以效率工人，则有：()4.04.06.04.0k L E K L E L E K L E Y y =⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛⨯=⨯⨯=⨯=b ．s=0.25 δ=5% n=2% g=3%; 带入经济稳定的条件：38.15.275.0)1(*84.15.2*6.45.2*1.025.0)()(3/23/24.03/54.0≈⨯=-=≈==≈==⋅++=⋅y s c k y k kk kg n k f s δc.当g 变为5%时，有： 63.11225*4.31225*12.025.0)()(3/24.03/54.0≈⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛==≈⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛==⋅++=⋅k y k kk kg n k f s δ 这种变化导致了效率工人的人均资本量减少，效率工人的人均产量下降；但总产出会增加。
中级宏观经济学课件
04
在经济过热时，政府可以通过增加税收、减少政府支 出等财政政策来抑制总需求，同时中央银行可以通过 提高利率等货币政策来抑制通货膨胀。
CHAPTER 04
总需求与总供给模型
总需求曲线
总结词
表示经济中商品和劳务的需求量与价格水平之间的关系。
详细描述
总需求曲线表示在某一价格水平上，整个经济社会能够并且愿意购买的商品和劳 务的数量。它反映了经济中货币和财政政策、预期等因素对经济活动的影响。
VS
详细描述
总需求与总供给模型是宏观经济分析的重 要工具，它可以用来分析经济波动的原因 和预测未来的经济走势。同时，通过总需 求与总供给模型，还可以评估不同政策对 经济的影响，为政策制定提供依据。
CHAPTER 05
经济周期与经济增长
经济周期的分类
01
02
03
04
正向周期
经济活动上升，失业率下降， 企业盈利增加。
财政政策与货币政策的配合使用
在宏观经济调控中，财政政策和货币政策需要相互配 合使用，以达到更好的调控效果。
输标02入题
财政政策主要在短期内发挥作用，而货币政策则具有 长期的效果。因此，在调控经济时需要根据经济形势 选择合适的政策组合。
01
03
在经济衰退时，政府可以通过减税、增加政府支出等 财政政策来刺激总需求，同时中央银行可以通过降低
汇率制度与汇率政策
总结词
详细描述
总结词
详细描述
汇率制度是一个国家规 定其货币对外价值的制 度，包括汇率的确定方 式、干预方式等。
汇率制度对一个国家的 经济发展和国际贸易具 有重要影响。常见的汇 率制度包括固定汇率制 度和浮动汇率制度。政 府可以通过汇率政策来 调节国际收支平衡和国 内经济活动。
中级宏观经济学复习题部分答案
一、名词辨析1．国内生产总值（GDP）：在既定时期内，一国生产的所有最终产品和服务的价值；国民生产总值（GNP）：指一定时期内，本国的生产要素所有者所生产的最终产品和劳务的价值。
4．消费价格指数（consumer price index，CPI）又称生活费用指数，度量城市消费者购买一篮子固定的商品和服务的费用；GDP消胀指数是指在给定年份中，名义GDP与真实GDP的比率。
CPI与GDP消胀指数有如下不同：（1）首先，消胀指数远比CPI计量广泛得多的商品价格；（2）CPI计量的是一篮子给定的商品、通常许多年不变，但GDP消胀指数中包括的商品年年都有所不同；（3）CPI包括进口商品的价值，而GDP消胀指数只包括本国生产的商品。
7．真实汇率与购买力平价：真实汇率是指以相同货币计量的外国价格与本国价格的比率，它测定国际贸易中一国的竞争力。
购买力平价是指当一单位本国货币能在本国或国外购买到同样的一篮子商品时，则两国货币处于购买力平价。
当真实汇率等于1时，两国货币处于购买力平价状态。
8．经常账户：用来记录商品与服务贸易以及转移支付的国际收支账户；资本账户：用来记录买卖诸如股票、债券、土地等资产的国际收支账户。
9．商品市场均衡曲线（IS）：当使计划支出等于收入（产出）时，收入与利率之间的各个组合所构成的曲线；货币市场均衡曲线(LM)：当货币市场达到均衡时，收入与利率之间的各个组合所构成的曲线。
12．凯恩斯消费理论是根据传统经验法则得出的消费理论，认为一个经济体当期的总消费是总的居民可支配收入的函数。
这一思想用线性函数形式表示为C C cYD=+（C>0为自主消费支出，01c<<为边际消费倾向）。
LC-PIH消费理论是生命周期理论和恒常收入理论的合称，它从消费者的经济人理性假设出发来解释消费行为。
生命周期理论假说认为个人是在长期中计划其消费与储蓄行为，为的是在整个一生中以最好的方式来配备其消费；恒常收入理论假说认为消费与现期收入无关，而与长期收入的预期有关，对长期收入的预期又被称为恒常收入。
中级宏观经济学讲义
中级宏观经济学讲义第一讲绪论一、宏观经济学研究经济问题的独特视角经济学：研究如何利用稀缺资源生产有价值的商品并分配给不同的个人的科学。
核心问题：资源配置设：(1)社会经济资源一定；(2)整个社会只生产X，Y两种产品。
社会生产可能线如图所示：思考：为什么生产可能线斜率递增？相对成本递增。
如果将社会资源全部用于生产产品，其产量为OA；如果将社会资源全部用于生产产品X，其产量为OB，用一条曲线连接AB，AB线为社会生产可能线。
线上的任意一点如n表明社会资源得到了充分利用，线内的任意一点如m，则表明社会资源未得到充分利用。
经济学所要解决的核心问题是如何合理地利用有限的资源以最大限度地满足人们的需要。
依据对这一问题研究角度的不同，我们可以将理论经济学分为三大块：1．制度经济学研究经济活动中的质的问题。
在本课程中，把资本主义市场经济当作既定的已知的制度前提。
2．微观经济学研究的假定前提：整个社会的资源已充分利用（资源配置点落在生产可能线）。
讨论的核心问题：在生产可能性边界上有无数个点，每一个点代表一种资源的配置方式(X，Y两种产品的不同组合)，哪一种资源配置方式是最优的，能最大限度地满足人们的需要?显然在生产可能线上的每一点所利用的资源的总量是相同的，所不同的是资源利用的结构问题。
要增加一种产品的产出，就必须相应地减少另外一种产品的产出，生产可能线上的点的移动只是资源利用结构的调整。
3．宏观经济学研究的假定前提：资源尚未充分利用（资源配置点落在生产可能性边界以内）。
讨的核心问题：如何将资源配置点从生产可能线以内调节到生产可能线之上，使社会资源得到充分利用?这就是宏观经济学与微观经济学所不同的研究经济问题的独特视角。
在资源配置点的移动过程中，社会对资源利用的总量在变化，社会总的产出水平在变化，但资源的利用结构和社会产出结构可以不变。
二、宏观经济模型的构造关于国民收入决定的原理，宏观经济学可以用一个简单的经济模型表示。
中级宏观经济学
中级宏观经济学引言中级宏观经济学是经济学领域中的一个重要分支，它研究的是整个经济系统的运行和发展。
在宏观经济学中，我们关注的不仅是个体或个体市场的行为，而是从整体的角度来研究经济问题，例如整个国家的产出、就业、通货膨胀等。
本文将介绍中级宏观经济学的基本概念和主要内容。
宏观经济学的重要概念1.GDP（国内生产总值）：GDP是衡量一个国家经济活动总量的指标。
它包括了私人消费、政府支出、投资和净出口的值。
2.通货膨胀：通货膨胀指的是物价普遍上涨的情况。
它可以通过消费者物价指数（CPI）来衡量。
3.失业率：失业率表示劳动力市场上未就业人口的比例。
它是衡量一个经济体活力和劳动力利用率的重要指标。
4.货币政策：货币政策是指中央银行调整货币供应量和利率，以影响经济活动和价格水平的政策工具。
中级宏观经济的主要内容经济增长理论经济增长理论是中级宏观经济学的核心内容之一。
它研究的是长期经济增长的原因和机制。
在经济增长理论中，我们常见的模型有新古典增长模型和克里斯蒂娜·罗默模型等。
新古典增长模型认为，技术进步、人力资本等因素是推动经济增长的主要驱动力。
它强调资本积累和技术进步对经济增长的重要性。
而克里斯蒂娜·罗默模型则强调创新和知识的重要性，认为技术进步是经济增长的主要来源。
货币与物价水平货币政策对经济增长和物价水平具有重要影响。
中级宏观经济学研究货币政策的工具、目标和影响机制。
货币政策工具包括调整基准利率、调整存款准备金率等。
通过控制货币供应量和利率，中央银行可以影响经济活动和价格水平。
物价水平的变化会对经济产生重要影响。
通货膨胀会导致物价上涨，对消费、投资和资金分配产生影响。
以往的货币超发和通货膨胀案例，如德国的魏玛共和国时期，给经济和社会带来了巨大的破坏。
失业与经济政策失业是一个严重的经济问题，中级宏观经济学研究失业的类型、原因和影响。
失业率的高低反映了一个经济体的劳动力利用率和经济活力。
经济政策对失业的影响也是宏观经济学关注的重点之一。
中级宏观经济学
中级宏观经济学宏观经济学是研究整个经济体系的学科领域，它关注的是国家或地区的总体经济表现和宏观经济现象，如国民生产总值、就业率、通货膨胀率等。
在宏观经济学的学习中，我们可以了解到宏观经济模型、政策工具以及对经济增长和稳定的影响。
本文将介绍宏观经济学的基本概念和理论，并讨论其在实践中的应用。
一、宏观经济学的基本概念宏观经济学主要关注宏观经济变量，包括国民生产总值（GDP）、失业率、通货膨胀率等。
其中，GDP是最重要的宏观经济指标之一，它衡量了一个国家或地区一定时期内的总产出。
失业率则是衡量劳动力市场闲置资源的比例。
通货膨胀率衡量了物价水平的变化速度。
宏观经济学研究宏观经济变量的变化规律和原因，以及它们之间的相互影响关系。
为了更好地理解宏观经济学的理论，我们需要熟悉一些基本的经济学概念，如供给与需求、价格水平、产出水平等。
二、宏观经济学的理论体系宏观经济学的理论体系主要包括凯恩斯经济学、新古典经济学和新凯恩斯经济学。
凯恩斯经济学是20世纪30年代约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯提出的，它认为在衰退和失业时期，通过增加政府支出和降低利率可以刺激需求，促进经济复苏。
凯恩斯经济学的中心思想是需求决定供给。
新古典经济学是受到亚当·斯密思想启发的经济学派别，它认为个体作为经济活动的基本单位，通过自由市场的交换来实现最大化效用和利润。
新古典经济学的中心思想是供给决定需求。
新凯恩斯经济学是对凯恩斯经济学的修正和发展，它认为在经济繁荣时期，通过控制通货膨胀可以实现经济的稳定。
新凯恩斯主义经济学的中心思想是供给和需求之间存在一种平衡，通过适当的货币政策可以维持这种平衡。
三、宏观经济学的应用宏观经济学的理论和方法在实践中具有重要意义。
政府可以利用宏观经济学理论来制定经济政策，以实现经济增长和稳定。
例如，当经济出现衰退时，政府可以采取财政政策和货币政策来提高需求，刺激经济增长。
而当经济过热时，政府可以采取相反的政策来控制通货膨胀。
ch8A Two-Period Model(中级宏观经济学,香港中文大学)
2) The consumer likes diversity in consumption bundle.
– Corresponds to the consumer’s desire to smooth co, consumer dislikes consuming a lot in a single period and very few in another.
Chapter 8
A Two-Period Model: Consumption-Savings Decision & Ricardian Equivalence
Two-Period Model of the Economy
• In Chapter 8, we will focus on the consumers’ and government’s behavior. Firms’ behavior is reintroduced in Chapter 9. • A consumer’s consumption-savings decision involves a tradeoff between current and future consumption. • By saving, a consumer gives up consumption in exchange for assets in the present, in order to consume more in the future. • The government’s decision concerning the financing of government expenditure, involves a trade-off between current and future taxes.
中级宏观经济学公式
中级宏观经济学公式
以下是中级宏观经济学中的一些核心公式：
1. GDP（国内生产总值）计算公式：GDP = C（消费） + I（投资） + G （政府购买） + (X - M)（净出口）。
2. 消费函数：C = a + bYd，其中Yd表示可支配收入。
3. 储蓄函数：S = Yd - C。
4. 投资函数：I = I0 + bY - cR，其中I0表示初始投资，b表示边际投资倾向，Y表示收入，c表示资本的边际效率，R表示利率。
5. 多重平衡条件：S + T = I + G + X - M，其中T表示税收，G表示政府转移支付，X表示出口，M表示进口。
6. 通货膨胀率计算公式：通货膨胀率 = (现行年CPI - 前一年CPI)/ 前一年CPI × 100%。
7. 货币供应量计算公式：M = MB + M1 + M2 + M3，其中MB表示基础货币，M1、M2和M3分别表示不同层次的货币供应量。
8. 名义利率和实际利率关系公式：i = r + π，其中i表示名义利率，r表示实际利率，π表示通货膨胀率。
9. 货币汇率计算公式：E = S / D，其中E表示汇率，S表示本国货币供应量，D表示外国货币供应量。
10. 贸易差额计算公式：贸易差额 = 出口总额 - 进口总额。
11. 贸易依存度计算公式：贸易依存度 = (出口总额 + 进口总额)/ GDP × 100%。
以上公式仅供参考，建议查阅经济学书籍或咨询专业人士以获取更准确的信息。
中级宏观经济学Lecture09.consumption
Goldbaum (UTS)
Lecture 9
Macro 2014
7 / 26
Interest
Interest in the presence of inflation A lender lends $Xt today and receives back $Yt +1 one year from today where Yt +1 = Xt (1 + i ). Inflation reduces the purchasing power of the $Yt +1
Goldbaum (UTS)
Lecture 9
Macro 2014
9 / 26
Consumption
Want to explain savings as a conscious consumer decision Gain an understanding of consumer behavior through a 2-period model of lifetime consumption and income.
There is some value Y > X such that Ut (Xt ) = Ut (Yt +1 )
β is a “discount factor” that converts future utility values to their present value equivalent so that Ut (Xt ) = Ut (Yt +1 ) = β Ut +1 (Yt +1 ) The time subscripts can be dropped from the utility function.