Phonetics and Phonology
英语语言学 第二章 Phonetics and Phonology
scope of phonetics
articulatory phonetics
auditory phonetics
acoustic phonetics
articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 From the speaker’s point of view： studying how a speaker uses his or her speech organ to articulate sounds （ 研究语音的产生）
当声带分离时，气流容易通过，由此产生的语 音叫清音（voiceless），如 [p, s, t]。 当声带贴近时，气流使其产生震动 （vibration），形成的声音成为浊音 （voicing），如[ b, z, d]。 当声带完全紧贴时，气流无法通过，不发出声 音。
pharyngeal cavity: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.
2.1 the phonic medium of language
two media of language : speech and writing Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.
2.2.2 speech
organs (发音器官)
The Difference between Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics and phonology are the two fields dedicated to the study of human speech sounds and sound structures. The difference between phonetics and phonology is that phonetics deals with the physical production of these sounds while phonology is the study of sound patterns and their meanings both within and across languages. If they still sound like more or less the same thing, read on. We’ll discuss each one individually and then compare them side by side, which should clear things up.PhoneticsPhonetics is strictly about audible sounds and the things that happen in your mouth, throat, nasal and sinus cavities, and lungs to make those sounds. It has nothing to do with meaning. It’s only a description. For example, in order to produce the word “bed,” you start out with your lips together. Then, air from your lungs is forced over your vocal chords, which begin to vibrate and make noise. The air then escapes through your lips as they part suddenly, which results in a B sound. Next, keeping your lips open, the middle of your tongue comes up so that the sides meet your back teeth while the tip of your tongue stays down. All the while, air from your lungs is rushing out, and your vocal cho rds are vibrating. There’s your E sound. Finally, the tip of your tongue comes up to the hard palate just behind your teeth. This stops the flow of air and results in a D sound as long as those vocal chords are still going.As literate, adult speakers of th e English language, we don’t need a physical description of everything required to make those three sounds. We simply understand what to do in order to make them. Similarly, phoneticists simply understand that when they see /kæt/, it’s a description of how most Americans pronounce the word “cat.” It has nothing to do with a furry house pet.In fact, if there were a word in any other language pronounced the same way, the phonetic spelling would be the same regardless of meaning. Again, it’s not about meaning.It’s strictly physical.PhonologyPhonology, on the other hand, is both physical and meaningful. It explores the differences between sounds that change the meaning of an utterance. For example, the w ord “bet” is very similar to the word “bed” in terms of the physical manifestation of sounds. The only difference is that at the end of “bet,” the vocal chords stop vibrating so that sound is a result only of the placement of the tongue behind the teeth and the flow of air. However, the meanings of the two words are not related in the least. What a vast difference a muscle makes!This is the biggest distinction between phonetics and phonology, although phonologists analyze a lot more than just the obvious differences. They also examine variations on single letterpronunciations, words in which multiple variations can exist versus those in which variations are considered incorrect, and the phonological “grammar” of languages.If you are a native speaker of English, you pronounce the letter P three different ways. It’s true. You may not realize it, but you do, and if you were to hear the wrong pronunciation, you might not be able to put your finger on the problem, but you would think it sounded really weird. Say the word “pop-up.” The first P has more air behind it than the others, the second is very similar to the first, but it doesn’t have much air in it, and the last one is barely pronounced at all. The word just sort of ends there when your lips close. Now, say it again, but put a lot of air in the final P. See? Weird, right? That’s because the aspirated P (with air) sound is not “grammatically” correct at the end of an English word. Similarly, Spanish words do not begin with an “s” sound followed by a consonan t, which makes it very difficult for Spanish-speakers who are learning English to say words like “school,” “speak” and “strict.” Phonologists study things like that.Side-by-Side Differences Between Phonetics and PhonologyIf you’re still confused about which is which, here’s a little side-by-side comparison to help you out:Phonetics is strictly physical while phonology also pays attention to the function or meaning of a sound.Phonetics only asks, “Does this sound go here or not?” Phonology asks, “Does the meaning change if I put this sound here instead of that one?” Phonetics makes a pretty general description of sounds and can be used to describe sounds in any language. Phonology makes very detailed descriptions of sounds, so each language has its own unique set of symbols (because no two languages use all of the exact same sounds).Hopefully that clears things up, but if you need one more way to remember the difference between phonetics and phonology, look at the word endings. Phonetic ends the same way as kinetic, which refers to movement. Both are purely physical. Phonology, like any other -ology, is more of a science, exploring the hows and whys of the physical.。
Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology
8
▪ One of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription.
▪ As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.
14
2.1 Consonants
18
▪ Bilabial ▪ Labiodental ▪ Dental ▪ Alveolar ▪ Postalveolar ▪ Retroflex ▪ Palatal ▪ Velar ▪ Uvular ▪ Pharyngeal ▪ Glottal
19
2.2 Vowels
▪ Cardinal Vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.
简明语言学之phonetics_and_phonology
rough, read (alveolar lateral)
Manners of articulation
• Glides (semivowels): ---wine (bilabial), a narrow passage from the lips young (palatal), a narrow passage between the tongue and the had palate
– stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides, etc.
Places of articulation: labial
• Bilabial(双唇音): made with two lips (pie, buy, my, wine) • Labiodental(唇齿音): lower tip and Upper front teeth (fine, vie).
Manners of articulation
• Nasals: (鼻音)oral closure, but soft palate is lowered, air escapes through nose.
– my (bilabial closure), night (alveolar closure), sang (velar closure).
语言学资料 phonetics and phonology
Chapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology◆Teaching Objectives✓To know the difference between phonetics and phonology✓To have some ideas about the classification of English consonants and vowels✓To understand some important concepts in phonology◆Time Arrangement✓Altogether 3 periods.2.1 The Phonic Medium of LanguageSpeech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basis than writing. Language is primarily spoken. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when there are needs.Language is first perceived through its sounds. Thus the study of sounds is of great importance in linguistics. Naturally, linguists are not interested in all sounds that humans are capable of producing; they are concerned with those sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication. These sounds are not only limited in number, but also universal to some extent.The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language, and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 Definition and Scope◆Phonetics is the scientific study of the phonic medium of language and is concernedwith defining and classifying speech sounds◆Generally, the study of phonetics is composed of the 3 separate branches: articulatoryphonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.--- aritculatory phonetics: study the sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e., how a speaker uses his speech organs to produce the sounds. It also deals with theidentification and classification of individual sounds.--- acoustic phonetics: focus on the analysis and measurement of sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one personto another.--- auditory phonetics: study the sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e., how the sounds are perceived (感知) by the hearer.◆The 3 branches are closely related to each other. Speech sounds cannot be divorcedfrom the organs that articulate them and a sound wave does not exist in isolation from the source that generates it. All the approaches are indispensable to an understanding of phonetics.◆In this part we’ll focus on articulatory phonetics and at the same time make somereference to the acoustic properties of sounds when necessary.2.2.2 Vocal Organs / Articulatory Apparatus (p.16)The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in 3 important areas: the pharyngeal cavity – the throat, the oral cavity – the mouth, and the nasal cavity – the nose.The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in the larynx, and in these cavities in various ways. Such modification results from kind of interference with the movement of the air stream.➢The pharyngeal cavity--- when vocal cords are relaxed and folded back at each side to let air flow through freely and silently without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such acondition are voiceless.--- when vocal cords are held together tightly so that the air stream vibrates them at different speeds while forcing its passage through them, the vibration of the vocalcords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of allvowels and some consonants in English.➢The oral cavity--- the greatest source of modification of the air stream is found here.--- of all the speech organs in this cavity, the tongue is the most flexible and is responsible for more varieties of articulation. [k] [g] [j] [t] [d] [] [] --- apart from the tongue and the roof of the mouth, obstruction can be created between the upper teeth and the lower lip and between the lips [f] [v] [p] [b] ➢The nasal cavity--- when the passage of air to the mouth is closed so that air is allowed to exit through the nose, the sounds pronounce are nasalized. [m] [n] []2.2.3 Transcription of Sounds （p.17）✓With the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)came into being in 1888,whose basic principle is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent speech in the form of segments, or individual speech sounds.✓As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.✓Thus there are two ways to transcribe speech sounds: broad transcription-- the transcription with letter-symbols only and narrow transcription -- the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.✓Broad transcription is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.✓Example 1:[l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], health [hel] and play [plei] –differ [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, --- a clear [l]清晰音, no diacritic is needed[l] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, --- a dark [l]模糊音--- in narrow transcription the diacritic [~] is used [l] in [hel], followed by the dental sound and affected by it, --- a dental [l] --- in narrow transcription the diacritic is used[l] in [plei], following a voiceless plosive (p), -- a devoiced [l] 清音化--- in narrow transcription the diacritic [0] is used.✓Example 2:[p] in [pit] and [spit][p] in [pit], pronounced with a strong puff of air --- aspirated [p] --- [p h it][p] in [spit], pronounced with a withheld puff of air--- unaspirated [p] --- [spit]✓Example 3:play broad [plei] narrow [ ] aspiration, devoicingtenth broad [ten] narrow [ ] aspiration, nasalization, dentalization 2.2.4 Classification of English sounds2.2.4.1 English Consonants (24 / 28) p.18An initial classification will divide the speech sounds into two broad categories: vowels and consonants,In the pronunciation of consonants the air that comes from the lungs meets with obstruction in one way or another.Traditional linguists think there are altogether 28 consonants. But modern linguistics believe that there are 24 consonants, not including /tr/, /dr/, /ts/, /dz/because they are notconsidered as independent sounds, but the consonant clusters.Consonants are usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation.--- in terms of manner of articulation:6 stops / plosives; 9 fricatives; 2 affricates; 2 liquids (a lateral & a retroflex)3 nasals; 2 glides / semivowels; (trills in some regional accents）--- in terms of place of articulation:4 bilabials; 2 labiodentals; 2 dental sounds; 7 alveolar sounds;5 palatal sounds; 3 velar sounds; 1 glottal2.2.4.2 English Vowels (20/25) p.20As in the production of vowels the air stream meets with no obstruction, they cannot be classified in terms of manner of articulation or place of articulation as consonants. Other criteria have to be found for their classification.1) Openness of the mouth (close, semi-close, semi-open, open)2) Position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)3) Degree of lip rounding/shape of lips (rounded, unrounded)4) Length of the vowel (long, short)5) Pure or gliding (monophthong, diphthong, triphthong)Diphthongs – A vowel sound that glides from one quality to another: 8Triphthongs -- a vowel sound that glides successively through three qualities: 52.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and PhoneticsSimilarity: research objects ---- the speech soundsDifference: research approaches and focusesPhonetics – general study of all the speech sounds used in all human languages about how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phoneticfeatures they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology – about how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how they areused to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2.3.2 Phone, Phoneme, and allophone◆Phone and phonemeA phone is A phoneme isA phonetic unit, concrete A phonological unit, abstractOne of many possible sounds Not any particular sound, but represented or heard or produced in languages realized as a certain phoneThe smallest identifiable unit The smallest contrastive unit distinguishing found in a stream of speech, not between meanings of words in the sound necessarily distinguish meaning system of a particular language.Pronounced in a defined way. Pronounced in one or more ways,depending on the number of allophones.Represented between brackets Represented between slashesby convention. E.g. [b], [j], [o] by convention. E.g. /b/, /j/, /o/◆Allophones--- different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment.--- variants of a phoneme which do not change the meaning with substitution--- For example, /p/ → [p h i: k] & [spi:k]/t/ → [t h i: k] & [sti:k]/l/ → [li:k] & [fi:l] & [hel] & [milk]--- Distinctive features (p.24):the features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes;shown in the form of a binary opposition, only one of two values [+] or [-];e.g.: /p/ → -syllabic +consonantal –sonorant +anterior –coronal -voiced –nasal构成音节的响音前面的舌尖音的/i:/ → +syllabic –consonantal +sonorant +high – back –round +continuant响音：all vowels + consonants /l/, /m/, /n/, / /, /r/, /w/, /j/2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimalpair (p.24)➢Phonemic contrast--- formed by two distinctive phonemes➢Complementary distribution--- Allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. That is, they occur in different phonetic environmentsand they are said to be in complementary distribution.➢Minimal pair--- a basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two soundsthen represent different phonemes.--- an easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs:2 different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment whichoccurs in the same place in the strings → the 2 sound combinations forming aminimal pair → the 2 sounds representing different phonemes.more than 2 sound combinations → constituting a minimal set together.--- This way applies both to the consonants and vowels--- E.g.: pill & bill, bill & kill, kill & till, till & pill → minimal pairspill, bill, kill, till →a minimal set (identical in form except for the initialconsonant) → /p/, /b/, /k/, /t/ phonemesbeat, bet, boot, but, bait, bite, boat → a minimal set (identical except for thevowel) →/i:/, /e/, /u:/, //\/, /ei/, /ai/,/eu/ phonemes2.3.4 Phonological rules (p.25)2.3.4.1 Sequential rulesThe phonemes of a language cannot not strung together in any random order to formwords. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.e.g.: /b/ , /l/, /i/, /k/ p.25If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following 3 rules;(1)The first phoneme must be /s/(2)The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/(3)The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/e.g.: spring /spri/, strict /strict/, square/skew/, splendid /splendid/, scream /skri:m/Every word must contain at least one vowel-like segment.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. What is not permissible in English might be permissible in another language.2.3.4.2 Assimilation rule⏹When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendencymay become regularized as rules of language. The assimilation rule assimilates onesound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making thetwo phones similar.Nasalization of vowels in certain phonetic contexts.e.g.: [i:] – bean, green, team, screamThe varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal /n/ in some sound combinatione.g.: alveolar nasal /n/ -- still alveolar nasal in indiscreet (for /d/ is an alveolar stop)alveolar nasal /n/ -- velar nasal // in incorrect ( for /k/ is a velar stop) The sound assimilation is actually reflected in the spelling in most cases.Inpossible → impossible, as the /n/ sound is assimilated to /m/Inplausibel → implausible, inlegal → illegal, inregular --. irregular2.3.4.3 Deletion rule⏹It tells when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.e.g.: sign, design, paradigm → no /g/ sound though it is represented in spelling bythe letter gsignature, designation, paradigmatic →/g/ represented by the letter g ispronouncedThe rule is: delete a /g/ when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.2.3.5 Suprasegmental FeaturesSegment -- any linguistic unit in a sequence which may be isolated from the rest of the sequence, e.g. a sound in an utterance or a letter in a written textSuprasegmental – (in phonetics and phonology) a unit which extends over more than one sound in an utterance., e.g. syllable, word, sentence.2.3.5.1 StressStress is the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than thesurrounding words or syllables. Briefly, stress is syllable prominence.Stress in a syllable is achieved by changing the pitch, making the syllablelouder, or making it longer.In a word, the basic difference is between stressed and unstressed syllables.The syllable with the greatest prominence had the primary stress and the nextstressed syllable the secondary stress. A word, if long enough, may haveseveral nonprimary stresses. However, no word has more than one primarystress.Stress has two main semantic functions: distinguishing between two words which are alike, e.g. \import (n.) and im\port (v.); emphasizing the syllable or word,e.g. I said induce, not deduce.There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress.Word stress – the location of stress distinguishes meaning.(1) a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word form a noun to averb.e.g.: \increase (n.) – in\crease (v.); insult (n.) – insult (v.); rebel (n.) – rebel (v.)(2) the alteration of stress occurs between a compound noun and a phraseconsisting of the same elementse.g.: \blackbird (compound) – a particular kind of bird, which is notnecessarily black.black \bird (noun phrase) – a bird whose color is blackgreenhouse – green house; hotdog – hot dog(3) the meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the–ing + noun combinations.e.g.: \dining room (compound) -- -ing serving as a modifier of the nounreading glasses, sewing machinesleeping \baby (noun phrase) – noun as the doer of the action indicatedby the –ing form , which is an –ing participle modifierswimming fishSentence stress(1)the parts of speech that are normally stressed in English are nouns, mainverbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns.(2)The other categories of words like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs,prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.(3)To give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in a sentence that isusually unstressed can be stressed.e.g.: He is driving my car.2.3.5.2 ToneTone is pitch variations which are associated with the pronunciation of syllables orwords and which affects the meaning of the word.A tone language is a language in which the meaning of word depends on the toneused when pronouncing it.Mandarin Chinese, a typical ton language, makes a distinction between fourdifferent tones.Other tone languages are spoken in Vietnam, Thailand, West Africa, and CentralAmerica.2.3.5.3 IntonationWhen speaking, people usually raise and lower the pitch of their voice, formingpitch patterns. They also give some syllables in their utterances a greater degree ofloudness and change their speech rhythm. These phenomena are called intonation.In other words, when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence ratherthan the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones – the falling tone,the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone.。
语言学chapter 3 phonetics and phonology教材课程
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------1 / 5语言学chapter 3 phonetics and phonology 教材课程Chapter 3 Phonetics and Phonology Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in language, and to explain the variations that occur. Relationship: Phonetics Phonology Both are concerned with the same aspect of language---the speech sounds. the study of all possible speech sounds as individuals the study of the rules that govern the combination of those sounds into meaningful units. focuses on chaos focuses on order, system Part 1 Phonetics Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. (发声语音学) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. （声学语音学） Perceptual or auditory phonetics is concerned with of theperception of speech sounds. （感知语音学 / 听觉语音学） 2.1.2ptedusing a different letter for each distinguishable speech sounds.and linguists. 2.2 Consonants and Vowels Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. A vowel is produced without such obstruction so that air escape in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose. 2.2.1 Consonants 2.2.1.1 The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished. Stop / plosive (塞音/爆破音) in the production of a plosive, the air-stream is obstructed completely both in the oral and nasal tracts, so that when the closure in the oral tract is suddenly released, the compressed air rushes out and produces an explosive sound. [p, b, t, d, k, g] Nasal（鼻音） in the production of a nasal, the air-stream is completely obstructed in the oral tract but not in the nasal tract (the soft palate is lowered), so that the air passes through the nose freely. [m, n, ŋ] Fricative (擦音) in the production of a fricative two vocal organs are brought very close together (but not to the extent of touching each other to form a closure) so that the airstream forcing its way through the resulting narrowing becomes turbulent, and this turbulence is heard as a fricative noise. [f, v, , , s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h] Lateral/Liquid （边音）－---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------in the production of a lateral the airstream is obstructed along the center of the oral tract, but one or both sides of the tongue are away from the roof of the mouth, so that the air can go through the mouth laterally. [l] is the only lateral in English. Affricative （塞擦音） Affricatives involve more than one of these manners of articulation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation. [t] [dЗ] 2.2.1.2 The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Labial (双唇音) the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the two lips, such as in the production of [p, b, m] of the English words pie, buy, my. Labiodental (唇齿音) the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the lower lip and the upper front teeth, such as in the production of [f, v] of the English words fie, vie. Interdental（齿音） the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth, such as in the production of [, ] of the English words thigh, thy. Alveolar ( 齿龈音) the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge, such as the production of [t, d, l, n, s, z] of the English words tie, die, lie, nigh, sigh, zyme.3 / 5Palatal （硬腭音）sounds are made with the front of the tongueand the hard palate. The only English sound made here is [j]. Velar （软腭音）：Velars are made with the back of the tongue and the velum. Examples in English are velar stops [k, g], and velar nasal [ŋ] . the description of consonants: (v)+p (lace) + m (anner) [p] [b] [s] [z] [] [] [m] [n] voiceless bilabial stop voiced bilabial stop voiceless alveolar fricative voiced alveolar fricative voiceless dental fricative voiced dental fricative voiced bilabial nasal voiced alveolar nasal [t, d] voiceless voiced 2.2.2 Vowels Cardinal vowels (基本元音): as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, area set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. monophthong vowels: A monophthong is a pure vowel sound, one whose articulation at both beginning and end is relatively fixed, and which does not glide up or down towards a new positionof articulation. diphthong vowels: A diphthong ( diphthongos, literally two sounds or two tones), also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. [i] [i:] [ə] [ə:] [ɔ] [ɔ:] [u] [u:] [ʌ] [ɑ:]---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ [e] [] [ei] [ai] [ɔi] [au] [əu] [iə] [ɛə] [uə] triphthong vowel: (literally with three sounds, or with three tones) If two movements from one element to a second, then from the second to the third of the tongue are involved, the combing vowels are called triphthongs. 2.2.3 The Sounds of English RP GA tenseness: the description of vowels: h + p + t / l + r / u the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) lip-rounding (round vs. unrounded) P47 48 [i:] [ɔ] [u] high front tense unrounded vowel low back lax rounded vowel high back lax rounded vowel [ə] mid central lax unrounded vowel5 / 5。
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。
定义区别-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。
-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。
---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。
它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。
---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。
4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。
定义：①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。
英语语言学第二章讲课
Phonetics ＆ Phonology
英语语言学第二章讲课
1. Inroduction
(1) Phonetics and phonology are very useful.
With some phonetic knowledge we can give a
much more precise description to speech sounds.
英语语言学第二章讲课
Broad transcription 宽式标音: the transcription
with letter-symbols only.
Narrow transcription 严式标音: the transcription
with letter-symbols together with the diacritics 变音符. Diacritics are a set of symbols added to
英语语言学第二章讲课
Three branches of phonetics: (1) Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 is the study
of how speech sounds are produced. (2) Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 studies how
英语语言学第二章讲课
3. IPA and broad vs. narrow transcription
The international phonetic alphabet﹙IPA﹚system was devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1988 and has undergone a number of revision since then. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound. The application of the phonetic symbols is universal to all languages.
英语语言学分支
英语语言学分支语言学是研究语言的科学，包括多个分支，每个分支关注语言的不同方面。
以下是一些主要的英语语言学分支：1. 音韵学（Phonetics and Phonology）：研究语音的产生、传播和接收，以及语音单位在语言中的组合和分布。
音韵学关注语音的物理性质和声学特征。
2. 形态学（Morphology）：研究语言中的词的内部结构和形态变化。
形态学关注单词如何形成，以及单词内部构建的规则。
3. 句法学（Syntax）：研究句子的结构，包括词与词之间的关系，以及句子的组成方式。
句法学关注语法规则是如何用来生成合乎语法规范的句子的。
4. 语义学（Semantics）：研究词和句子的意义。
语义学关注语言中词汇和句法单位的意义，以及它们如何组合形成合适的语言表达。
5. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言使用的上下文依赖性和语境中的语言交际。
语用学关注说话者和听话者之间的信息传递，以及言语行为在特定情境中的作用。
6. 社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）：研究语言和社会之间的关系。
社会语言学关注方言、语言变异、语言政策等与社会因素相关的语言现象。
7. 心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）：研究语言的心理过程，包括语言习得、语言记忆、语言理解等。
心理语言学关注语言在认知过程中的作用。
8. 历史语言学（Historical Linguistics）：研究语言的历史演变和变化。
历史语言学关注语言家族、语言演化、语言接触等方面的变化。
9. 比较语言学（Comparative Linguistics）：研究不同语言之间的相似性和差异。
比较语言学关注语言之间的语法结构、词汇和语音的比较。
这些分支共同构成了语言学的广阔领域，每个分支都有其独特的研究对象和方法。
phonetics and phonology全
The manner of articulation: refers to the type of stricture involved in the production of a consonant (the particular way the airstream is obstructed)
11 places of articulation
Places of articulation (P32, 33)
(1) Bilabial 双唇音 [p], [b], [m], [w] (2) Labio-dental 唇齿音 [f], [v] (3) Dental 齿音 [θ],[ ] (4) Alveolar 齿龈音
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced产生, transmitted传递, and perceived感知.
Subfields in phonetics
Articulatory Phonetics ( 发 音 语 音 学 ) is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics (声学语音学)is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics (听觉语音 学)is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
The place of articulation: where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air. (the place of obstruction)
第三讲 phonetics and phonology
The
distinction between / ph / and /p/ does not make a difference between words in English.
3) Classifications of speech sounds
The English spoken sounds, like the sounds of any other language, are generally divided into two main classes: vowels and consonants. Vowels are sounds produced without obstruction of the air stream in the mouth. In producing vowels, there is vibration of the vocal cords. So all vowels are voiced. Consonants are sounds produced by some form of obstruction of the air stream and may be either voiced or voiceless.
The larynx
The
upper part of the windpipe in the passage to the lungs is the larynx. In the larynx are the vocal cords. They look like two lips and run in a horizontal direction from back to front. The space between them is called the “glottis”. They may be kept wide apart, closed lightly or held tightly.
Chapter Two phonetics and phonology
------
tʃ, dʒ
Classification 1. Monophthongs: individual vowels 2. Diphthongs: vowels which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. [ei, ai, au, əu, oi, iə, eə, uə]
声学语音学
Auditory phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds. 听觉语音学
Organs of speech
A. The pharyngeal cavity: 13 windpipe, 12 glottis/vocal cords, 11 pharyngeal cavity B. The oral cavity: 1/2 lips, 3/4 teeth, 5 teeth ridge(alveolus), 6 hard palate,7 soft palate (velum), 14 uvula, 8 tip of tongue, 9 blade of tongue, 10 back of tongue C. Nasal cavity: 15
1. IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet): A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The present one mainly derives from one developed in the 1920 by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones (1881-1967), revised in 1993, corrected (updated) in 1996.
Phonetics and Phonology
音系学研究支配语音分布和排列的规则以及 音节的形式
Similarities
语音学（Phonetics）以人类所有语言的语音
为研究对象，分析其成份和结构，探讨其问 题和特点，以及变化和发展的规律，并提出 各种语音描写、分类和转写的方法。 与之相关，专门研究一种语言中语音的组合 规律的学科，叫做音系学（Phonology）。 音系学与语音学是语音研究上的两个分工， 它们有直接的联系。
In phonology, phonemic transcription is placed between slant lines( / /).
Summary
Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with the same aspect of language—the speech sounds. But they approach the subject from two different points of view. is general, descriptive and classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are. Phonology is concerned with the sound system of language; it studies the functioning of the speech sounds.
（2）Phonology: Progressive assimilation顺同化 Regressive assimilation逆同化
I.from the definition从定义的角度来看 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with the same aspects of language - the speech sounds II.从研究发音联系上看 Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced transmitted, and 语音学研究语音的发生、传递和 III. 在某些领域，他们研究的实质是相同的，但是它 phonetics theperceived. tip舌尖--------coronal 舌冠音 phonology 感知。 们有各自不同的表达方式 the blade舌叶。 ----coronal舌冠音
声学（Phonics），语音学（phonetics）还是音韵学（phonology）？有什么不同？
声学（Phonics），语音学（phonetics）还是音韵学（phonology）？有什么不同？2018-01-25发音教学是对所有教师的挑战。
它包括技术知识的雷区，英语口音和变体的困惑。
当涉及到阅读时，又要与数百年来英语所经历的许多复杂的拼写规则做斗争。
为了在课堂上正确掌握英语的发音，重要的是对发音机制的不同方面进行定义。
如果能够在不同层面上了解英语的发音，再结合教学目的，我们将有更广泛的教学选择。
首先，语音学（phonetics）是对人类语言的声音做的研究。
这意味着对地球上每种语言所产生的所有声音进行分类。
语音学在语言教学中唯一的方面就是学习者由于母语的声音干扰而认为比较难的声音。
思考一下学习者母语的声音有助于我们与英语的声音进行比较，并努力寻找一系列可能导致跨语言问题的目标声音。
相比之下，音韵学（phonology）是某一种特定语言的声音研究。
每种语言都有自己的一套声音（或音素），它们可以组合起来对该语言的任何词汇发音。
通过考察不同语言的音韵学（如上所述），我们可以思索为什么我们的学生在发出特定的英语中的声音方面有问题。
一个好的起点是在维基百科上搜索（语言）音韵学，例如，粤语或西班牙语。
查看不同语言音韵学的相似和差异可以帮助我们发现诸如“母语转移”这样的问题。
在这种情况下，学习者的母语中的声音转移到英语中，给听者带来实际问题（例如著名的日语和韩语人士的英语l / r 混淆：日语音韵学包含一个介于英语/ l /和/ r /声音之间的音素，所以如果声音显示为/ l /或/ r /，则没有实际意义上的差别。
这个假设被转化到英语，这意味着“长（long）”和“错（wrong）”这两个词之间的差异可能不会在学习者的英语学习中自动产生。
对学习者而言，另一个音韵学问题可能是英语声音的物理复杂性，这在学习者的母语中是不存在的。
例如，很少有语言中包含“th”的声音，例如“there”和“think”。
这些声音的形成方式，迫使空气通过舌头和牙齿是很费力的，甚至在某些文化中可能会被视为粗鲁（伸出舌头）。
Chapter 2 Phonetics and__ phonology
Stop (or Plosive)(塞音) __ Oral & Nasal
Fricative（擦音） (Median) Approximant（通音）
Lateral (Approximant)（边音）
Trill（颤音）
Tap(触音) or Flap（闪音）
Affricate（塞擦音）
Chapter Three Phonetics & phonology
We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.
Assimilation
Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization
are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. The process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound is called assimilation. For example, im before impossible.
1.Phonetics
Phonetics studies how speech sounds
are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
Chapter 2 语言学-Phonetics and phonology
2.2 Vowels
Cardinal Vowels, as exhibited by the
vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts.
the production of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
9
Its main principles were that
there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and
that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears. The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.
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第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。
2.2 发音机制语音是由各种发音器官（speech organ）而产生的。
因此，正确理解语音需要掌握相关的发音系统知识。
人体发声器官（见《语言学概论》杨忠主编，高等教育出版社2002：15）使流出的气流产生各种各样的变化，从而产生不同的音。
肺部的气流是发声的原动力。
肺部扩大时，空气从外流入，形成吸气音（ingressive sounds）。
肺部收缩时，气流流经气管(trachea)、喉头（larynx）、咽腔（pharyngeal cavity）再经口腔(oral cavity)或鼻腔(nasal cavity) 排除，形成呼气音(egressive sounds)。
喉头是发声源。
喉头上通咽腔，下接气管(trachea/windpipe)。
喉头中间的两片富有弹性的薄膜叫声带(vocal cords)。
声带可以拉紧或放松，也可以闭合和开放，开放时形成声门(glottis)。
由声带控制的声门决定发出的音是清音(voiceless) 还是浊音(voiced)。
大部分发音器官都在口腔中。
它们是小舌(uvula)、软腭(soft palate)、硬腭(hard palate)、齿龈(alveolar ridge)、牙齿(teeth)、双唇（lips）和舌头(tongue)。
其中只有小舌和舌头是可弯曲或滑动的。
2.3 语音描写语音学家描写语音时所使用的独立语音单位被称为音段（segments），例如[k], [e], [t], [s]。
标音的符号系统有很多，但普遍使用的是国际音标（IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet）。
自1888年以来，国际音标不断改进，试图用一个音标来代表人类言语的一个音。
为了将语音标记和语言拼写系统区分开来，语言学家把语音符号放在[ ]中。
音标不但使语音学家始终如一地对语言的声音进行正确地描写，而且还可以帮助语言教师和语言学习者正确教授和掌握发音。
英语教科书和字典一般都采用国际音标。
在描写语音时，为了体现语音的细微差异，语言学使用更为详细的标音方法，有时被称为窄式记音（narrow transcription）。
在窄式记音中，一些较小符号经常被附加在音标上，如鼻化符[ ˘]、重音符[ˊ]等。
这些改变音值的较小记号叫做次音符（diacritic）。
2.4 英语辅音描写根据语音的生理和物理属性，音段分为元音（vowels）和辅音(consonants) 两类。
他们的主要区别是：发元音时，发音器官不形成阻碍，气流可以畅通无阻地经口腔或鼻腔流出；发辅音时，发音器官某一部位形成阻碍，气流必须克服阻碍才能通过。
辅音可以根据发音部位(places of articulation)、发音方式(manners of articulation) 和浊音化(voicing) 进行分类和描写。
发音部位是指气流产生声音时形成阻碍的每一个点。
英语辅音的发音部位主要是唇、口腔和声门。
具体来说，辅音可以分为双唇音（bilabials）、唇齿音(labiodentals)、齿间音(interdentals)、齿龈音(alveolars)、硬腭音(palatals)、软腭音(velars) 和喉音(glottal)。
双唇音：双唇产生的音。
英语的双唇音包括[p] [b] [m] [w]。
唇齿音：由下唇和上齿产生的音。
英语的唇齿音包括[f]和[v]。
齿间音：舌尖放在上下齿之间发出的音。
英语的齿间音包括[θ]和[ð]。
齿龈音：舌尖接触上齿龈发出的音。
英语的齿龈音包括[t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [r] [n]。
软腭音：舌的前部和硬腭接触产生的音。
英语的硬腭音包括[⎰] [з] [t∫] [do] [j]。
硬腭音：舌的后部和软腭接触产生的音。
英语的软腭音包括[k] [ɡ] [ŋ]。
喉音：舌根和咽腔产生的音。
英语中只有[h]是喉音。
发音方式是指发音时气流受到阻碍的情况，即是全部受阻还是部分受阻。
根据发音方式，辅音可以分为爆破音（stops）、摩擦音(fricatives)、破擦音(affricates)、流音(liquids)、半元音（glides）和鼻音(nasals)。
爆破音：发音器官完全关闭，导致气流无法从口中流出，然后再突然放出气流产生的音。
英语的爆破音包括[p][b] [t] [d] [k] [ɡ]。
摩擦音：两个发音器官接触后，导致气流部分受阻，产生气流的摩擦而形成的音。
英语的摩擦音包括[f] [v][ θ] [ð][s] [z] [⎰] [з] [h]。
破擦音：气流完全受阻后再慢慢松开而产生的音。
英语的破擦音包括[t⎰] [dз]。
在早期出版的教科书中，[tr] [dr] [ts][tz] 都被称为破擦音。
但在现代语言学中他们并不是单个音段，因为[tr] [dr]只出现在元音前，[ts] [tz]只出现在单词的词尾。
所以，现代语言学家把他们看作是辅音丛。
流音：气流在口腔中部受阻，并流经舌的两侧或流经舌尖和齿龈槽而产生的音。
英语的流音包括[l] [r]。
半元音：半元音又称滑音。
发半元音时气流受阻的程度非常弱。
英语中的半元音包括[j] [w]。
在苏格兰和美国英语中，以wh-开头的单词，通常被发成[ ŵ]，类似[hw]的音。
鼻音：气流在口腔中受阻，软腭下降使气流通过鼻腔产生的音。
英语的鼻音包括[m] [n] [ŋ]。
浊音化是指当气流产生声音时声带震动的情况。
当声带贴近但并不紧紧闭合时，流经的气流引起震动形成的语音叫做浊音。
当声带分离时，气流容易通过。
由此产生的语音叫做清音。
所有的元音都是浊音。
根据浊音化，辅音分为清辅音(voiceless consonants)和浊辅音(voiced consonants)。
我们可以根据发音部位、发音方式和浊音化对单个辅音进行描写。
例如，[v]被描写为voiced labiodental fricative，[k]被描写为voiceless velar stop。
2.5 英语元音描写在发元音时，没有类似发辅音时产生的气流受阻的现象，因此，描写元音不能沿用描写辅音的方法。
语言学家通常依据以下四个原则对元音进行描写：（1）软腭的位置——发口腔元音时抬升, 发鼻化元音是下降; （2）舌头抬升的部位---- 前、中、后；（3）唇的开合度——唇的圆或展的不同程度；（4）声带收紧状态---- 肌肉紧张或松弛。
元音分为单元音(simple vowels/monophthongs) 和双元音(diphthongs) 两类。
发单元音时，音质不发生任何变化，但发双元音时音质会因为舌位的滑动而产生变化。
比如，发双元音[uə]时，舌位由[u]向[ə]滑动。
双元音共有8个，分别以[ə]、[i]、[u]为结尾：[iə]、[εə]、[uə]、[ai]、[ei]、[i]、[əu]、[au].根据舌位, 单元音被分为前、中、后三类。
同一位置的单元音可以根据其舌位的高低、紧张或松弛以及是否圆唇等进行进一步的区分。
我们把英语元音的这些特征归入两个范畴，一个是有这个特征的，另一个是没有这个特征。
这种二分特征有两种规格，计做“+”和“-”。
2.6 语音特征和自然类语音的描写以音段为单位。
我们可以从发音部位，发音方式、浊音化、舌位高低、是否圆唇和紧张状况等方面对单个音段进行描写。
这种描写实际上就是对语音特征的标记。
例如[g]具有[+voiced][+velar][+stop]的特征，而其他音段也许具有以上三个特征中的一个或两个，但绝对没有完全具有这三个特征的其他音段。
[u:]具有[+high][+back][+round][+tense]的特征，而[u]虽然具有[+high][+back][+round]的三个特征，却不具有[+tense]的特征。
语音自然类是指具有相同语音特征的一组语音。
如[b][z][dз][з]这组音属于[+voiced]类，而[p][s][t][f]这组音属于[-voiced]类。
[+high]这个语音特征具体指[i:][i][u:][u]，而[-high][-low]是指[ə:][ə] [][]。
每个语音特征所包含音段的数目不等，却构成了等级。
有些特征指的是小类，有的却是大类。
例如：[+liguid]只包括两个流音，但前音[+anterior]却包括唇音、唇齿音、齿间音和软腭音等, 连续音[+continuant]包括所有的摩擦音、流音和滑音。
咝音[+sibilant]包括[s][z][⎰][з] [t⎰] [dз]六个音段。
较大自然类特征可以跨越辅音—元音的界限。
音节音[+syllabic]代表了所有元音和辅音[m][n][l]（在不含元音的词尾音节中，如orgasm, nation, bottle等）。
响音[+sonorant]代表了所有元音，鼻音、流音和半元音共同具有的特征。
I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets:( ) 1. All vowels are voiced.( ) 2. [+sonarant] is only shared by all the vowels.( ) 3. Monophthongs and diphthongs are two major types of vowels.( ) 4. Sounds which are produced with both the upper lip and the lower lip are called bilabials.( ) 5.Acoustic phonetics focuses on the production of sounds froma physiological perspective.II. Choose the best answer among a, b, c or d, and put the letter you choose in the brackets:( ) 1. The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is ___________.A. International Phonetic SymbolB. International Phonetic AlphabetC. Narrow TranscriptionD. Wide Transcription ( ) 2.When the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, the sound produced is described as __________.A. alveolarB. palatalC. velarD. interdental( ) 3. In more detailed transcription (sometimes refered to as narrow transcription), a sound may be transcribed with asymbol to which a smaller symbol is added in order tomark the finer distinctions. The smaller one is called____________.A. segmentB. phonetic symbolC. markerD. diacritic( ) 4. ___________ is the future found in [s] [z] ]. [⎰][з] [t⎰] [dз]A. [+continuant]B. [+sonorant]C. [+sibilant]D. [+anterior] ( ) 5. ________ possesses the features: [+high] [+back] [+round] [-tense]A.[u ] B [u:] C. [ɑ:]D. []III. Write the articulatory description of the following phonetic symbols:1. [ b ]2. [ n ]3. [ w ]4. [ v ]5. [ t ]6. [ i:]7. [ θ]8. [u:]9. [ æ]10 [ə:]IV. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description:1. bilabial stops [ ]2. voiced alveolar stops [ ]3. velar nasal [ ]4. bilabial nasal [ ]5. central vowels [ ]6. alveolar fricatives [ ]7. high back vowels [ ]8. voiced interdental [ ]9. palatal glide [ ]10 voiceless palatal affricate [ ] VII. How are consonants described in terms of manners of articulation?第三章音位学一、导读3.1 音位学音位学（phonology）和语音学一样都是对语音的研究，但两者研究的视角却不同。