semantics
语言学知识_语义学
语言学知识_语义学语义学一．语义学（Semantics）的定义：研究语言单位的意义，尤其是词语和句子的意义。
二．词汇意义（Lexical Meaning）：1）意义与指称（sense and reference）：意义与指称是语言研究中的两个术语，它们之间既相互联系，又相互区别。
意义（sense）是一系列抽象语义特征的集合，与语境无关，可以在字典中查到。
而指称（reference）是语言形式在现实物质世界中所指的事物；它涉及语言形式与非语言的现实世界之间的关系。
意义与指称是意义的两个相关但不同的方面，例如“morning star”和“evening star”的意义虽然不同，但其指称一样，都指代天空中的同一颗星星。
2）外延意义（denotative meaning）：指词语所指称的外部世界的事物、状态、抽象情感。
例如：dog(狗)的外延意义是指“一种四肢、有毛、会汪汪叫的哺乳动物”，这种意义在任何国家、任何时代都不会改变。
3）内涵意义（connotative meaning）：指源于语言使用者的个人经历、情感、评价、语境等外部因素的意义。
例如dragon一词，在汉语文化中象征着“高贵”、“权利”，但在某些英语国家文化中，其内涵意义则为“残暴”和“邪恶”。
三．意义关系（Sense Relationship）：1）同义关系（Synonymy）：方言同义词（Dialectal synonyms）：意义相同但方言有差异的词，例如：autumn（BrE）= fall（ArE）。
文体同义词（Stylistic synonyms）：意义相同但在文体上或者正式程度上有差别的词，例如：buy（较为随意）——purchase（较为正式）。
搭配同义词（Collocational synonyms）：指意义上相同，但是搭配不相同的词。
例如：provide和supply，provide sth. for sb.和supply sth. to sb.在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的同义词（Synonyms with different emotive or evaluative meaning）：意义相同，但在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的词，例如：politician （政客）含贬义色彩，statesmen（政治家）含褒义色彩。
语言学导论-第5章Semantics
Lexical meaning: Reference & Sense
Reference 指称:
what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; dealing with the relationship between language and the world.
“dog”:
4-legged mammal, hairy, canine, definitely loyal
(newsworthy)
What is Meaning?
Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Linguistic views:
The conceptualist view 概念论
The semantic triangle 语义三角
(Ogden & Richards 1923) Thought/Reference 思想/指称 (concept)
“dog”
Symbol/Form 符号/形式 (word/phrase/sentence)
Meaning & Language: Semantics
Definition
Semantics: the study of meaning in language.
It deals with the meaning of words (lexical semantics). And how meaning of sentences (compositional semantics) is derived from words.
英语语义学 Semantics
SemanticsSemanticsSemantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Semantics = Theory of MeaningIts goal is to reveal how language are matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language.Lexical semantics—the study of word meanings. it deals not only with the meanings of individual words but also the relationship between the meanings of different words.Compositional semantics—is concerned exclusively with the meanings of phrases and sentences.History of Semantics1893 - French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖.1897 – Breal first use it as the science of meaning.1900 – Its English version came out.1980s – semantics began to be introduced into China.One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning(1923). Semantic Triangle 语义三角Concept（meaning）refers tosymbolizesSymbol Thing（word）（referent）stands forThe Referential Theory 指称论Concept (Meaning): the mental image, the abstraction or generalization of objects of the same kind.Referent (Thing): the physical entity or actual object, event, idea or whatever if denoted by a word, phrase or expression.Concept VS. Referent (Thing)A referent may exist in the physical world.The concept is abstracted from the referent and labeled by a word.Sense 语义Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context.It’s abstract and de-contextualized.Sense RelationsSense relations between wordsWords are in different sense relations with each other.There are generally 5 kinds of sense relations:1) synonymy 同义2) antonymy 反义3) hyponymy 上下义4) polysemy 一词多义5) homonymy 同音同形异义1. SynonymyIt is the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.2. AntonymyIt is the oppositeness of meaning.Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymy (relational opposites)Gradable antonymy 分级反义词good/ bad, long /short, narrow/ wideThe members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.Not good≠badHot ---warm---cool---coldComplementary antonymy 互补反义词alive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girlIt is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.Converse antonymy 换位反义词(relational opposites关系对立反义词)buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after,teacher/ student, above /belowThe members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.ExerciseClassify the following pairs of antonyms:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymymarried-single male-female hot-coldgive-take big-small awake-asleepnorth-south logical-illogical win-losebuy-sell doctor-patient above-below3. Hyponymy上下义关系It is the sense relation between two words in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word.HyponymyMusical instruments ---piano flute guitar violin tuba tromboneFish---snapper salmon bass sole troutSalmon---chinook spring coho king sockey4. PolysemyA word is polysemic if it has more than one meaning.Wood:family treea geographical area with many trees5. HomonymyWhen two or more words are the same in pronunciation or in spelling or in both but different in meaning, they are called homonyms.3 types of homonyms:perfect homonyms(同音同形异义词)homographs（同形异义词）homophones (同音异义词).Perfect homonymsPerfect homonyms are words which are the same in both pronunciation and spelling but different in meaning.bank (银行、河岸)bear (容忍、生（孩子）)sound (声音、完美的)HomographsHomographs are words which are the same in spelling, but different in pronunciation and meaning."bow" /bəʊ/ -----"弓―"bow" /bau/ -----"鞠躬"HomophonesHomophones are words which are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling and meaning.tail / taleto / two / toopair / pearsee / seaI / eyepiece / peace。
chapter5semantics语言学
chapter5semantics语言学语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子意义的研究。
1.“意义”的意义G.Leech提出7种意义：概念意义，内涵意义，社会意义，感情意义，反射意义，搭配意义，主题意义。
G.Leech的概念意义包括两个方面：涵义和指称。
涵义和指称的区别类似内涵与外延：前者指一个实体的抽象属性，后者指拥有这些属性的具体实体。
每个单词都有涵义，即概念意义，否则他们无法使用或理解，但并非每个单词都有指称。
2.指称论（命名论）：该理论把词语意义与词所指或词所代表的事物联系起来。
该理论对于解释专有名词或在现实中有所指的名词时很有效。
但其无法指称抽象概念。
有时同一东西会有不同词语的表达。
3.概念论。
代表是语义三角说。
该理论认为，词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，而是以抽象的概念为中介。
4，语境论认为应该在具体语境中研究词的意义. 语境包括情景语境和上下文两种。
5.行为主义理论认为词的意义是说话者说话得情景及听话人的反应6.意义关系词语词之间的主要意义关系：相同关系，相反关系，包含关系a.同义关系。
完全同义关系很少，所谓的同一都依赖语境，并总在某方面不同。
（方言，内涵，文体等）b.反义关系主要包括：等级反义关系，互补反义关系，关系反义关系。
1）等级反义的特点：第一，否定一方并不必然是肯定另一方，还有中间状态；第二，没有绝对评判标准，标准随对象而改变。
第三，通常用其中表示较高程度的词来覆盖整个量级。
覆盖性词被称为“无标记的”，即一般性的；被覆盖词被称为“有标记的”，即特殊的。
一般使用覆盖性词语。
一旦使用被覆盖词语，表示有某种特殊的、不一般的情况。
第四，可用very修饰，可有比较级最高级2）互补反义关系，第一，肯定一方意味着否定另一方。
反之亦然。
第二，不用very修饰，没有比较级最高级。
第三，评判标准绝对。
没有覆盖性词语3）关系（反向）反义关系，表现两个实体间的一种反向关系，不构成肯否定对立。
一个预设着另一个的存在。
语言学知识_语用学
语用学一．语用学（Pragmatics）的定义：语用学是用以研究语言使用者如何使用句子成功进行交际的学问。
语用学（Pragmatics）与语义学（Semantics）虽然都涉及对语言意义的研究，但是语义学（Semantics）只是将语言视作一个独立的系统来研究，而语用学（Pragmatics）则是将语言置于语境（context）之中。
所以，语用学（Pragmatics）与语义学（Semantics）本质区别在于是否将语境（context）因素纳入考量范围之内。
二．句子意义与话语意义（Sentence Meaning Vs. Utterance Meaning）：1) 句子意义（Sentence Meaning）：句子意义指的是独立于语境的句子本身所传达的字面意义。
2）话语意义（Utterance Meaning）：话语意义指的是将句子的意义置于特定语境中以表达言者某种意图的意义。
三．指示现象（Deixis）：指示现象指的是说话人利用语言形式表达说话内容所涉及的人员、事物、时间、地点等方面。
指示现象是连接语言形式及其发生语境的桥梁。
指示语主要分为以下三类：1）人称指示语（person deixis）：用于表达言语交际的参与者。
2）空间指示语（spatial deixis）：用于指代言语活动中所涉及的人、物或事的相对位置。
3）时间指示语（temporal deixis）：用于表达言语交际活动中的时间点和时间段。
四．言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）：1) 约翰·奥斯汀（John Austin）的言语行为模式：英国哲学家约翰·奥斯汀（John Austin）于20世纪50年代提出的言语行为模式区分了言有所述（constative）和言有所为（performative）。
随后，他又对原先的理论进行了发展，放弃了言有所述（constative）和言有所为（performative）的区分，发展出了新的言语行为模式。
语言学整理的资料Chapter 5 semantics
Chapter 51.Semantics:自测： __________ can be defined as the study of meaning.术语：Semantics 语义学解释：语义学可以简单的定义为对意义的研究。
术语：semantics is the study of meaning of linguistics units, words and sentences in particular.语义学是对语言单位尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
解释：Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other words, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. 语义学被定义为对意义的研究，然而，却不仅仅是对语言的意义研究。
语义学回答了“这句话有什么意义”这样的问题。
换句话说，它研究语境外词语和句子的传统意义。
2.Sense:自测：Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.术语：Sense 涵义解释：涵义指一个实体的抽象属性。
semantics知识点总结
semantics知识点总结Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It is concerned with how words and sentences are interpreted, how meaning is assigned to linguistic expressions, and how meaning is inferred from language. In this summary, we will explore some key concepts and topics in semantics, including the following:1. Meaning and reference2. Sense and reference3. Truth-conditional semantics4. Lexical semantics5. Compositional semantics6. Pragmatics and semantics7. Ambiguity and vagueness8. Semantic changeMeaning and referenceMeaning is a fundamental concept in semantics. It refers to the content or interpretation that is associated with a linguistic expression. The study of meaning in linguistics is concerned with understanding how meaning is established and conveyed in language. Reference, on the other hand, is the relationship between a linguistic expression and the real world entities to which it refers. For example, the word "dog" refers to the concept of a four-legged animal that is commonly kept as a pet. The study of reference in semantics is concerned with understanding how words and sentences refer to objects and entities in the world.Sense and referenceThe distinction between sense and reference is an important concept in semantics. Sense refers to the meaning or concept associated with a linguistic expression, while reference refers to the real world entities to which a linguistic expression refers. For example, the words "morning star" and "evening star" have the same reference - the planet Venus - but different senses, as they are used to describe the planet at different times of the day. Frege, a prominent philosopher of language, introduced this important distinction in his work on semantics.Truth-conditional semanticsTruth-conditional semantics is an approach to semantics that seeks to understand meaning in terms of truth conditions. According to this view, the meaning of a sentence isdetermined by the conditions under which it would be true or false. For example, the meaning of the sentence "The cat is on the mat" is determined by the conditions under which this statement would be true - i.e. if there is a cat on the mat. Truth-conditional semantics has been influential in the development of formal semantics, and it provides a formal framework for analyzing meaning in natural language.Lexical semanticsLexical semantics is the study of meaning at the level of words and lexical items. It is concerned with understanding the meanings of individual words, as well as the relationships between words in a language. Lexical semantics examines how words are related to each other in terms of synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and other semantic relationships. It also explores the different senses and meanings that a word can have, and how these meanings are related to each other. Lexical semantics plays a crucial role in understanding the meaning of sentences and discourse.Compositional semanticsCompositional semantics is the study of how the meanings of words and sentences are combined to create complex meanings. It seeks to understand how the meanings of individual words are combined in sentences to produce the overall meaning of a sentence or utterance. Compositional semantics is concerned with understanding the rules and principles that govern the composition of meaning in natural language. It also explores the relationship between syntax and semantics, and how the structure of sentences contributes to the interpretation of meaning.Pragmatics and semanticsPragmatics is the study of how language is used in context, and how meaning is influenced by the context of language use. Pragmatics is closely related to semantics, but it focuses on the use of language in communication, and how meaning is affected by factors such as the speaker's intentions, the hearer's inferences, and the context in which the language is used. While semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of linguistic expressions, pragmatics is concerned with the implied meaning that arises from the use of language in context.Ambiguity and vaguenessAmbiguity and vagueness are common phenomena in natural language, and they pose challenges for semantic analysis. Ambiguity refers to situations where a linguistic expression has multiple possible meanings, and it is unclear which meaning is intended. For example, the word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the edge of a river. Vagueness, on the other hand, refers to situations where the boundaries of a linguistic expression are unclear or indistinct. For example, the word "tall" is vague because it is not always clear what height qualifies as "tall". Semantics seeks to understand how ambiguity and vagueness arise in language, and how they can be resolved or managed in communication.Semantic changeSemantic change refers to the process by which the meanings of words and linguistic expressions evolve over time. Over the course of history, languages undergo semantic change, as words acquire new meanings, lose old meanings, or change in their semantic associations. Semantic change can occur through processes such as metaphor, metonymy, broadening, narrowing, and generalization. Understanding semantic change is important for the study of historical linguistics and the diachronic analysis of language.ConclusionSemantics is a rich and complex area of study that plays a fundamental role in understanding the meaning of language. It encompasses a wide range of topics and concepts, and it has important implications for fields such as philosophy of language, cognitive science, and natural language processing. By exploring the key concepts and topics in semantics, we can gain valuable insights into how meaning is established and conveyed in language, and how we can analyze and understand the rich complexity of linguistic expressions.。
Chapter-5-Semantics(语义学)
• Three types of connotative meanings: • positive(褒义), neutral(中性),negative(贬义)
• A good meal, • A good car, • A good movie, • a good road, • A good child, • good weather • A good umbrella
• A fast road, • a fast typist • A fast book • A fast decision.
the hearer (stimulus—response)
Jill is hungry and wants Jack to pick the
apple for her from the tree:
Jill
Jack
• S-------------r…….s---------------R
• 证实论：一个句子只有得到经验证实才有 意义：John is outside。
Chapter 5 Semantics(语义学）
5.1 what is semantics
• Semantics（语义学）is the study of meaning.
• What is meaning? Love, friendship， truth, fact, democracy, good, chair, ghost, unicorn；真善美，justice, soul
新编简明英语语言学Chapter5Semantics语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学、定义1. semantics 语义学：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning 意义研究的不同观点521 The naming theory命名论(by 希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论：Words are just names or labels for thin gs词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory 局限性：1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object：eg. jump, quickly, pretty, an d, i n,hearted, thi nk, hard, slowly …)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world： ghost,grago n, un icorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse 刺激，这样的抽象概念。
语言学知识_语义学
语义学一．语义学（Semantics）的定义：研究语言单位的意义，尤其是词语和句子的意义。
二．词汇意义（Lexical Meaning）：1）意义与指称（sense and reference）：意义与指称是语言研究中的两个术语，它们之间既相互联系，又相互区别。
意义（sense）是一系列抽象语义特征的集合，与语境无关，可以在字典中查到。
而指称（reference）是语言形式在现实物质世界中所指的事物；它涉及语言形式与非语言的现实世界之间的关系。
意义与指称是意义的两个相关但不同的方面，例如“morning star”和“evening star”的意义虽然不同，但其指称一样，都指代天空中的同一颗星星。
2）外延意义（denotative meaning）：指词语所指称的外部世界的事物、状态、抽象情感。
例如：dog(狗)的外延意义是指“一种四肢、有毛、会汪汪叫的哺乳动物”，这种意义在任何国家、任何时代都不会改变。
3）内涵意义（connotative meaning）：指源于语言使用者的个人经历、情感、评价、语境等外部因素的意义。
例如dragon一词，在汉语文化中象征着“高贵”、“权利”，但在某些英语国家文化中，其内涵意义则为“残暴”和“邪恶”。
三．意义关系（Sense Relationship）：1）同义关系（Synonymy）：方言同义词（Dialectal synonyms）：意义相同但方言有差异的词，例如：autumn（BrE）= fall（ArE）。
文体同义词（Stylistic synonyms）：意义相同但在文体上或者正式程度上有差别的词，例如：buy（较为随意）——purchase（较为正式）。
搭配同义词（Collocational synonyms）：指意义上相同，但是搭配不相同的词。
例如：provide和supply，provide sth. for sb.和supply sth. to sb.在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的同义词（Synonyms with different emotive or evaluative meaning）：意义相同，但在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的词，例如：politician （政客）含贬义色彩，statesmen（政治家）含褒义色彩。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第5-6章
Chapter 5 Meaning1. Semantics(语义学)Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
)2. Meanings of “meaning”1). Meaning:Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.（意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。
）2). Connotation: （内涵）Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes.(内涵指的是一个词所指称的实体的特征。
)3). Denotation: （外延）Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. (外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间的关系。
在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。
)3. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption ofthe real world.4. The referential theory1). DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论)2). The semantic triangle （语义三角）Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”as manifested in the following diagram。
英语语言学概论第五章笔记
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1.What is semantics？什么是语义学？Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。
2.Some views concerning the study of meaning语义研究的几种主要理论1)The naming theory 命名论It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。
该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。
2)The conceptualist view 意念论The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。
语言学讲义 考研 5 Semantics
Grace Tan
1
考点
• • • • • 语义学定义 语义三角说 LEECH的七种意义类型 词汇意义关系(同义,反义,下义) 识别各实例中词与词的意义关系，句与句间的蕴 涵、前提、回话含义、同义、不相容、语义矛盾、 语义反常等 • 用成分分析同下义词、反义词、句子意义的区别 • 反义词的种类及例子
• 情感意义反映作者或说话人对所谈论的人或物、 事态等表示的个人情感或态度。这种意义可以通 过选用表情词直接了当地表现出来。
考研语言学 谭宗燕
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• Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative and pejorative/derogative. Words of positive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism.
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3) Affective Meaning
• Affective meaning expresses the speaker‟s attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be overtly and explicitly conveyed simply by the choice of the right words.
semanticsgracetan考研语言学谭宗燕识别各实例中词与词的意义关系句与句间的蕴涵前提回话含义同义不相容语义矛盾语义反常等反义词的种类及例子考研语言学谭宗燕meaningrelationshipbetweenmanhyponymousbecausesemanticfeaturessemanticallybeefsynonymsdespitestylisticdifferences
简述语义学词汇意义的七种类型
简述语义学词汇意义的七种类型语义学（Semantics），也作“语意学”，是一个涉及到语言学、逻辑学、计算机科学、自然语言处理、认知科学、心理学等诸多领域的一个术语。
虽然各个学科之间对语义学的研究有一定的共同性，但是具体的研究方法和内容大相径庭。
语义学的研究对象是自然语言的意义，这里的自然语言可以是词，短语（词组），句子，篇章等等不同级别的语言单位。
但是各个领域里对语言的意义的研究目的不同。
语言学的语义学研究目的在于找出语义表达的规律性、内在解释、不同语言在语义表达方面的个性以及共性。
语义学是语言学的一个分支，研究所有字面的意义，不考虑语境。
语义学又称作词义学（Semantics,来自于希腊语semantikos）,对中文等方块文字而言,则称为字义学.研究对象是词语,是词汇学的一个分支.主要研究词义. 词和词之间的各种关系是语义学研究的一个主要方面,例如同义词、反义词,同音词等,找出词语之间的细微差别,让人们更准确地使用词语.词汇意义：意义的七种类型根据美国的语言学家利奇根据意义的广泛含义可分为7种不同的类型:即概念意义、内涵意义、风格意义、感情意义、反映意义、搭配意义和主位意义。
进而他又将内涵、风格、情感、反映和搭配等5种意义统称为联想意义。
以下我将就这7种意义类型做些简要的评述。
1.概念意义概念意义指的是词语中将其与外部世界的现象联系起来的那部分意义。
也就是说,一个词语的字面意义中所包含的最基本的、最本质的意义成分就是其概念意义。
例如,英语中bird 一词的概念意义是a two-legged,winged,egg-laying,warm-bloodedcreaturewithabeak(两条腿,长有翅膀、能下蛋的,有喙的温血动物)。
概念意义是词语意义体系中的核心意义,是在语言交际中所表达出来的词语最基本的意义。
因此,在词典和语言学习课本中人们常使用概念意义来给词语作注释。
一般说来,语言中词语的概念意义比较稳定,变化不大。
semantic知识点总结
semantic知识点总结Definition and Importance of SemanticsSemantics is the study of meaning in language and the interpretation of words, phrases, and sentences. It examines how words and symbols convey meaning, how meanings are structured and organized, and how meanings are used in communication. Semantics is a fundamental aspect of language and communication, as it enables people to understand and convey meaning effectively.The importance of semantics lies in its role in language comprehension, communication, and reasoning. It allows individuals to understand the meaning of the words and sentences they encounter, to interpret and infer meaning from context, and to express themselves effectively. Semantics also plays a crucial role in the development of language, as it helps children and language learners to acquire and understand the meanings of words and symbols.Role of Semantics in Language UnderstandingSemantics plays a crucial role in language understanding, as it enables individuals to comprehend the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. It involves several key processes, including lexical semantics (the meanings of individual words), compositional semantics (the derivation of meaning from word combinations), and pragmatic semantics (the use of language in context).Lexical semantics focuses on the meanings of individual words and how they are organized and structured in the mental lexicon. It examines the different types of word meanings, including denotation (the literal meaning of a word) and connotation (the associated or suggested meanings of a word). Lexical semantics also explores the relationships between words, such as synonyms (words with similar meanings) and antonyms (words with opposite meanings), and the polysemy (multiple meanings) and homonymy (same form, different meanings) of words.Compositional semantics is concerned with how the meaning of a phrase or sentence is derived from the meanings of its constituent words and the syntactic structure of the sentence. It involves processes such as semantic composition, which combines word meanings to form sentence meanings, and semantic ambiguity resolution, which resolves multiple possible interpretations of a sentence. Compositional semantics also considers the influence of context and pragmatic information on meaning derivation, such as the use of inference and presupposition in language understanding.Pragmatic semantics focuses on the use of language in context and the interpretation of meaning in communication. It considers how speakers and listeners use context, background knowledge, and communicative intentions to convey and infer meaning. Pragmatic semantics also examines various communicative phenomena, such as implicature (indirect or implied meaning), speech acts (the performative function of language), anddiscourse coherence (the organization and connection of utterances in a conversation or text).Aspects of Semantic Knowledge in Linguistics and Cognitive ScienceSemantic knowledge is a central topic in linguistics and cognitive science, as it provides insights into the nature, structure, and processing of meaning in language and cognition. It encompasses various aspects of language and cognition, including lexical semantics, conceptual semantics, and computational semantics.Lexical semantics is the branch of semantics that focuses on the meanings of individual words and how they are organized and structured in the mental lexicon. It examines the different types of word meanings, semantic relations between words, and the representation and processing of word meanings. Lexical semantics also considers the influence of semantic properties, such as imageability (the ease with which a word evokes mental images) and concreteness (the degree to which a word refers to tangible objects or experiences), on word processing and memory.Conceptual semantics is concerned with the representation and organization of concepts and meanings in the mind. It explores how people categorize and classify the world, how they form and distinguish concepts, and how they encode and retrieve meaning from memory. Conceptual semantics also investigates the relationships between language and thought, such as the influence of linguistic categories and structures on conceptual organization and the influence of conceptual knowledge on language comprehension and production.Computational semantics is the area of semantics that addresses the computational modeling and processing of meaning in language and cognition. It focuses on developing formal and computational models of meaning representation, meaning inference, and meaning generation. Computational semantics also considers the use of natural language processing (NLP) techniques, such as semantic parsing, semantic role labeling, and semantic similarity measurement, to extract and analyze semantic information from texts and to build intelligent systems that understand and generate natural language.In addition, there are other important aspects of semantic knowledge in linguistics and cognitive science, such as cross-linguistic semantics (the study of semantic universals and variation across languages), diachronic semantics (the study of semantic change over time), and psycholinguistic semantics (the study of the cognitive processes and mechanisms underlying language understanding and production). These aspects contribute to our understanding of how meaning is structured and processed in language and cognition and how semantic knowledge is represented and used in different linguistic and cognitive contexts.In conclusion, semantic knowledge is a crucial aspect of human cognition and communication. It plays a central role in language understanding, as it enables individuals to comprehend and convey meaning effectively. Semantic knowledge encompasses variousaspects of language and cognition, such as lexical semantics, conceptual semantics, and computational semantics, and provides insights into the nature, organization, and processing of meaning in language and cognition. By exploring and understanding semantic knowledge, we can gain a deeper understanding of how language and thought are intertwined and how we make sense of the world through meaning.。
semantics
SemanticsObjectives:getting students to understand1)semantics and the theory of meaning. )y g 2)Leech’s seven types of meaning;semantic triangle,triangle3)sense relations between words andsentencesOutline:1. Definition of semantics2What is meaning?2. What is meaning?3. Different kinds of meaning4. Major theories on the study of meaning5. Sense relationship between words p6. Sense relations between sentences 7Analysis of meaning (componential analysis7. Analysis of meaning (componential analysis,predication analysis)1. What is Semantics ?Semanticsis generallyconsideredt ob e t h e s t u d y o fmeaning inl a n g u a g e.Dating from Plato,the study of meaning has along history.Philosophers,psychologists,andsociologists all claim a deep interest in the studyof meaning,although they differ in their focus ofinterest.Philosophers:the relation between linguistic osop e s:e e o be wee gu s cexpression and what they refer to in the real world and evaluation of the truth value of it.Psychologists:understanding the working of human mind through language .History:In linguistics,compared with other y g ,pbranches we have discussed,semantics isvery young and new.But it also has a long y y g ghistory.“linguistics” Cinderella of linguistics (Kempson)The term semantics is a recent addition to thelanguage English language.It has only a history of alittle over a hundred years.22.what is meaning?What does “imperialism”mean ?(signify)I didn't mean to hurt you.(intend)Life without faith has no meaning.(value)g ()I know the guy you mean .(refer to )doesn't’t He doesn t t know the meaning of the word“fear”(sense)Ten dollars would mean a lot to me.(matter)I found a road that wasn’t meant to be there.(supposed to)Perhaps you are meant to become a journalist rather than a lawyer.(destined)1894it was introduced in a paper entitled p p“Reflected meanings:a point in semantics”1897Breal first used it as the science ofmeaning.1900its English version came outg1980s semantics began to be introduced into ChinaOne of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning published in 1923.g f g pLeech.G.N.Semantics.London:PenguinBooks Ltd,1974.,Palmer.F.R.Semantics.Cambridge:CUP,1976.a technical term in semantics,the word of meaning As semanticsshould have its definition.However,it is a controversial issue and so far there is no agreementat this point among linguists.Generally, we say a linguistic form has two types of meaning: denotation and connotation.Denotative meaning: the person, object, abstract notion, event, or state which the word denotes.E.g. Sofa, John’s car, perplexity, Robert is lying on the bed. Connotative meaning:the overtones (implications) of meaning, that is what the linguistic form suggests.h i h h li i i fE.g. A B Cli hi kislim thin skinnystrong-minded firm pig-headedPublic servant government employee bureaucratinvestigator detective spyDecease die pegged outstatesman politicianNotes:1)some words do not have negative connotations1) some words do not have negative connotationswhen they are used generally. But in some textsthey may have additional meaning.(context-they may have additional meaning. (contextspecific)e.g.when “boy”is used by a 20-year-old white e.g. when boy is used by a 20year old whiteman to a 40-year-old black man, it obviously has a negative connotation reflecting the attitude of the g gspeaker. 2) some words or phrases always have negative )p y gassociations. E.g. the number “4” in Chinese, “13” in English3) connotation is language-specificd (di i ti f id ite.g. propaganda (dissemination of some ideas it has the meaning of exaggerating and evenf l if i f t )falsifying some facts)imperialism (negative to Chinese, but neutral even positive to westerners “ImperialInn ”“Imperial Hotel ”)what about “turtle ”, “dragon ”“communism ”?4) semantics will mainly deal with denotative meaning,rather than connotative meaning meaning, rather than connotative meaning3Diff t ki d f i3.Different kinds of meaningG.Leech(1974)“Semantics”Leech’s seven types of meaning1.Conceptual meaning also called “denotative”or “cognitive”meaning cognitive meaning.This refers to the definitiongiven in the dictionary.It is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication andis integral to the essential functioning of language.Man [+Human][+Male][+Adult]Girl [+Human][-Male][-Adult]2A i i i i i d i h2.Associative meaning meaning associated withthe conceptual meaning which can be further di id d i t f ll i tdivided into following types:a)connotative meaningi l ib)social meaningc)affective meaningfl t d id)reflected meaninge)collocative meaning3.Thematic meaninga)connotative meaning communicative value attributed to an expression over and above its purelyconceptual meaning.l i“woman”unappreciable properties:frail,prone to tears,cowardly,irrational,inconstant,short-sighteddl i i l i h i h dvirtues:gentle,hardworking,sensitiveb)social meaning what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use,including variations like dialect,time,topic,style etc. E.g.i i lik di l i i l E“thou”“管”used in Northern part of Anhui province.province)ff ti i f li d ttit d f th c)affective meaning feelings and attitudes of thespeaker/writer mother (love,care)maternal parent (neutral)d)reflected meaning the meaning when we associate one )g gsense of an expression with another.e.g.“dear”e)collocative meaning what is communicated throughassociation with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word. E.g.rotten (general)addled eggs,rancid bacon and butter,sour milk ,putrid fish,fetidbreath.“on”“turn on”,“jump on”?What about on in turn on ,jump on ?Th ti i Thi i h t i i t d b Thematic meaning:This is what is communicated bythe way in which the message is organized inemphasis terms of order and emphasis.Now compare thefollowing pair of sentences:voluntarilyThe young man donated the kidney voluntarily.The kidney was donated by a young manvoluntarilyvoluntarily.The two sentences express the same conceptual meaning meaning,but they have different communicativevalues,but they answer different questions.What are they?y“what did the young man donate?”“who by?”who was the kidney donated by?Th /Rh h b dTheme/ Rheme theory: a sentence can be segmented into two parts: the first part, termed theme(主位), ish i i hi h ll h Gi the starting point, which usually conveys the Giveninformation, seen by the speaker to be known to the dd Th d h Rh addressee. The rest, termed the Rheme （述位）,conveys the information which is New,unknown or d b th k t b k t th assumed by the speaker to be unknown to theaddressee. （Prague School ）E.g. I saw a man in the street. He was the son of my yneighbor.4.Major theories concerning j gthe study of meaning1) Naming Theory?1)Naming Theory?The form is a wordin a language andthe meaning is theobject in the worldthat it stands for,refers to or denotes.2)Even with nouns,there will beproblems problems,because many nouns suchas unicorn,fairy,ghost,heaven relateto creatures or things that do not exist.Words are names or labels for Words are names or labels forthings.things.In other words,the semanticrelationship holding betweenwords and things is therelationship of naming.Weak points of NamingTheories1)Thi th t l1) This theory seems to applyl tonly to nouns.2)Even with nouns,there will beproblems problems,because many nouns suchas unicorn,fairy,ghost,heaven relateto creatures or things that do not exist.2) Context and behaviourismD i th i d hl f During the period roughly from 1930to 1960,linguists gave pre-eminence ,g g pto the empirical or observational meaningaspect in the study of meaning.This theory holds that meaningshould be studied in terms of situation,use,context---elements closely linked h i w i t h l a n g u a g e b e a v o u r.Fi th th l diFirth,the leadingBritish linguist of thegperiod held the view“that We shall knowa w o r db y t h ecompany it keeps.”a piece of papera daily paper y p pan examination paperan examination paperhia white papera term paper3) behaviourist theory )yAccording to Bloomfield,the meaning of a linguistic form shouldbe viewed as “the situation in which the speaker utters it,and the responsehearer.”which it calls forth in the hearer.h f f k d ill the famous account of Jack and Jill S r sR E f Events before Events after hSpeechspeech speechS r s R Events before Events after Events beforespeech Events afterSpeech speec speechBloomfield argued that meaning consists in the Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech and the practical events S d R th t d d f ll it S and R that precede and follow it.4) ConceptsThis theory holds that words and ythings are related through the di ti f t f th i d mediation of concepts of the mind.This can be best illustrated by the i i i l d d b Semiotic Triangle advanced byO g d e n a n d R i c h a r d s .Thought or ReferenceSymbol ReferentThought or Reference conceptSymbolReferent Linguistic elementsh dThe object, etc, in the ld f i such as words or sentences world of experienceAccording theory to this theory,there is no direct link b e t w e e n s y m b o l a n dreferent (between language e e e t (betwee a guageand the world).The link is i th ht f via thought or reference,the concepts of our minds.pWeak points ?Weak points ?Thi th i This theory raises anew problem.Forpexample,what isprecisely the linkbetween the symbola n d c o n c e p t ?S o m e s c h o l a r s h a v esuggested that the link is simply a psychological one---when we think of a name,we think of a concept.5) MentalismThis approach has been headed by pp yChomsky since 1960’s.Mentalists b li th t d t d d f th believe that data needed for thestudy of language can be supplied y g g ppby direct resort to intuition.They argue that people often judge hi h which sentences are synonymous,which sentences are ambiguous,g ,which sentences are ill-formed or b d b d th i i t iti absurd,based on their intuition.Therefore they regard the task ofsemantics mainly as one to explainthose data supplied by direct resort t i t iti b t ti th i to intuition by constructing theoriesThe SYMBOL refers to the linguistic elements(word, sentence,etc.),the REFERENT refers to the object in the worldof experience,and THOUGHT or REFERENCE refers to experienceconcept.“things”The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the “concept”associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language,and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.e.g.The dog over there looks unfriendly.The word“dog”is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind(the use of mind),i.e.what a“dog”is like,but it is not directly linked to the referent(the particular dog)in this di l li k d h f(h i l d)i hiparticular case.C t th thComments on the theory:1) meanings don’t reside in words, but in )ea gs do es de wo ds,bupeople’s minds 2)i di id l l h diff i th i2) individual people have differences in theirexperiences and personal backgrounds, which affect how people think.3)Phenomenon of single word but neglects 3) Phenomenon of single word but neglectsthe semantic relationship among words.5Sense relationship 5. Sense relationshipSense relates to the complex systemof relationships that hold betweenthe linguistic elements themselves;it is concerned only withintra-linguistic relations.Pairs of words can be formedi t t i tt tinto certain patterns toindicate sense relations.C r o w /h e l l o ,s o w /b o a r,ewe/ram,mare/stallion etc.form a pattern indicating a sexmeaning related to sex.Duck/ducking,pig/piglet, dog/puppy,lion/cub,etc. form another pattern indicating a relationship between adult and young.Narrow/wide male/female Narrow/wide, male/female,buy/sell, etc. show a differentpattern related to opposition.In fact fact,when we are talking ofsense relations,we are talking of synonymy,antonymy,hyponymy,y y c p o l y s e m y,h o m o n y m y,e t c.In fact,when we are talking of relations sense relations,we are talking ofsynonymy,antonymy,hyponymy,p o l y s e m y,h o m o n y m y,e t c.synonymyS i d tSynonymy is used to mean“ sameness of meaning”gContext plays an important part indeciding whether a set of lexicali t e m s i s s y n o n y m o u s ."Wh t i f fl !"" What a nice ----of flowers!"The “range selection items range,selection,choice,”etc.are synonymous.。
Semantics_语义学
Semantics1. What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:①Conceptual meaning概念意义②Connotative meaning内涵意义③Social meaning社会意义④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）⑤Reflected meaning反射意义⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义⑦Thematic meaning主位意义3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义)is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）：① The Referential Theory② The Semantic Triangle③ Sense and Reference7.The referential theory指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle语意三角 is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.12. Sense Relations涵义关系①Synonymy（同义关系）②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）③Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) 、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relations between sentences①Synonymity (同义)a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence②Inconsistency(矛盾)a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.③Entailment (蕴涵)a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.④Presupposition(前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.⑤Contradiction(矛盾)⑥Semantic anomaly(语义反常)18. An integrated theory﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.。
semantics(史上最全)
One difficulty in the study of meaning:
--- The word ‘meaning’ itself has different meanings.
M is uncertain…context-dependent.
领导：“你这是什么意思？”小明：“没什 么意思。意思意思。”领导：“你这就不够意思 了。”小明：“小意思，小意思。”领导：“你 这人真有意思。”小明：“其实也没有别的意 思。”领导：“那我就不好意思了。”小明： “是我不好意思。” 问：以上“意思”分别是什么意思?
What’s the meaning of “man”? Man ≥ human +adult +male (bravery ,resilience, strength ,lack of sentiment) We can see that words acquire considerable meanings from the situational, social , cultural contexts in which they are used.
Linguistic (5 - 8)
Conventional (5, 6 )
Non-linguistic (1 - 4)
Intentional (7, 8)
Natural Conventional (2, 3) (1)
Intentional (4)
.
1.冬天：能穿多少穿多少；夏天：能穿多少穿多少。
Chomsky: A sentence, while grammatical, can be meaningless. A good sentence has to be well-formed not only in nature, but in meaning and logic as well.
新编语言学教程名词解释
Chapter5 Semantics（语义学）（定义）Sense（意义）and reference（所指/指称）（定义）Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the c ollection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the as pect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Chapter6 Pragmatics（语用学）Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics: is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Pragmatics: the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the inte ntion of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation …Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义和话语意义Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; lite ral meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context -dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker;Chapter11Second Language AcquisitionConnections between first language acquisition and second la nguage acquisition:The first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning (Littlewoo d, 1986).Positive transfer: facilitate target language learningNegative transfer: interfere or hinder target language learningIt is believed that differences between the native language and the t arget language would pose difficulties in second/foreign language le arning and teaching, e.g. *To touch the society .*There are more people come to study in the states.*I wait you at the gate of the schoolErrors & mistakesErrors: unintentionally deviant from the target language and not self -corrigible by the learner (failure in competence)；Mistakes: either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and s elf-corrigible (failure in performance).。
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(6) Collocative meaning
The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, village, etc. graceful, charming, elegant … handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc. smart, generous, vigorou energetic, dignified …
(7) Thematic meaning
What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.
(2) Connotative meaning
Also the associative meaning: the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. Involving the „real world‟ experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it. eg. Woman; home; dragon;
Leech‟s seven types of meaning
Conceptual meaning Connotative meaning Social meaning Affective meaning Reflected meaning Collocative meaning Thematic meaning
Mentalism/ conceptualism
F. de Saussure‟s sign theory The linguistic sign to consist of a singnifier and singnigied, i.e. a sound image and a concept, linked by a psychological associative bond. concept (the meaning of the word)
Eg. (1) I was near that bank yesterday. (2) a. I don‟t like her. She‟s tall and thin and moves like a crane. b. I do like her. She‟s tall and thin and moves like a crane.
The referential theory
It is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for. It is especially true in the case of proper nouns and definite noun phrases. But it cannot refer to the abstract concepts.
(4) Affective meaning
Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about. It is parasitic in that it depends on the mediation of other categories of meaning as conceptual, connotative or social.
Definition of semantics
Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
Lexical semantics Sentential sematics
Semantic triangle theory
the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It is mediated by concept. thought/reference
Instrumentalism
‘The meaning of a word is its use in the language‟. Meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts.
the behaviorist theory (meaning as behavior)
meaning is the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” It is linked with psychological interest S→r……s →R
semantics
------the study of meaning
Essentials
Definition of semantics Theory of the semantic triangle Leech‟s seven types of meaning Different kinds of meaning Sense relations Can recognize sense relations between words and sentences,i.e. entailment and presupposition, conversational implicature, and synonymous, incompatible, contradictory, abnormal relations Can use componential analysis to distinguish synonyms, antonyms and sentence meanings Know the types of antonyms and can give examples
Theories of meaning
The referential theory Mentalism or conceptualism Contextualism (meaning as context) Instrumentalism the behaviorist theory (meaning as behavior)
signifier..……………………….signified
Contextualism (meaning as context)
One can derive meaning from observable contexts which include situational context and the linguistic context. situational context involves 1) the speaker and the hearer; 2)the actions they are performing at the time; 3) various external objects and events; 4) deictic features. linguistic context considers the probability of one word‟s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.
Sally stands on the table. On the stable stands Sally.
Word meaning
Sense and reference Connotation and denotation
Semantic triangle theory
Proposed by OgdeG OF MEANING
(1) Conceptual meaning
Also called „denotative‟ or „cognitive‟ meaning. The central part of a word meaning. usually it can be studied in terms of contrastive or binary features. e.g. man [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] girl [+HUMAN -ADULT +FEMALE] eg. dog ; hospital; foot