浅析语义学和语用学中的“预设”问题
语义学和语用学中的“预设”问题

浅析语义学和语用学中的“预设”问题摘要:”预设”(presupposition)也称之为前提,是语义学中的重要概念。
上个世纪70年代曾有大量文献讨论过这个概念。
一般说来预设分为语义预设和语用预设。
语义预设是以真值条件为基础的,存在于句子结构与句意之中。
语用预设是关于说话与语境之间的关系,其特征是预设的合适性和共知性。
本文从语义学和语用学角度浅谈”预设”在语义学中和语用学中的区别和联系。
关键词:语义预设;语用预设;区别和联系中图分类号:g648 文献标识码:b 文章编号:1672-1578(2013)08-0005-011.语义学领域的预设1.1 语义预设的理论基础。
语义学领域的预设研究句子本身固有的意义,不考虑说话人或者作者以及听众对语言的背景知识的理解,也就是说它与语境无关,它是建立在真值条件语义理论的基础之上的,例如:a. peter’s grandma bought him a new bike.b. peter has a grandma.上面的例子在语义学领域下根据我们学过的”真值条件”应该这样进行描述:如果a 是真实的,b则是真实的;如果a 是虚假的,则b还是真是的;如果b是真实的,则a 或者是真实的或者是虚假的。
具体到上面的例子,我们可以这样进行解释:彼得的奶奶给他买了一辆自行车是真实的,则彼得肯定是有奶奶的。
如果彼得的奶奶给他买了辆自行车是假的,那么彼得还是有个奶奶的。
而彼得有个奶奶,那他奶奶给他买自行车这件事是可真的也可是假的。
也就是说彼得的奶奶给他买不买自行车都是可以的。
1.2 语义预设的特点。
一般说来,语义预设有稳定性(stability)、可变性(changeability)这两个基本特点。
(俞如珍,1996,25)①稳定性(stability)。
语义预设依赖于语言内部词语的词汇意义和句子结构,不受外部语境的影响,因此是稳定的。
对语句进行否定或者加以疑问都不会影响句意和句子预设。
浅析语用预设

浅析语⽤预设2019-03-17摘要: 预设是语⾔哲学的⼀个重要课题,是⼀种普遍的语⾔现象。
预设分为语义预设和语⽤预设。
本⽂从语⽤学的⾓度,分析了语⽤预设的基本特点,并在此基础上,讨论了语⽤预设在⾔语交际中的重要作⽤。
关键词: 语⽤预设语⽤学基本特征⾔语交际功能⼀、引⾔预设,也叫“前提”、“先设”,由德国哲学家Frege于1892年最早提出。
Frege认为,命题都存在着“⼀个理所当然的前提”,即充当命题主项的“简单或者复合的专有名词都必须具有指称现象”。
20世纪50年代,英国语⾔学家Strawson发展了Frege的这⼀思想,将这类现象看作是⾃然语⾔中的⼀种特殊的推理关系(王杨,2005)。
预设由此进⼊了语⾔学的研究范围。
随着语⽤学的发展,语⾔学家意识到了预设与语境的紧密联系,因此,预设成为了语⽤学⼀个重要的研究对象。
语⽤预设这⼀概念最早由Stalnaker(1975)提出。
此后,很多语⾔学家开始对语⽤预设进⾏研究。
本⽂从语⽤学的视⾓,讨论和分析语⽤预设的基本特征及其在⾔语交际中的功能。
⼆、语义预设和语⽤预设(⼀)语义预设语义预设是从语句的意义或命题的真假值来考察和定义的。
在哲学家和逻辑学家看来,语句⽆真假,只有命题才有真假。
否定句⼦本⾝,前提保留不变。
(1a)John’s brother has just got back from Nigeria.(1b)John has a brother.(1c)John’s brother hasn’t got back from Nigeria.句(1a)的意思是“约翰的哥哥从尼⽇利亚回来了”。
该句话中必须有⼀个“预设”,那就是(1b)“约翰有⼀个哥哥”。
如果否定句(1a),即(1c)“约翰的哥哥没有从尼⽇利亚回来”。
这句话也有⼀个预设,即(1b)“约翰有⼀个哥哥”。
因此,语义预设是稳定的。
同时,它⼜是可变的。
语句的预设与它的焦点有密切关系。
随着信息焦点的变化,即使保留句中的每个词,预设也会随之变化。
语用预设

语用预设1.引言预设一直以来都是语言学尤其是语义学和语用学领域争议颇多的研究课题。
一方面,预设类似于蕴涵能脱离语境而存在,而另一方面,预设似乎对语境,例如句内语境又具有敏感性传统上,语义学理论将预设看作是基于语句间真值条件的一种语义关系。
语用学理论则倾向于把预设作为有效执行言语行为的适切条件或者说话人及其听话人共享的共有知识来对待。
2. 语用预设的概念预设也称“前设”、“先设”、“前提”,同时它也是一种推理,是从另外一个角度进行的推理即在语言结构的基础上,依靠逻辑概念、语义、语境等推断出话语意义的先决条件。
预设一般可分为语义预设(Semantic presupposition)和语用预设(Pragmatic presupposition)两种。
语义预设建立在真值条件基础上,绝大部分是由语言本身所引起的。
如John’s brother is ill.无论这话真实与否,前提“John has a brother”一直存在,此预设由属格“’s”而来。
可见语义预设是语句命题本身所拥有的一种意义,是静态的、抽象的。
但在具体的话语交际中,语句总是与具体使用相联系,处于一定的语境中,因此从单纯的语义角度来研究预设显然是不够的,有必要从语言使用的角度来研究预设,这就构成了预设的语用研究。
语用预设是指“那些对语境敏感的,与说话人(有时包括说话对象)的信念、态度、意图有关的前提关系”(何自然,1997:68)。
语用预设把预设和说话人联系在一起,与语境密切相关,是动态的、具体的。
语用预设一般可从以下五个方面来理解:(1)语用预设是说话人或当事人对语境所作的设想。
说话人对自然语言环境有他自己的理解,有一些设想,并基于这些设想展开话语交际,语用预设是话语产生的背景信息。
(2)语用预设涉及说话人或当事人的态度和意图。
说话人想通过自己的话语表明自己的观点态度,并希望听话者理解他的话中语,以达到说话人想要的效果。
(3)语用预设涉及说话人所作强调。
浅谈语义预设及语用预设

浅谈语义预设及语用预设
随着语言的发展和使用越来越广泛,语言学家们开始关注一些与单纯词语意义无关的因素,如文化、背景、语用等,这些因素会影响到语言的真正含义。
根据这些因素,出现了语义预设和语用预设这两个概念。
语义预设指的是当一个词或语句在被使用时,人们假设这个词或语句还包含了其他未被直接表达出来的含义。
这些含义是人们根据词、句子或文本中的某些线索推断出来的,而不是直接从字面上理解得出的。
这些线索可以是语境、背景或者说话人的语调和表情等因素。
例如,在英语中,人们通常认为“好吃的苹果”是指“味道很好的苹果”,但是在某些情况下,“好吃的苹果”可以意味着“苹果比较大或者甜度较高”。
语用预设则指的是在特定语境中,某个意思或词语的用法是被期望的。
这个概念是源于对言语行为理论的研究。
所谓的言语行为是指通过语言来执行特定的操作,例如请求、承诺、威胁等等。
一些言语行为的成功执行需要对语境进行理解,了解不同人的思考方式和行为习惯。
在某些语境下,人们会将语言的目的解读为一种间接的方式,而在另一些语境中,通过表面上的字面意义来解读语言。
例如,在一个礼貌、零点议题很重要的环境中,询问某个人的年龄,并不是一种合适的做法。
总的来说,语义预设和语用预设是一种基于语音语言的周边信息,提供了更涵盖的理解语言含义的方法。
了解这些概念
可以帮助我们更好地理解语言,并且更好地在交流和日常沟通中使用语言。
语义预设与语用预设

语义预设与语用预设作者:周帅来源:《青年文学家》2015年第11期摘要:语言学界对预设的分类存在着很大的分歧,没有统一的标准。
预设分为语义预设和语用预设两大类。
语义预设与语用预设的关系是紧密的,二者的关系也是语言学普遍争论的问题。
关键词:预设;语义预设;语用预设作者简介:周帅(1986-),女,吉林吉林人,助教,从事俄罗斯文学、俄语语言学研究。
[中图分类号]:H1 [文献标识码]:A[文章编号]:1002-2139(2015)-11--01语言学界对预设的分类存在着很大的分歧,没有统一的标准。
我们认为Падучева的预设观更为简洁明了,即把预设分为语义预设和语用预设两大类。
[3]1.语义预设Падучева把语义预设定义为“预设是一种必须为真的句义成分,否则句子将被认为语义异常或与特定的上下文相抵牾”。
[2]否定检验是判断预设的基本方法,通常不能被否定的语义成分是预设,而能被否定的语义成分是陈说。
例如:(1)Филипп знает,что Нью-Йорк –столица США.А. Филипп знает нечто.Б. Нью-Йорк –столица США .(1’)Филипп не знает,что Нью-Йорк –столица США.А. Филипп не знает ничего.Б. Нью-Йорк –столица США.例句(1)的语义成分(1)А和(1)Б。
(1’)是(1)的否定形式,这个否定句只否定了(1)А,而(1)Б则未被否定,作为语义预设保留下来,所以(1)А是(1)的陈说,(1)Б是(1)的语义预设;而依据常识,我们可以很容易判断出“纽约不是美国的首都,华盛顿是美国的首都”,所以(1)语义异常。
2.语用预设Падучева对语用预设所下的定义是“如果说话人以任何中性的方式(非调侃的、讽刺等方式)将句子S作为语句来使用时,认为句子P不言而喻或是受话人所知道的,那么P就是S的语用预设”。
浅谈语义学中和语用学中的“预设”问题

() 实 预 设 2事
事 实 预 设 是 指 交 际 双 方 在 交 流 过 程 中预 先 肯 定
或 否 定 的 一 些 事 实 情 况 , 无 需 语 境 的 加 入 。 这 类 它 在
预 设 中 , 们 比较 关 注 由预 设 触 发 语 引 发 的现 象 。 人 例 如 :真 正 的 去 过 兵 马 俑 之 后 , 她 就 觉 得 观 景 真 不 如 “ 听 景 。 这 句 话 预 设 “ 去 过 兵 马俑 ” 个 事 实 。 外 , ” 她 这 另
一
存 在 预 设 是 指 交 际 双 方 对 世 界 上 的 事 物 和 人 的 存 在 的 认 识 , 种 预 设 的 推 知 不 需 要 语 境 。F e e认 这 r g
为 关 于 指 称 对 象 的 存 在 预 设 与 语 句 的 真 假 无 关 。 例
、
语义学领域的预设
1语 义 预 设 的 理 论 基 础 .
如 : i a e w s e d 预 设 “ 有 其 人 ”这 个 预 B nL dn a d a . 确 , 设 是 和 这 个 语 句 的 真 假 ( 本 拉 登 是 否 死 亡 ) 无 即 是
关 的 。
我们之 前 已经提到 语义 学领 域 的预设 研 究句子
本身 固有 的意义 ,不考 虑说 话人 或作 者及 听众 的对
() 在 预 设 1存
关 系 , 双 方 交 谈 时 , 们 有 着 各 方 面 共 同 的 背 景 知 在 他
识 , 仅 对 所 交 谈 的某 一 特 定 场 合 有 共 同 的 知 识 , 不 而 且 对 整 个 世 界 有 共 同 的 认 识 。本 文 将 会 对 “ 设 现 预 象 ” 语义 学及语 用学 领域 做一 些简单 的探 讨 。 在
浅议预设现象

浅议预设现象作者:余晓芳来源:《中国集体经济·上》2008年第01期摘要:预设现象复杂,至今尚未形成一致的定义。
语义预设同特定的词语、语法结构密切相关。
语用预设与说话者、言语行为和语境息息相关,是说话者的预设或语境预设。
预设既是语义现象又是语用现象,两者不是绝对孤立、毫不相干的,而是互相渗透,互相补充的。
关键词:预设;语义预设;语用预设;语义学;语用学一、预设问题的开始对于预设的研究始于哲学领域,哲学家们关注的是指称和指称词语的性质。
当我们表达“Jane has four tickets for the football match”以及它的否定“Jane doesn’t have four tickets for the football match”时,如果命题“Jane exists”都成立,那么它们之间必定存在某种关系。
弗莱格(Gottlob Frege)可能是第一个使用presupposition来描述句子之间的这种逻辑关系的。
他在《论意义和指称》中提出预设是一个命题肯定与它的否定都保留的东西。
他认为,当事情被断言,那么说话者所使用的简单或专有名词是有实质意义的,即实际对应存在其实体。
如果实体不存在就是“预设失败”(Presupposition Failure),是不完美的语言。
1905年英国哲学家罗素(Bertrand Russell)在他的文章《论所指》中指出,处于句子主语位置的词可能有所指,也可能无所指,都是有意义的。
他指出句子主语有语法形式和逻辑形式之分。
像句子“The king of France is bald”从逻辑关系角度来看,其主谓关系明显不成立。
因为现在法国根本就没有国王,这个句子是假命题。
同时他认为该句子的否定形式“The king of France is not bald”,不是Frege理解的那么简单。
他强调由于否定范围的不确定性,可以形成两种理解:“The king of France is not bald;he had a full head of hair.”和“The king of France is not bald;there is no king of France”。
语义学蕴含与预设

句子语义学词和词之间有各种各样的意义关系,我们称之为sense relation。
句子也一样,可以有各种意义关系。
句子语义学是在句子层面对意义进行研究,并把句子当成一个整体来看待。
◆Presupposition前提/预设,这一概念是由哲学家弗雷格(G.Frege)首先提出来的。
在言语交际中,我们所说的一句句话并不是孤立的,相互之间毫无联系的。
相反前一句话和后一句话往往有密切的联系。
Please open the door.这句话的意思很清楚,就是“请把们打开”,但是说这句话必须有一个前提,那就是“现在要开的门再说话时是关着的”。
所以从语义的角度来看,句子所包含的“前提”和这个句子本身的意义有十份密切的关系句子的前提有这样的特点:否定了句子本身,句子的前提保留不变。
John is married.John exists.John is not married.◆Semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition语义预设是对语句之间关系所做的逻辑分析,他面对的是一种不变的关系:即如果P在语义上预设Q, 则P总是在语义上预设Q。
但在实际的语言活动中(语用预设),预设通常不是语义中稳定的不受约束的部分。
这也正是有些语言学家认为预设属于语用学而不属于语义学的主要原因。
一个重要的事实是,在一定的语境里,预设会消失,也就是说预设具有可消失性(defeasibility)。
例如:Sue cried before she finished her thesis.Sue died before she finished her thesis.◆What is Semantic Presupposition?In many discussions of the concept, presupposition is treated as a relationship between two propositions by the linguists. If we say the sentence in (1a.) contains the proposition p and the sentence in (1b.) contains the proposition q, then, using>>to mean ‘presupposes’, we can represent the relationship as in (1c.).(1) a. Mary’s dog is cute. (=p)b. Mary has a dog. (= q)c. p >>qInterestingly, when we produce the opposite of the sentence in (1a.) by negating it (= NOT p), as in (2a.), we find that the relationship of presupposition does not change. That is, the same proposition q, repeated as (2b.), continues to be presupposedby NOT p, as shown in (2c.).(2) a. Mary’s dog isn’t cute. (=NOT p)b. Mary has a dog. (= q)c. NOT p >>qPresupposition is an inference(推论)to the proposition of the sentence. Take the following sentences for example again:e.g. (3) John is married.(4) John exists.(5) John is not married.Comment: if (3) is true, (4) is true; if (3) is not true, (4) is still true. In this case, we can say both (3) and (5) presuppose (4). A presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance. Speakers, not sentences, have presuppositions. An entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. Sentences, not speakers, have entailments.◆Semantic presupposition would be based on the following definition:Sentence A semantically presupposes another sentence B iff:if and only if, iff是充分必要条件(a) in all situations where A is true, B is true(b) in all situations where A is false, B is true◆Types of presuppositionPotential presupposition: in the analysis of how speakers’ assumptions are typically expressed, presupposition has been associated with the use of a large number of words, phrases, and structures. These linguistic forms shall be considered as indicators of potential presuppositions, which can only become actual presuppositions in contexts with speakers. The following kinds of presuppositions are all potential presuppositions. Now we’ll look at the major presupposition types marked by different linguistic features.◆Existential presupposition: presuppose the existence of something.(my). It is not only assumed to be present in possessive constructions, but more generally in any definite descriptions such as definite noun phrase with determines ‘the’, ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’, ‘those’, etc. By using any of the expressions in (16), the speaker is assumed to be committed to the existence of the entities named.(16) e.g. The king of Sweden, the cat, the girl next door (Yule, 2004: 27)◆Factive presupposition: presuppose something as a fact.(know). A number of factive verbs, such as ‘realize’in (17a) and ‘regret’in (17b), as well as phrases involving ‘be’ with ‘aware’ in (17c), ‘odd’ in (17d), and ‘glad’ in (17e) have factive presuppositions.(17) a. She didn’t realize he was ill.(>>He was ill)b. We regret telling him.(>>We told him)c. I wasn’t aware that she was married.(>>She was married)d. It isn’t odd that he left early.(>>He left early)e. I’m glad that it’s over.(>>It’s over)The presupposed information following the verb ‘know’ can be treated as a fac t, and is described as a factive presupposition. Words like know, realize, regret as well as phrases involving ‘be’ with ‘aware’, ‘odd’, and ‘glad’ have factive presuppositions. (Yule, 2004: 27-28)◆Lexical presupposition: when a specific word triggers a presupposition. It is featured by implicative verbs like ‘manage’, ‘start’, ‘stop’, ‘forget’, etc. Generally speaking, in lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (non-asserted) meaning is understood.Each time you say that someone ‘managed’to do something, the asserted meaning is that the person succeeded in some way. When you say that someone ‘didn’t manage’, the asserted meaning is that the person did not succeed. In both cases, however, there is a presupposition (non-asserted) that the person ‘tried’to do that something. So, ‘managed’ is conventionally interpreted as asserting ‘succeeded’ and presupposing ‘tried’.(18) a. He stopped smoking.(>>He used to smoke)b. They started complaining.(>>They weren’t complaining before)c. You’re late again.(>>You were late before)Lexical presupposition: in lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another(non-asserted) meaning is understood. For example, someone ‘managed’ to do something, the asserted meaning is that the person succeeded in some way. Someone ‘didn’t manage’; the asserted meaning is that the person did not succeed. In both cases, there is a presupposition (non-asserted) that the person ‘tried’ to do that something. So ‘managed’is conventionally interpreted as asserting ‘succeeded’ and presupposing ‘tried’. Other examples, involving the lexical items, are ‘stop’, ‘start’, and ‘again’. (Yule, 2004: 28)◆Structural presupposition: certain sentence structures presuppose something to be true.(wh-questions). We might say that speakers can use such structures to treat information as presupposed (i.e. assumed to be true) and hence to be accepted as true by the listener.For example, the wh-question construction in English, as shown in (19a) and (19b), is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that the information after the wh-form is already known to be the case.a. When did he leave?(>>He left)b. Where did you buy the bike?(>>You bought the bike)Certain sentence structures have been analyzed as conventionally and regularly presupposing that part of the structure is already assumed to be true. We might say that speakers can use such structures to treat information as presupposed (i.e. assumed to be true) and hence to be accepted as true by listener. For example, the wh-question construction in English is conventionally interpreted as that the information after the wh-form is already known to be the case. Such structurally-based presuppositions may represent subtle ways of making information that the speaker believes appear to be what the listener should believe.(wh-questions)◆Non-factive presupposition: It is one that is assumed not to be true. Verbs like ‘dream’, ‘imagine’, and ‘pretend’, as shown in (20), are used with the presupposition that what follows is not true.(20). a. I dreamed that I was rich.(>>I was not rich)b. We imagined we were in New York.(>>we were not in New York)He pretends to be ill.(>>He is not ill)◆Counter-factural presupposition: What is presupposed is not only not true, but is the opposite of what is true, or ‘contrary to facts’. (Conditional structure)A conditional structure of the type shown in (21), generally called a counterfactual conditional, presupposes that the information in the if-clause is not true at the time of utterance.(21). If you were my friend, you would have helped me.(>>you are not my friend)Summary:◆The properties of presuppositions★Cancel ability / Defeasibility:Levinson(1983:186) states that they can be cancelled out by either the immediate linguistic context or by some wider context or mode of discourse. If we say ‘The committee failed to reach a decision’, it presupposes that they tried, but we can cancel out that presupposition if we add ‘because they didn’t even get round to discussing it’. Similarly, we can argue presupposition out of the way by a variant on the reductio ad absurdum (the disproof of a proposition by showing that its conclusion can only be absurd) mode of discourse: ‘He didn’t do it, and she didn’t do it…In fact, nobody did it ’. They are defensible in (a) certain discourse contexts, (b) certain intra-sentential context. This property will prove to be the undoing(doing away with) of any possible semantic theory of presupposition. They are defeasible in certain intra-sentential contexts and certain discourse context, for example,(1) Sue cried before she finished her thesis.(2) Sue finished her thesis.(3)Sue died before she finished her thesis.In Sentence(3) the presupposition seems to drop out, since we generally hold that people do not do things after they die, it follows that she could not have finished her thesis. They are liable to evaporate in certain contexts, either immediate linguistic context or the less immediate discourse context, or on circumstances where contrary assumptions are made.(Levinson,2001, p187)Another kind of contextual defeasibility arises in certain kinds of discourse contexts. For example, the cleft sentence 1 is supposed to presuppose 2:1. It isn’t Luke who will betray you.2. Someone will betray you.You say that someon e in this room will betray you. Well maybe so. But it won’t be Luke who will betray you, it won’t be Paul, it won’t be Matthew, and it certainly won’t be John. Therefore no one in this room is actually going to betray youHere each of the cleft sentence(It won’t be Luke, etc.)should presuppose that there will be someone who will betray the addressee. But the whole purpose of the utterance 1 is, of course, to persuade the addressee that no one will betray him, as stated in the conclusion. So the presupposition is again defeated; it was adopted as a counterfactual assumption to argue to the untenability (站不住脚) of such an assumption.So far we have shown that some of the core examples of presuppositional phenomena are subject to presupposition cancellation in certain kinds of context, namely:(i)Where it is common knowledge that the presupposition is false, the speaker is not assumed to be committedto the truth of the presupposition(ii) Where what is said, taken together with background assumptions, is inconsistent with what is presupposed, the presuppositions are cancelled, and are not assumed to be held by the speaker(iii) In certain kinds of discourse contexts, presuppositions can systematically fail to survive.3.4.2 Presuppositions are apparently tied to particular aspects of surface structure. This property may serve to distinguish presupposition from conversational implicatures (which are tied to the context rather than the surface structure.), the other major form of pragmatic inference.( Levinson, S. C. 2001)There are no doubt many other kinds of contextual defeasibility as well, but these examples are sufficient to establish that presuppositions are defeasible by virtue of contrary beliefs held in a context. There are also many kinds of intra-sentential cancellation of suspension of presuppositions.(Levinson, 190)3.4.3 Projection in presupposition There is a basic expectation that the presupposition of a simple sentence will continue to be true when that simple sentence becomes part of a more complex sentence. This is one version of the general idea that the meaning of the whole sentence is a combination of the meaning of its parts. However, the meaning of some presuppositions (as ‘parts’) does not survive to become the meaning of some complex sentences (as ‘wholes’). This is known as the projection problem. (Yule, 2004: P30-33) Another explanation given by Levinson (Levinson, 1983: 191) is that Frege held that meanings of sentences are compositional, i.e. that the meaning of the whole expression is a function of the meaning of the parts. It was originally suggested by Langendoen & Savin (1971) that this was true of presuppositions too, and moreover that the set of presupposition of the complex whole is the simple sum of the presuppositions of the parts, i.e. if S0 is a complex sentence containing sentences S1, S2…S n as constituents, then the presuppositions of S0 = the presuppositions of S1 + the presuppositions of S2 …+ the presuppositions of S n .But such a simple solution to the presuppositions of complex sentences is far from correct, and it has proved in fact extremely difficult to formulate a theory that will predict correctly which presuppositions of component clauses will in fact be inherited/maintained by the complex whole. This compositional problem is known as the projection problem for presuppositions, and the particular behaviour of presuppositions in complex sentences turns out to be the really distinctive characteristic of presuppositions. (The Chinese version may be a little easier to understand:详见索振羽,《语用学教程》2000.北京大学出版社P136-140)◆Presupposition triggers: Some of the kinds of words and structures that seem to trigger presuppositions. Definite noun phrase/definite descriptions: words like the, this, that, these, those and possessives like my, Mary’s, your, prepositional phrase like with(two heads), in, etc. trigger the basic kind of presupposition. The possessives lead to a particularly strong presupposition about the existence of something; this is sometimes called existential presupposition. (Peccei, p20)John saw/didn’t see the man with two heads.》there exists a man with two headsWH-words like when, why, how, etc. used either to ask questions or to introduce a subordinate clause to trigger the presupposition that the speaker has assumed “the person in question did something” is true. (Peccei, p 21)Mr. Givens, why is it important for people to understand body language---that is, communication by means of movements and gestures?Where do we get mannerisms such as these?Verbs that can trigger presuppositions: implicative verbs, factive verbs, change of state verbs and verbs of judging.1) Implicative verbs(含蓄动词): manage, forget, happen, avoid etc. triggers the presupposition that some actions were conducted(manage), not expected(happen), or should have been conducted(forget).John managed/didn’t manage to open the door》John tried to open the doorJohn forg ot /didn’t forget to lock the door》John ought to have locked, or intended to lock, the doorsome further implicative predicates: X happened to V 》X didn’t plan or intend to V; X avoid Ving 》X was expected to, or usually did, or ought to V2) factive verbs(述实动词/事实动词a verb followed by a clause which the speaker or writer considers to expressa fact:know, realize, regret, deplore(谴责), I am aware, it is strange, it is odd that, be sorry that, be proud that, be indifferent that, be glad that, be sad that, etc. triggers the presupposition that what follows is a fact。
语义学 蕴含与预设

句子语义学词和词之间有各种各样的意义关系,我们称之为sense relation。
句子也一样,可以有各种意义关系。
句子语义学是在句子层面对意义进行研究,并把句子当成一个整体来看待。
◆Presupposition前提/预设,这一概念是由哲学家弗雷格(G.Frege)首先提出来的。
在言语交际中,我们所说的一句句话并不是孤立的,相互之间毫无联系的。
相反前一句话和后一句话往往有密切的联系。
Please open the door.这句话的意思很清楚,就是“请把们打开”,但是说这句话必须有一个前提,那就是“现在要开的门再说话时是关着的”。
所以从语义的角度来看,句子所包含的“前提”和这个句子本身的意义有十份密切的关系句子的前提有这样的特点:否定了句子本身,句子的前提保留不变。
John is married.John exists.John is not married.◆Semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition语义预设是对语句之间关系所做的逻辑分析,他面对的是一种不变的关系:即如果P在语义上预设Q, 则P总是在语义上预设Q。
但在实际的语言活动中(语用预设),预设通常不是语义中稳定的不受约束的部分。
这也正是有些语言学家认为预设属于语用学而不属于语义学的主要原因。
一个重要的事实是,在一定的语境里,预设会消失,也就是说预设具有可消失性(defeasibility)。
例如:Sue cried before she finished her thesis.Sue died before she finished her thesis.◆What is Semantic Presupposition?In many discussions of the concept, presupposition is treated as a relationship between two propositions by the linguists. If we say the sentence in (1a.) contains the proposition p and the sentence in (1b.) contains the proposition q, then, using>>to mean …presupposes‟, we can represent the relationship as in (1c.).(1) a. Mary‟s dog is cute. (=p)b. Mary has a dog. (= q)c. p >>qInterestingly, when we produce the opposite of the sentence in (1a.) by negating it (= NOT p), as in (2a.), we find that the relationship of presupposition does not change. That is, the same proposition q, repeated as (2b.), continues to be presupposedby NOT p, as shown in (2c.).(2) a. Mary‟s dog isn‟t cute. (=NOT p)b. Mary has a dog. (= q)c. NOT p >>qPresupposition is an inference(推论)to the proposition of the sentence. Take the following sentences for example again:e.g. (3) John is married.(4) John exists.(5) John is not married.Comment: if (3) is true, (4) is true; if (3) is not true, (4) is still true. In this case, we can say both (3) and (5) presuppose (4). A presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance. Speakers, not sentences, have presuppositions. An entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. Sentences, not speakers, have entailments.◆Semantic presupposition would be based on the following definition:Sentence A semantically presupposes another sentence B iff:if and only if, iff是充分必要条件(a) in all situations where A is true, B is true(b) in all situations where A is false, B is true◆Types of presuppositionPotential presupposition: in the analysis of how speakers‟ assumptions are typically expressed, presupposition has been associated with the use of a large number of words, phrases, and structures. These linguistic forms shall be considered as indicators of potential presuppositions, which can only become actual presuppositions in contexts with speakers. The following kinds of presuppositions are all potential presuppositions. Now we‟ll look at the major presupposition types marked by different linguistic features.◆Existential presupposition: presuppose the existence of something.(my). It is not only assumed to be present in possessive constructions, but more generally in any definite descriptions such as definite noun phrase with determines …the‟, …this‟, …that‟, …these‟, …those‟, etc. By using any of the expressions in (16), the speaker is assumed to be committed to the existence of the entities named.(16) e.g. The king of Sweden, the cat, the girl next door (Yule, 2004: 27)◆Factive presupposition: presuppose something as a fact.(know). A number of factive verbs, such as …realize‟in (17a) and …regret‟in (17b), as well as phrases involving …be‟ with …aware‟ in (17c), …odd‟ in (17d), and …glad‟ in (17e) have factive presuppositions.(17) a. She didn‟t realize he was ill.(>>He was ill)b. We regret telling him.(>>We told him)c. I wasn‟t aware that she was married.(>>She was married)d. It isn‟t odd that he left early.(>>He left early)e. I‟m glad that it‟s over.(>>It‟s over)The presupposed information following the verb …know‟ can be treated as a fac t, and is described as a factive presupposition. Words like know, realize, regret as well as phrases involving …be‟ with …aware‟, …odd‟, and …glad‟ have factive presuppositions. (Yule, 2004: 27-28)◆Lexical presupposition: when a specific word triggers a presupposition. It is featured by implicative verbs like …manage‟, …start‟, …stop‟, …forget‟, etc. Generally speaking, in lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (non-asserted) meaning is understood.Each time you say that someone …managed‟to do something, the asserted meaning is that the person succeeded in some way. When you say that someone …didn‟t manage‟, the asserted meaning is that the person did not succeed. In both cases, however, there is a presupposition (non-asserted) that the person …tried‟to do that something. So, …managed‟ is conventionally interpreted as asserting …succeeded‟ and presupposing …tried‟.(18) a. He stopped smoking.(>>He used to smoke)b. They started complaining.(>>They weren‟t complaining before)c. You‟re late again.(>>You were late before)Lexical presupposition: in lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another(non-asserted) meaning is understood. For example, someone …managed‟ to do something, the asserted meaning is that the person succeeded in some way. Someone …didn‟t manage‟; the asserted meaning is that the person did not succeed. In both cases, there is a presupposition (non-asserted) that the person …tried‟ to do that something. So …managed‟is conventionally interpreted as asserting …succeeded‟ and presupposing …tried‟. Other examples, involving the lexical items, are …stop‟, …start‟, and …again‟. (Yule, 2004: 28)◆Structural presupposition: certain sentence structures presuppose something to be true.(wh-questions). We might say that speakers can use such structures to treat information as presupposed (i.e. assumed to be true) and hence to be accepted as true by the listener.For example, the wh-question construction in English, as shown in (19a) and (19b), is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that the information after the wh-form is already known to be the case.a. When did he leave?(>>He left)b. Where did you buy the bike?(>>You bought the bike)Certain sentence structures have been analyzed as conventionally and regularly presupposing that part of the structure is already assumed to be true. We might say that speakers can use such structures to treat information as presupposed (i.e. assumed to be true) and hence to be accepted as true by listener. For example, the wh-question construction in English is conventionally interpreted as that the information after the wh-form is already known to be the case. Such structurally-based presuppositions may represent subtle ways of making information that the speaker believes appear to be what the listener should believe.(wh-questions)◆Non-factive presupposition: It is one that is assumed not to be true. Verbs like …dream‟, …imagine‟, and …pretend‟, as shown in (20), are used with the presupposition that what follows is not true.(20). a. I dreamed that I was rich.(>>I was not rich)b. We imagined we were in New York.(>>we were not in New York)He pretends to be ill.(>>He is not ill)◆Counter-factural presupposition: What is presupposed is not only not true, but is the opposite of what is true, or …contrary to facts‟. (Conditional structure)A conditional structure of the type shown in (21), generally called a counterfactual conditional, presupposes that the information in the if-clause is not true at the time of utterance.(21). If you were my friend, you would have helped me.(>>you are not my friend)Summary:◆The properties of presuppositions★Cancel ability / Defeasibility:Levinson(1983:186) states that they can be cancelled out by either the immediate linguistic context or by some wider context or mode of discourse. If we say …The committee failed to reach a decision‟, it presupposes that they tried, but we can cancel out that presupposition if we add …because they didn‟t even get round to discussing it‟. Similarly, we can argue presupposition out of the way by a variant on the reductio ad absurdum (the disproof of a proposition by showing that its conclusion can only be absurd) mode of discourse: …He didn‟t do it, and she didn‟t do it…In fact, nobody did it ‟. They are defensible in (a) certain discourse contexts, (b) certain intra-sentential context. This property will prove to be the undoing(doing away with) of any possible semantic theory of presupposition. They are defeasible in certain intra-sentential contexts and certain discourse context, for example,(1) Sue cried before she finished her thesis.(2) Sue finished her thesis.(3)Sue died before she finished her thesis.In Sentence(3) the presupposition seems to drop out, since we generally hold that people do not do things after they die, it follows that she could not have finished her thesis. They are liable to evaporate in certain contexts, either immediate linguistic context or the less immediate discourse context, or on circumstances where contrary assumptions are made.(Levinson,2001, p187)Another kind of contextual defeasibility arises in certain kinds of discourse contexts. For example, the cleft sentence 1 is supposed to presuppose 2:1. It isn‟t Luke who will betray you.2. Someone will betray you.You say that someon e in this room will betray you. Well maybe so. But it won‟t be Luke who will betray you, it won‟t be Paul, it won‟t be Matthew, and it certainly won‟t be John. Therefore no one in this room is actually going to betray youHere each of the cleft sentence(It won‟t be Luke, etc.)should presuppose that there will be someone who will betray the addressee. But the whole purpose of the utterance 1 is, of course, to persuade the addressee that no one will betray him, as stated in the conclusion. So the presupposition is again defeated; it was adopted as a counterfactual assumption to argue to the untenability (站不住脚) of such an assumption.So far we have shown that some of the core examples of presuppositional phenomena are subject to presupposition cancellation in certain kinds of context, namely:(i)Where it is common knowledge that the presupposition is false, the speaker is not assumed to be committedto the truth of the presupposition(ii) Where what is said, taken together with background assumptions, is inconsistent with what is presupposed, the presuppositions are cancelled, and are not assumed to be held by the speaker(iii) In certain kinds of discourse contexts, presuppositions can systematically fail to survive.3.4.2 Presuppositions are apparently tied to particular aspects of surface structure. This property may serve to distinguish presupposition from conversational implicatures (which are tied to the context rather than the surface structure.), the other major form of pragmatic inference.( Levinson, S. C. 2001)There are no doubt many other kinds of contextual defeasibility as well, but these examples are sufficient to establish that presuppositions are defeasible by virtue of contrary beliefs held in a context. There are also many kinds of intra-sentential cancellation of suspension of presuppositions.(Levinson, 190)3.4.3 Projection in presupposition There is a basic expectation that the presupposition of a simple sentence will continue to be true when that simple sentence becomes part of a more complex sentence. This is one version of the general idea that the meaning of the whole sentence is a combination of the meaning of its parts. However, the meaning of some presuppositions (as …parts‟) does not survive to become the meaning of some complex sentences (as …wholes‟). This is known as the projection problem. (Yule, 2004: P30-33) Another explanation given by Levinson (Levinson, 1983: 191) is that Frege held that meanings of sentences are compositional, i.e. that the meaning of the whole expression is a function of the meaning of the parts. It was originally suggested by Langendoen & Savin (1971) that this was true of presuppositions too, and moreover that the set of presupposition of the complex whole is the simple sum of the presuppositions of the parts, i.e. if S0 is a complex sentence containing sentences S1, S2…S n as constituents, then the presuppositions of S0 = the presuppositions of S1 + the presuppositions of S2 …+ the presuppositions of S n .But such a simple solution to the presuppositions of complex sentences is far from correct, and it has proved in fact extremely difficult to formulate a theory that will predict correctly which presuppositions of component clauses will in fact be inherited/maintained by the complex whole. This compositional problem is known as the projection problem for presuppositions, and the particular behaviour of presuppositions in complex sentences turns out to be the really distinctive characteristic of presuppositions. (The Chinese version may be a little easier to understand:详见索振羽,《语用学教程》2000.北京大学出版社P136-140)◆Presupposition triggers: Some of the kinds of words and structures that seem to trigger presuppositions. Definite noun phrase/definite descriptions: words like the, this, that, these, those and possessives like my, Mary’s, your, prepositional phrase like with(two heads), in, etc. trigger the basic kind of presupposition. The possessives lead to a particularly strong presupposition about the existence of something; this is sometimes called existential presupposition. (Peccei, p20)John saw/didn‟t see the man with two heads.》there exists a man with two headsWH-words like when, why, how, etc. used either to ask questions or to introduce a subordinate clause to trigger the presupposition that the speaker has assumed “the person in question did something” is true. (Peccei, p 21)Mr. Givens, why is it important for people to understand body language---that is, communication by means of movements and gestures?Where do we get mannerisms such as these?Verbs that can trigger presuppositions: implicative verbs, factive verbs, change of state verbs and verbs of judging.1) Implicative verbs(含蓄动词): manage, forget, happen, avoid etc. triggers the presupposition that some actions were conducted(manage), not expected(happen), or should have been conducted(forget).John managed/didn‟t manage to open the door》John tried to open the doorJohn forg ot /didn‟t forget to lock the door》John ought to have locked, or intended to lock, the doorsome further implicative predicates: X happened to V 》X didn‟t plan or intend to V; X avoid Ving 》X was expected to, or usually did, or ought to V2) factive verbs(述实动词/事实动词a verb followed by a clause which the speaker or writer considers to expressa fact:know, realize, regret, deplore(谴责), I am aware, it is strange, it is odd that, be sorry that, be proud that, be indifferent that, be glad that, be sad that, etc. triggers the presupposition that what follows is a fact。
浅谈语言中的预设问题

事 , 都必 须在 语 境 中才 能 得 以实现 而 且在 语 境 中,虚 词 实
化 的 成 因往往 并 不 是单 一 性的 ,而 是 相互 合 力 作用 的 结果 。 告 “ 知 ”等等 。塞 尔在 奥 斯汀 言 语行 为 理论 的 基础上 , 通 进 一步 发展 完 善 ,提 出了 间接言 语 行 为理 论 。 “ 间接 言 语
摘 要:预设是语用学中一个重要 的研究话题 ,
题 。在 逻 辑学 、语义 学和 语 用 学里 有很 多的研 究 。 “ 设概 预
在逻辑学、 语义学 语言用学里都有涉及 。 、 预设最早
应用于哲学领域, 后来逐渐成为语言学的关注对 象。
.
念从逻辑学向语言学的转移……已带来 了诸多争论”, “ 该
术 语还 不 是清 楚 明 白的 ,一 方 面是 因 为从 逻辑 概念 向 自然 语 言 的转 移 并不 是 由一 套转 换 演算 规 则支 配 的 ;另 一方 面 则是 为 ,即便 在 最好 情 况 下 ,逻辑 学 和语 言 学 的关 系 以及两 者
关键 词 预 设
哲 学 语 义
语用
这句 话 中 的 “ ”在句 法 上可 用 “ 了 的”代 替 ,两 者 均表 d 语 气助 词 ,而 虚 词就 必 然成 为此 时 不宜 使 用 的施 事动 词 的 .
示 肯定 语气 。但是 仔 细体味 ,二 者还 是有 区别 的 。 “ 用 不 那 代 用 品之 一 , 更策 略 、 更 巧妙 地执 行 交 际任 务 。
事动 词 ,而 大 量地 、 更 为经常 地 使 用一 些 不那 么 明确 、不 那
周朴 园:我们想把她的坟墓修 一修。
么确 定 的 “ 面 语 力 ”来 产 生 “ 事 语 力 ” , 即 “ 字 施 间接 语
浅谈语用预设

浅谈语用预设摘要幽默的言语是人类日常话语中经常使用的一种语言交际形式。
从语用学预设理论出发,对英汉言语中出现的幽默进行分析和解读。
关键词语用学;英汉言语幽默;预设1幽默和预设1.1幽默概述“幽默”一词对于今天的读者来说已不陌生了。
“幽默”又称为诙谐、笑话,包括情景幽默和言语幽默。
在这里我们所讨论的只是言语幽默,如幽默故事、小笑话及小品等。
“幽默”是humor的音译,1924年由林语堂翻译过来。
言语幽默是语言的精华,是人类智慧的反映。
它具有愉悦、教育、亲善、化解等人际及社会功能。
一般而言,幽默理论和幽默研究大体可以归入三大理论范畴:社会行为角度的优越论(Superiority/Disparagement Theory),心理分析角度的释放论(Relief/Release Theory)和心理认知角度的乖讹论(Incongruity Theory)。
1.2预设理论介绍预设也叫“前提”、“先设”和“前设”,是语义学和语用学研究的重要课题之一。
最初由德国哲学家、数学家弗雷格于1892年撰写的《意义和所指》提出。
他认为“如果人们陈述某些东西,当然总要有一个预设,即所用的简单的或复合的专名有一个意谓。
”其意是说任何句子命题都存在一个明显的预设,且句子中所包含的名称有所指,即该名称所表示的对象存在。
如:“Kepler died in misery.”这一命题就预设着“存在Kepler这样一个人。
”该命题在其否定命题“Kepler didn’t die in misery.”中仍然成立。
继弗雷格之后,英国哲学家罗素及斯特劳森又先后从语义角度对预设做出了各自的见解与研究。
到了20世纪七十年代,斯托纳克尔等语言学家注意到预设和语境的密切关系,认为预设不但和语境有关,而且和发话者有关,即预设不是句子和命题之间的关系,而是发话者和语段之间的关系。
如果一个命题是发话者在特定语境中的语用预设,那么预设一定是交际双方的共知信息。
语义学及语用学中_预设_问题的若干研究

2005年5月湖北教育学院学报M ay.2005第22卷第3期Jo urna l ofH ube i Instit u te of Educatio n Vo.l22No.3语义学及语用学中/预设0问题的若干研究马崴(湖北工业大学外语系,武汉430065)摘要:在语义学和语用学领域中,/预设0问题都是一个存在很多争议以及不可避免的问题。
本文粗略地介绍了语义学及语用学中/预设0的概念及其区别与联系,并通过分析/预设失灵0及/预设撤销0等两个问题探讨了预设在语义及语用两个领域的运用。
关键词:语义学;语用学;预设中图分类号:H03文献标识码:A文章编号:1007-1687(2005)03-0026-03作者简介:马崴(1977-),男,湖北工业大学外国语学院,讲师。
研究方向:语义学,语用学。
y/预设0(presupposition另一种译法/前提0)是语义学和语用学中的重要概念。
在上个世纪70年代曾有大量文献讨论这个概念。
预设概念的发展是随着语用学的发展而发展的。
正如语用学本身是以研究在语境中语言的意义;而语义学研究的领域是在不考虑语境的情况下语言内在所固有的含义。
语义学和语用学在预设概念上存在着研究领域的不同。
在语义学的领域中,预设研究来源于哲学研究,研究句子本身固有的意义,不考虑说话人或作者及听众的对语言的背景知识的理解,语义学中的预设是以逻辑学中的真值条件为基础的概念;而在语用学的领域中,预设不仅涉及到语言而且涉及到人,不把预设单纯看作话语和所产生的预设之间的逻辑关系)))在双方交谈时,他们有着各方面共同的背景知识(mu t u al back2 ground),不仅对所交谈的某一特定场合有共同的知识,而且对整个世界有共同的认识。
在很多语言学者如le w is,Sta l n aker,w ilson等看来,预设实质上是一个语用学概念而非语义学的范围,因为以真值条件为基础的预设确实存在一些解决不了的问题,如在下文中要分析到的/预设失灵0等现象,而在另一些学者的眼中,预设可以分作语义和语用两类。
语义预设和语用预设的分岭

语义预设和语用预设的分岭曾晓莉2016201133预设,也叫做前提,对它的研究起源于哲学界。
后来德国哲学家Frege对所指和所指词语性质提出争论。
这就进入到语言学界中语义预设的研究。
有人认为预设指的是真实值的必要条件;是施行言语行为的恰当条件;是交际双方的共有知识;也是使话语具有意义所必须满足的条件。
关于预设这一概念,不同的人有不同的看法。
Yule结合词汇和句法关系,对预设进行了六种划分:叙实性预设、非叙实性预设、与事实不相符的预设、存在关系预设、词汇预设和结构预设。
在语言学范围内,受弗雷格思想的影响,语言学家最早把预设与真值条件语义学相联系起来,因而语义预设得到浏览充分发展。
后来到20世纪70年代,斯托纳克等语言学家注意到预设与语境有着密切的联系,因此,语言学家开始结合语境研究预设,语用预设也得到了充分发展。
语义预设是在语义上分析出的预设,“它应该是一成不变的,是语言本身所固有的属性,独立于语言的使用以外。
”(何兆熊,2000)语言学家们把预设看作是语义命题之间的一种关系。
一个语句预设另一个语句,当且仅当预设句为真值的时候,原句才具有真值意义。
即原句A预设句子B,如果A为真,B也为真;如果A为假,B仍然为B。
例如:A.今年重庆市沙坪坝区正在进行文明创卫生城市活动。
B.重庆有一个叫做沙坪坝的区。
当且仅当B句成立,即B为真实条件时,A才有意义,人们才会说出这句话,同时这句话才能被听话者所理解。
由此我们可以看出语义预设是语义蕴含关系中的一种;它是一种与既定的话语或结构中的关系;这种关系是既定的不能被改变的;同时他也能代表着一种虚拟的事实,一种猜想的真实条件。
因此,语义预设最显著的特征是静态的,逻辑抽象的。
但是由于语句通常是在具体环境中使用,如在虚拟条件句中使用,此时的真值条件关系却不能解释这种话语现象。
于是一些语言学家在言语活动中(如:使用语言的语境及说话这的身份和信仰等)对它进行研究,这就产生了语用预设。
语义学与语用学的区别浅议

重 转变 ; ( 2 ) 教学 :由重传 授轻 培养 向既 传授 知识 又 培养 科 学人 文素质 转变 ; ( 3 ) 途径 : 从 重课 内轻 课外 向课 内课外 相
结合转变 ; ( 4 ) 追求 :由对聋生应试教育向培养健康个性转
变 。教师要 注 意发掘 数学 教育 的文化 价值 和人 文关 怀 。对于 聋 生的数 学教 育 , 只有在 抓好 基础 知识 和 基本技 能 培养 的 同 时, 注重 对人 文价 值 和聋生 健康 个性 的追 求 , 才能 真 正实现 数学教育的价值。
学园 l A C A D E Mቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
2 0 1 3年 第 1 0期
语 义学 与语 用 学 的 区别浅 议
齐 琳 中国矿业 大学 ( 北京 )文法 学院
【 摘 要 】 语义学和语用学是语言学的两个分支,它们都涉及对语言意义的研究。本文探讨 了二者的关系与区别。尽管
很 难 划分语 义 学 与语 用 学 的界 限,但是 关 于这个 问题 的讨 论 可 以使 我们 加深 对语 言 的特 点与功 能 的理 解 。 【 关键词 】 语义学 语用学 关系 区别
的关 系 。 作 为语 言学 的重 要分 支 , 语 义学对 语 用学 影响 颇深 。
虽 然语 义学 ( 概念 语义 学层 面 ) 与语用 学 之 间的关 系仍存 在 分歧 。 目前 就二 者 的关系 而言 ,主要有 三种 逻辑关 系 :(1 ) 语 用学 应该 归 入语 义学 。( 2)语义 学应 该 归入语 用学 。( 3)
别 的假设 。
查 尔斯 ・ 莫 里斯 和支 持三 分法 的鲁道 夫 ・ 卡 纳普 。 杰 弗里 ・ 里
奇 、斯 蒂芬 ・ 莱文森 和 肯特 ・ 巴赫也试 图区分 这两个 语 言学
语义预设与语用预设差别小议

教改聚焦2013-11预设(presupposition),又称为“前提”,起源于哲学界,最早的时候是在19世纪由著名的逻辑学家、哲学家(Frege)在他的《意义与指称》这本著作中提出,在通过一个句子作出声言时,必然存在显而易见的前提,即在声言中所用的专用名词必有所指。
在他之后的半个世纪左右的时间里哲学界有了不同的看法,但是在20世纪六七十年代随着语义学的不断发展,这个概念在语言学界引起了兴趣,预设因此也就进入了语言学所研究的范围内,成了语用学与语义学研究探讨的焦点课题之一。
此文对预设在语用学和语义学这两个领域内的运用做一些对比和探讨。
一、语言学中对预设的界定在语言学中,关于预设的研究分成了语用预设和语义预设。
语义预设(semantic presupposition),主要是在句子的层面上去进行的,认为当一个句子形成之后,预设就已寓于句义之中,就是句子本身固有的意义,不考虑作者或说话人及听众们对语言背景知识的理解。
语用预设(pragmatic presupposition),不仅涉到语言而且涉及人,将预设看成是交际双方预定的先知信息。
在双方的交谈过程中,他们有着各个方面共同的背景知识,不止对所交谈的某一特定场合有共同的知识,对整个世界有共同的认识。
下面我们就语用预设和语义预设分别进行探讨。
1.语义预设在语义学的领域当中,预设是建立在真值条件语义理论的基础之上的,就是语义预设从语句的命题或意义的真与假上来进行定义。
相同的语句在不同的语境当中能表达不同的命题。
一个语句不仅可以在某种语境当中表达某命题(与事实相符),还可在另外一种语境当中表达出另一命题(与事实不符)。
所以语言学家所讲的语义预设是两个命题之间的关系,句子或命题仅仅是根据逻辑和语法来考查,也就是说句子的意义是由其构成成分的意义以及成分在句内的语法关系所决定的。
如果句中没有名词或者确定描述没有所指,即预设为假时,整个句子没有真值可言。
如:(1)A.Mary’s father bought her a book.B.Mary has a father.在真值条件语义逻辑下,这两句话的真实性关系,可以描述为:如果是A真实(true)的,则是B真实(true)的;如果是A虚假(false)的,则B还是真实(true)的;如果A是真实(true)的,则B是真实(true)或虚假(false)的。
浅谈语言中的预设问题

浅谈语言中的预设问题预设是语用学中一个重要的研究话题,在逻辑学、语义学、语言用学里都有涉及。
预设最早应用于哲学领域,后来逐渐成为语言学的关注对象。
标签:预设哲学语义语用我们先来看生活中的一个故事:有个人过生日,邀请四个好友到家中吃饭。
三个准时到达了,只有一人迟迟未来。
主人有些着急,不禁脱口而出:“急死人了,该来的怎么还没来呢?”其中一人听后,很不高兴的对主人说:“我先告辞了,再见。
”说完就走了。
一个人未到,另一个人又走了,主人急得又冒出一句:“真是的,不该走的却走了。
”剩下的两人中的一个也生气地说:“那好,我也走了。
”说完掉头就走。
又一个人走了,主人更加着急起来。
最后剩下的这位就劝主人:“朋友都被你气走了,以后说话要好好想想。
”主人很无奈地说:“他们全都误会我了,我说的根本不是他们。
”这位朋友听后再也坐不住了,最后也铁青着脸走了。
本来一场欢宴最后却不欢而散,那么主人的哪些话表达有问题,让客人十分恼火,纷纷离开?这是因为他的话里有预设。
预设(presupposition)确实是个极为重要的研究话题。
在逻辑学、语义学和语用学里有很多的研究。
“预设概念从逻辑学向语言学的转移……已带来了诸多争论”,“该术语还不是清楚明白的,一方面是因为从逻辑概念向自然语言的转移并不是由一套转换演算规则支配的;另一方面则是因为,即便在最好情况下,逻辑学和语言学的关系以及两者在自然语言分析中的角色也还是不清楚的。
”①预设甚至在哲学领域也有一定的研究。
最早讨论预设问题的是现代分析哲学先驱弗雷格(Gottlob Frege)。
他在其划时代的论文《论涵义与指称》②里涉及了预设问题。
后来罗素(B. Russell)、斯特劳森(P. F. Strawson)以及其他许多逻辑学家、语言学家继续探讨了这个问题。
德国当代学者布斯曼(H. Bussmann)《语言与语言学词典》对预设的定义是:“(预设是)关于表达或话语的含意的一种不言自明的(含蓄而不言明的)设定。
“语义预设/语用预设”的一个视角

作者: 张家骅
作者机构: 黑龙江大学,哈尔滨150080
出版物刊名: 外语学刊
页码: 70-75页
主题词: 预设 陈说 命题 命题形式 真值 实际切分
摘要:语用预设与语义预设是并列的两种本体有别的预设,二者可能重合,也可能不重合。
语义预设是说话人的常时背景知识,未必一定是受话人已知的;其领有主体是说话人,因而可以说是一个语用学学科领域的概念,但这不等于说,语义预设就是语用预设。
语用预设区别于语义预设的是:说话人立足于受话人有相同的即时信息,也知道P;预设的蕴含方式主要借助实际切分,与语句实际切分主位的表达手段是大体一致的,即主位在大多数情况下相当于语用预设;语用预设的内容不必一定是真的。
本文尝试用预设理论解释吕叔湘先生提出的为什么“不相信他不知道=相信他知道”的问题:相信。
他知道≌不相信:他不知道,后句是前句的转换形式,用于特定的语境,有加强语气的作用。
2021语义预设和语用预设范文2

2021语义预设和语用预设范文 预设是说话者在说出一个句子时所包含的假设,也就是说话者为保证话语的合适性而必须满足的前提。
预设这一概念最早是德国著名逻辑学和数学家Frege 于 1892 年提出的,它是当代语言学家和哲学家共同研究和关注的焦点之一。
预设是理解和使用语言的重要基础,是依靠逻辑、语义、语境等推断出来的话语先决条件,反映了说话者与话语之间的关系。
逻辑学上对预设的研究是在命题层面展开的,认为预设与语句的真假无关;语义学对预设的研究是在句子层面展开的,认为预设是静态的语言现象;而语用学对预设的研究是结合语境、句子、意义,以及说话者和听话者信息等研究的,语用学认为预设是语境的、动态的,是从不同语境的角度来研究的。
一、语义预设和语用预设 预设在语义和语用这两个不同范围内有不同的意义。
当然,这并不是说语义预设和语用预设是两个对立体,而是语言学家们对同一预设的两种不同角度的解释。
语义预设是逻辑语义学视角下的预设,而语用预设是语用学视角下的预设。
两者可能重合也可能不重合。
(一)语义预设观 在逻辑语义学中,语言学家将预设看作是句子及命题之间的关系,他们从值条件的角度分析预设,将预设看作是一个命题是否成立的必要条件,目的是为了展示句子之间的逻辑关系来判断命题真假。
语义预设是狭义的预设,是仅存在于句子层面的预设,因而是客观的、非语境的、静态的。
预设在语义方面的研究是始于英国著名哲学家Strawson,他在《逻辑理论导论》一书中对预设进行了定义。
“一个命题S 预设 P,而且仅当 P 是 S 有真值或价值的必要条件。
”逻辑学区分了语句和命题,满足预设是一个句子成为命题的必要条件。
一般情况下,一个句子有三种意义:断言意义、蕴含意义和预设意义,这三类意义的区别在于,它们要求不同的真值条件。
人们常用否定语句来检验判断语句的断言是否有内涵和预设。
语义预设观是从两个命题的关系以及三值逻辑观即真、假、非真非假的角度来研究预设的,并把预设看作是其真值为一个预设性命题为真的前提的命题,因此语义预设是只发生在词汇层面上的而不超过句子层面的,语义预设是纯粹的语义关系,和语境的变化没有关系。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性,平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益,请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间:9:00-18:30)。
浅析语义学和语用学中的“预设”问题
作者:栗富阳陈龙
来源:《读与写·下旬刊》2013年第08期
摘要:"预设"(presupposition)也称之为前提,是语义学中的重要概念。
上个世纪70年代曾有大量文献讨论过这个概念。
一般说来预设分为语义预设和语用预设。
语义预设是以真值条件为基础的,存在于句子结构与句意之中。
语用预设是关于说话与语境之间的关系,其特征是预设的合适性和共知性。
本文从语义学和语用学角度浅谈"预设"在语义学中和语用学中的区别和联系。
关键词:语义预设;语用预设;区别和联系
中图分类号:G648 文献标识码:B 文章编号:1672-1578(2013)08-0005-01
1.语义学领域的预设
1.1 语义预设的理论基础。
语义学领域的预设研究句子本身固有的意义,不考虑说话人或者作者以及听众对语言的背景知识的理解,也就是说它与语境无关,它是建立在真值条件语义理论的基础之上的,例如:
A. Peter's grandma bought him a new bike.
B. Peter has a grandma.
上面的例子在语义学领域下根据我们学过的"真值条件"应该这样进行描述:如果a 是真实的,b则是真实的;如果a 是虚假的,则b还是真是的;如果b是真实的,则a 或者是真实的或者是虚假的。
具体到上面的例子,我们可以这样进行解释:彼得的奶奶给他买了一辆自行车是真实的,则彼得肯定是有奶奶的。
如果彼得的奶奶给他买了辆自行车是假的,那么彼得还是有个奶奶的。
而彼得有个奶奶,那他奶奶给他买自行车这件事是可真的也可是假的。
也就是说彼得的奶奶给他买不买自行车都是可以的。
1.2 语义预设的特点。
一般说来,语义预设有稳定性(Stability)、可变性(Changeability)这两个基本特点。
(俞如珍,1996,25)
①稳定性(Stability)。
语义预设依赖于语言内部词语的词汇意义和句子结构,不受外部语境的影响,因此是稳定的。
对语句进行否定或者加以疑问都不会影响句意和句子预设。
例如:
1) The boy apologizes for telling a lie.
2) The boy does not apologize for telling a lie.
3) Does the boy apologize for telling a lie?
4) They beat the boy.
句子1)的预设是4)。
如果我们把1)进行否定或者加以疑问他们真实的前提都是4)。
也就是说句子的内涵经得起否定的检验,具有稳定性。
②可变性(Changeability)。
语义预设与语句的焦点有着密切的关系。
焦点不同,预设就随着焦点的变化而变化。
1) John gave the book to Bill. (话语的重心在John上)
2) John gave the book to Bill. (话语的重心在book上)
3) John gave the book to Bill.(话语的重心在Bill上)
1)的焦点在John上。
预设是谈话双方都知道有人给了Bill一本书,但是受话人不知道是谁给的,于是发话人便以John作为焦点告诉对方是John给了Bill一本书。
2)的预设是谈话双方都知道John给了Bill一样东西,但受话人不知道究竟给的是什么,于是发话人便以book为焦点告诉对方John给Bill的是一本书。
3)的预设是双方都知道John把一本书给了别人,但是发话人把焦点放在Bill上,他要告诉受话人John把书给的是Bill。
1.3 语义预设的类型。
一般说来,语义预设可以分为三种类型:存在预设、事实预设和种类预设。
存在预设是指交际双方对世界上的事物和人的存在的认识,这种预设的推知是不需要语境的。
事实预设是指交际双方在交流过程中预先肯定或者否定的一些事实情况,它无需语境的加入。
种类预设是指交际者在交流过程中预先存在的关于种类方面的经验知识。
(李春琦,2011,64)
2.语用学领域的预设
R- Stalnaker 是较早提出"语用预设"概念并对此进行深刻研究的学者。
在他看来,基本的预设关系并不是命题或者语句之间的关系,而是一种人与命题之间的关系。
鉴于这种观点Stalnaker提出了一个有别于语义预设的语用预设定义:"一个说话者在谈话的某一特定时间里预设P,仅当在他的语言行为中,他倾向于这样的行动:好像他认为P当然真,也好像他假定了他和其他听众一样认为P当然真。
"根据他的这一定义,相对于预设P来说,说话者并不需要真正地认为P当然是真的,为了交谈的目的,他和他的听众可以接受一个虚假的知识或者一个其真值尚有疑问的命题。
在如此情况下,双方的行为可能包含一个大家都知道的作假。
所以,从语用学的角度来看,预设并不一定是真的。
根据湖南大学罗雪梅老师的观点,语用学领域的预设最重要的是预设的合适性(felicity)和共知性( mutual knowledge)。
她认为所谓预设的合适性就是把语用预设看作在特定的语境里,发话人和句子的适切性的一种关系,预设是受语境制约的,预设是言语行为的先决条件。
例如:当老师对学生说"please open the door",老师发出这个言语行为是提出了一个"请求",这个"请求"是否合适是有一系列的语用预设作为先决条件的。
如:请求开门的是老师和学生都明确的那扇门,这门已经关着的,老师知道学生能够做这件事,如果实际语境并不具备这样的条件,比如,学生不知道老师走的这扇门还是后门或者要求开的门已经是开着的或者学生正在忙,不可能来开门。
那么老师的"请求"就毫无意义。
所以,语用预设的合适性有助于正确发出语言的行为并使听话的人正确理解这个言语的行为。
预设的共知性一般可以分为三种情况:第一,预设往往是谈话双方或一般人共知的信息,它与语境紧密相连。
第二,预设的共知性要通过说话人的话语暗示出来,并得到听话人的理解。
第三预设的共知性有时只指说话双发的共知事物,第三者如不了解预设而只是依靠语境是不一定能真正理解说话双方对话的内容的。
3.结论:语义学和语用学的区别和联系
首先,一个命题或者语句的语用预设必须联系该语句或者命题的具体的语境因素才能确定,而语义预设则不同,确定一个语句或命题的语义预设无需考虑语境,单凭该语句或者命题的本身的逻辑和语法意义就可以得知。
其次语义预设是任何人都能根据语句或者命题本身推出来的,因而是人人共知的。
而语用预设它的共知性有时只局限在交际的双方。
但是,另一方面,语义预设和语用预设又是紧密相连的。
一方面,语义预设是语用预设的基础,没有关于预设的语义研究就谈不上有其语用预设。
另一方面,语用预设是对语义预设研究的深化与扩展。
所以,我赞成Stalnaker的这一说法:"语义预设与语用预设的概念并不是相互抵触的,它们是对相关而不相同的观念的解释。
一般说来,任何在给定的语境中表达出来的命题的语义预设将是在那个语境中的人的语用预设。
但是,反之则不然。
"
参考文献
[1] Leech. G. Principles of pragmatics[M]. London: Longman Press, 1983.
[2] 段宏立,淺说预设[J]. 重庆:重庆工学院学报,2005.
[3] 何兆熊,《语用学概要》[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1989.
[4] 何自然,《语用学概论》[M].湖南:湖南教育出版社,1988.
[5] 姜宏,徐颖,预设与否定的功能[J].上海:上海外国语大学学报,1997.
[6] 杨翠,预设分析与语言研究[J].广东:广东社会科学,2006.
[7] 杨年保,语义预设与语用预设研究[J].北京:云梦学刊,2005.
[8] 俞如珍,语义预设、语用预设和会话含义[J].四川:四川外语学院学报,1996.。