Lexicology 词汇学chp6
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳-(28380)
English Lexicology(英语词汇学) Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics （文体论）and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adoptedfrom the Romans,which does not have aseparate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidlythan spelling over the years（3）some of thedifference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel ofenriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentageof the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms （古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in use Borrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系) The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namelytoots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式) 2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning Type of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent). （2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root （自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixboundderivationalaffixsuffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀):un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey) 2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-, sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear 6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail) 8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman) (2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functionalshift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法): Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for thesewords were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known asconnotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来) （2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative （4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of thesemantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning. Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别) 1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源) 1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball ) 3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes （同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule. Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ] (2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated,lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand. Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop,ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter) Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do notallow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qual ify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm:hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake ofcontrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included inthat of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a specialmeaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It maycover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy. 2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）,Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary. Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout]（2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die) （7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D) 2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation,。
英语词汇学复习提纲 lexicology
Chapter 1 Lexicology and WordsWhat is lexicology?Lexicology = study of words / the lexiconIt is closely related to morphology, semantics, etymology and lexicography.Morphology: the study of the forms of words and their components.Semantics: the study of meaning.Etymology: the study of the whole history of words.Lexicography: the writing and compilation of dictionariesWhat is a word?A Word is an uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes; a unit of sound and meaning.The total stock of English words is structured and organized in a systematic way.→word class; semantic field.⏹Word class: closed class (grammatical or function words):preposition, pronoun,determiner（限定词: the, every..）, conjunction, auxiliary verb(助动词)；open class(lexical words): noun, adjective, verb, adverb.⏹Lexical words and grammatical words⏹Semantic (or lexical) field: semantic field of color terms, kinship terms, military ranksand vehicles; semantic field analysis used in the descriptions of vocabulary in dictionaries like Roget‟s Thesaurus& Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English(McArthur) & Longman dictionary of Scientific Usage & Longman Language Activator . Componential analysis: a method for establishing semantic field(e.g. the meaning of woman: [+human],[+adult],[+female]Chapter 2—Some basic concepts and Word MeaningsMorpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in a language;(e.g. moralizers is composed of 4 morphemes: moral+lize+er+s.)A morpheme may be: A complete word; a word form such as an affix(e–able); a combining form(bio-, geo-)⏹Free morpheme:lexical morpheme: ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs, the words which carry the “content”of messages we convey, e.g. boy, house, tiger, sad, long, sincere, open, look, follow, bread.functional morpheme: consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, e.g. and, but, when, because, on, near, in, the, that, it.⏹Bound morpheme(prefix or suffix):Derivational morpheme: used to make new words in the language. e.g. (-ness, -ly, -ish, ment, re-, pre-, ex-, pre-, dis-, co-, un-); good—goodness, fool—foolish, bad—badly, pay—payment Inflectional morpheme: indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. e.g. –ed, -s, -ing, -er, -est, -‟s. In English, all inflectional morphemes are suffixes.Morph/allomorphLexeme(lexical item): The base form of a word;A unit of lexical meaning (Crystal, 1995); An abstract vocabulary item;The headwords in a dictionary;May consist of one word or more than one word;Stem: the word to which inflectional affixes are added and which carries the basic meaning of the resulting complex word; e.g. work, worker.A stem may consist of one or more morphemes; Root: A stem consisting of a single morpheme is labeled as root; e.g. work.⏹Roots which are capable of standing independently are called free morphemes/roots;⏹Roots which are incapable of occurring independently are called boundmorphemes/roots.7 types of Word Meaning⏹Conceptual meaning概念义(or denotative meaning, cognitive meaning) [meanings indictionaries]⏹Connotative meaning隐含义: the communicative value of an expression by virtue ofwhat is refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.Politician&statesman, colors, kitty&cat.⏹Social meaning: Information about the speaker, such as their background or theirrelationship to the hearer.E.g., if Jo says wee instead of little, it may communicate to you that she’s Scottish; AmE /BrE differences and other dialectal or accent differences; terms of address etc; Mummy, dogie—child.⏹Affective meaning: Information about the speaker’s attitude toward the subject that’scommunicated by the words s/he’s chosen or the way s/he says theme.g. strong-willed vs. pig-headed; slim vs. skinny; Bob vs. Bobby⏹Reflective meaning: the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning,when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.E.g. words which have a taboo meaning(intercourse)⏹Collocative meaning: consists of the associations a word acquires on account of themeanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.Pretty+woman, flower, garden, village vs handsome+man, car, vessel, overcoat, typewriter; cow+wander vs man+stroll; tremble with fear vs quiver with excitement;highly: important, intelligent, profitable, recommended, sensitive;a bit, a little: drunk, jealous, unkind;wide awake, fully awake, sound asleep, far apart⏹Thematic meaning: mainly a matter of choice btw alternative grammatical constructionsMrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.Polysemy一词多义: One lexical item that has more than one sense. Bank, eat, court, watch, dart, stuff.Homonymy同形异义: More than one lexical item that just coincidentally sound/look the same.⏹Complete homonymy (bat, pupil, , firm, bear, grave, stick, jam, steep, fleet, pad, stem)⏹Homophone = same sound(to/ two, right/rite/write, root/route, knows/nose )⏹Homograph = same spelling (wind, lead,)◆How to distinguish polysemy and homonymy?Whether the senses are related;Whether they come from the same source;Whether under one headword in a dictionary;Ambiguity & VaguenessChapter 3 The origin of English WordsEnglish belongs to West Germanic branch of Indo-European family.Historical development of English vocabulary and characteristics of each period.⏹The Old English period (450 -1066)✧OE: the speech of the earliest Germanic inhabitants of Britain;The first OE manuscripts (around 700): glossaries of Latin words translated into OE, and a few early inscriptions and poems;Most important literary work: the heroic poem Beowulf (written around 1000);✧ 1.A frequent use of coinages known as ‗kennings‘[古英语中的隐喻语] (vivid figurativedescriptions often involving compounds);2. Preference for expressions that are synonymous;3. The absence of a wide-ranging vocabulary of loanwords force people to rely more onword-formation process based on native elements4. The introduction of a number of ‗loan translation‘;5. Grammatical relationships in OE were expressed mainly by the use of inflectionalendings;6. OE is believed to contain about 24,000 different lexical items.⏹The Middle English period (1066 -1500)✧Norman Conquest;✧Extensive changes:In grammar, Eng. changed from a highly inflected language to an analytical one.In vocabulary, Eng. was characterized by the loss of a large part of the OE word-stock and the addition of thousands of words from French and Latin.⏹The Early Modern English period (1500 -1800)✧Transitional period from Middle Eng. to Modern English;✧Printing revolution marked its beginning;✧Eng. vocabulary grew very fast through extensive borrowing and expansion ofword-formation patterns;✧ A great many semantic changes, as old words acquire new meanings.◆Two most important influencesWilliam Shakespeare; James Bible of 1611◆Two dictionariesDictionary of Hard Words (1604), Dictionary of the English Language (1775)⏹The Modern English period (1800-present)✧The unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary;The assertion of American Eng. as a dominant variety of the lang.;The emergence of other varieties known as ‗New Englishes‘.Types of meaning change(7)⏹Metaphor隐喻: using a word to refer to sthng it doesn‘t literally denote, but that hassome kind of similarity to the literal meaningHead-- …body part above the neck‟ > …a person in charge‟baby --…infant‟ > …loved one‟⏹Metonymy转喻: using a word to refer to something that is associated with its literaldenotation.Downing Street ‗place where the PM lives‘ > ‗the PM‘crown ‗an item of headwear worn by a monarch‘ > ‗the monarch‘, ‗the sovereignty of the monarch‘⏹Synecdoche提喻: using a part to refer to the whole (or vice versa):All hands on deck! - ‗man, sailor‘I got a new motor - ‗car‘⏹Broadening (/generalisation)扩大: a word refers to a more inclusive category:manage ‗to handle a horse‘ > ‗to handle anything‘bullish ‗causing or associated with a rise in prices‘ > ‗optimistic‘⏹Narrowing (/specialisation)缩小: a word refers to a less inclusive category:accident ‗an event‘ > ‗unintended/injurious event‘undertaker ‗someone who undertakes‘ > ‗mortician‘⏹Amelioration (/elevation)升格: the mng of a word becomes more positivenice ‗ignorant, stupid‘ > ‗pleasant‘fond ‗foolish‘ > ‗appreciative‘⏹Pejoration (/degradation)降格: the mng of a word becomes more negativesinister < ‗left(-handed)‘mistress < ‗a woman in a position of power‘--an adulterous womanChapter 4 Word Formation✧Inflection and derivationInflection refers to a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes toproduce alternative grammatical forms of words.new word by means of the addition of an affix to a stem. lexical process.✧Inflectional affixes and derivational affixes p58Inflectional affixes: (only suffixes: plural marker –s, possessive marker ‗s, comparative and superlative markers –er and –est, tense markers –s and –ed, present participle –ing…) (regular and irregular)Derivational affixes: (class-changing slow-ly and class-maintaining child-hood)prefix: re-, de-, in-, im-, un-, pre-, dis-suffix: -ish, -ous, -ary, -ful, -er, -ence, -y, -ly, -ate, -able, -ation, -ure, -dom, -ful, -ment, -en,I doesn‘t change the word class and grammatical category while d changes.Prefixes and suffixesTypes of Word Formation (6)⏹Derivation派生法: using derivational affixes:final+ize, teach+er, sex+ism, eco+tourism, trans+atlantic⏹Compounding复合法: putting existing wds together:couch+potato, lap+topCompounds: stems consisting of more than one rootOrthographic treatment of compounds: bedside, black market, car-wash✧Three features of compound:●Phonological feature: (nominal compounds) A single primary stress; lack of juncture;e.g. ‗blackbird vs black bird;hardcover vs hard cover;greenhouse vs green house;redcoat vs red coatstonewall vs stone wall●Syntactic feature: Single lexical unit, specific syntactic features●Semantic feature: specialized meaningse.g. blackboard, dustbin, redcoat, stonewall, cathouse, turncoat, mother wit, Indian paper,dog days✧4 types of compound:An endocentric compound: consists of a head and its modifier (doghouse);A exocentric compound: does not have a head (white-collar, must-have)A copulative compound: two semantic heads(bittersweet, sleepwalk)An appositional compound: two attributes which classify the compound.(actor-director, maidservant)⏹Conversion（词类）转化法: a change in word class without the addition of an affix.✧ A change within the same class; e.g. some beer/sugar/tea→two beers/sugars/teas; vi →vt✧ A change from one class to another: n→v; v→n; adj.→n; adj.→v p67⏹Blending拼缀法: combining parts of two words to form a third word which containssome of the meaning of each part.smog (smoke + fog), motel (motor + hotel),Eurovision (European + television)brunch, chunnel, dawk, slanguage, bit, psywar, paratroops, guestimate●Four types [69]⏹Back formation逆生法:removal of perceived affixes (related to notion of folketymology):to edit < editor (cf. to accelerate > accelerat-or)；to automate < automation；to beg < beggar；to lase < laser (n.)；to drowse < drowsy (adj.)；to housekeep < housekeeper⏹Shortening缩略法✧Clipping截短–the process by which a word is shortened without a change in meaningor function. lab (laboratory); plane (aeroplane); flu (influenza)Three major types of clippings: fore clipping, hind clipping, midclipping[71]✧Initialisms:●Alphabetism首字母缩略词/abbreviations- spelt out as letters :o OTT < over the topo DIY < do it yourself●Acronyms首字母拼音词– using initial letters of a phrase to form a word, pronounced aswords:o scuba < Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatuso NATO < North Atlantic Treaty OrganisationChapter 5 Sense RelationsSynonymy同义关系：sameness⏹Strict (or absolute) synonymy: gorse=furze⏹Loose synonymy (Distinguishing synonyms): E.g. mislay ≈lose; foggy ≈misty; mob ≈crowd, find/discover; forest/woods.Antonymy反义关系：oppositeness⏹Complementary antonyms (also called contradictory antonyms, binary antonyms)互补词: In an either/or relation of oppositenessE.g. asleep/awake; dead/alive (of e.g. animal); remember/forget; win/lose; open/shut;hit/miss (a target); pass/fail (a test)⏹Gradable antonyms可分级反义词: a more/less relation, 多为形容词E.g. cheap/expensive, rich/poor, fast/slow, sweet/sour, young/old, beautiful/ugly,tall/short, wide/narrow, clever/stupid, near/far, interesting/boring, love/hate⏹Converse antonyms (also called reciprocal antonyms, relational opposites) 对立词：two-way contrasts that are interdependente.g. precede/follow, buy/sell, lend/borrow, give/receive, speak/listen, rent/let,employer /employee, husband/wife, parent/child, debtor/creditor, teacher/pupil, above/below, before/afterHyponymy下义关系：subtype relation⏹Hyponym（下义词）= ‗type of’Robin is a hyponym of bird.⏹Hypernym / superordinate（上义词）= refers to the larger categoryBird is the hypernym of robin, penguin, and pigeon.Meronymy局部—整体关系：part/whole relation⏹Meronym = ‗part of‘：Arm is a meronym of chair.⏹Holonym = ‘whole of’：Chair is a holonym of arm, back, and seat.Collocation搭配关系components are not freely interchangeable; certain restrictions; (differ from free combinations); e.g. decide on a boat⏹Grammatical collocation: e.g. rely of, afraid of, good at, angry with, approve of, adhereto, admiration for, allegiance to, amazement at…⏹Lexical collocation: e.g. run a business/ a company/ a school/ a gym, make a decision,put forward a strong argument…Major relations: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy—paradigmatic ‘sense relations’[纵聚合关系的]Collocation—syntagmatic meaning relation[横组合关系的]Chapter 6 Idioms, Multiword Verbs and ProverbsIdiom: a group of words with a meaning of its own that is different from the meanings of each separate word put together.Characteristics of English idioms⏹Semantic featuresMany idioms have dual meanings: literal and idiomatic meaning; Some literal meanings go against the logic of thinking and life; A great number of idiomatic meanings come from figurativeness. (simile and metaphor)let the cat out of the bag/spill the beans说漏了嘴，泄漏秘密; under the weather身体不适; take in欺骗; have an axe to grind另有企图；know the ropes 懂行；了解情况；as blindas a bat;⏹Structural features: structural stability / syntactic frozenness;to smell a rat觉得可疑; to see red突然大怒; to kick the bucketClassification of English idioms⏹Idioms verbal in nature: v. + particleface the music; spill the beans; beat about the bush; bark up the wrong tree攻击错了目标; burn the candle at both ends过分地耗费精力; have a head on one‟s shoulder有见识; poke one‟s nose into; get wind of风闻; go easy从容不迫; come clean全盘招出; sit pretty 处于极为有利的条件；过舒服的生活；成功⏹Idioms nominal in natureblue chip优值股票; narrow escape九死一生; white elephant无用而累赘apple of的东西; an discord争端，祸根; a snake in the grass; the lion’s share; Achilles’heel致使弱点; Penelope’s web永远完不成的任务; wear and tear磨损; flesh and blood; brain trust智囊团; sheet anchor最后的/主要的靠山;⏹Idioms adjectival in naturehigh and mighty趾高气扬; cut and dried呆板的; on edge; on the go忙个不停; up in the air十分激动；气愤; wet behind the ears缺乏经验的; as cool as a cucumber; as slippery as an eel;⏹Idioms adverbial in natureheart and soul; tooth and nail竭尽全力地; in a breeze轻而易举地; behind the scenes秘密地; between the devil and the deep blue sea进退维谷; through thick and thin不顾艰难险阻Multiword verb：Units in which the main verb occurs with one or two particles(not, to, up, out…);⏹Classification of multiword verbs;✧Prepositional verbs介词动词: v.+prep+(n). Call for, look for, ask for, refer to, gointo, come by, attend to, burn for, bump into, depend on, enter upon, work under.✧Phrasal verbs短语动词: v.+adv. Bring up, look up, give in, sit down, blow up, boilover, drop in, end up, play around, stand up, take off…✧Phrasal-prepositional verbs短语介词动词: v.+adv.+prep. Check up on, get awaywith, stand up for, walk away with, put up with, keep out of, look down on, look up to…Proverb: short well-known statements that give practical advice about life; they capture the shared beliefs or collective wisdom of a society.Chapter 7 English DictionariesPrescriptive dictionary and descriptive dictionary; historical dictionary;⏹Prescriptive = s aying how the lg ‗should‘ be used.⏹Descriptive = recording the language exactly as it is used. E.g. W3Three important dictionaries⏹The Dictionary of the English Language by Samuel Johnson; (prescriptivism)⏹OED; (historical principle)The greatest of all unabridged Eng. Ds.;The only Eng. D compiled totally from its own citation files;⏹Webster‟s New International Dictionary; (descriptive principle)English corpora;CollinsGeneral-purpose dictionary and specialized dictionary; learner‘s dictionary⏹General-purpose dictionary✧Desk size(=college Ds in the USA),e.g. Collins English Dictionary, LongmanDictionary of the English Language, the New Oxford Dictionary of English;[中型词典，案头词典]✧Concise size, e.g. the Concise Oxford Dictionary, Collins Concise English Dictionary,Longman Concise English Dictionary; [简明词典]✧Pocket size, e.g. the Pocket Oxford Dictionary, etc. [袖珍词典]⏹specialized dictionary: restricted to one variety(e.g. a dialect, technical jargon, slang) ortype of entry word(e.g. verbs, adjectives…)Etymological Dictionary of English Language; Webster‟s Dictionary of Synonyms;Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English; An English Pronouncing Dictionary (Daniel Jones); A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English (John S. Kenyon) Roget‟s International Thesaurus; A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (Henry Watson Fowler);⏹Learner‘s Dictionaries✧Learner‘s Ds for native speakers, e.g. Chamber‟s Student‟s Dictionary; CollinsCOBUILD Learner‟s Dictionary;✧Learner‘s Ds for ESL students, e.g.Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary of Current English (1st edn. 1948; 3rd edn. 1974;7th edn. 2005) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1978, 1987, 1995, 2003, 2009) Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary; Collins COBUILD English Learner‟s Dictionary; Cambridge International Dictionary of English ; Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners.Monolingual dictionary and bilingual dictionary;⏹Monolingual dictionary: the language of description is the same as the language beingdescribed.⏹bilingual dictionary: give information about equivalences between two languages.Chapter 8 Words in ContextDialect: Dialect: a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of the language‘s speakers; e.g. regional dialect, social dialect.⏹regional dialect✧Same word, different meaningpants, cupboard, public school, cracker, faculty;✧Same object, different wordspost-graduate [graduate]; staff [faculty]; lorry [truck]; bonnet [hood]; petrol [gas]; sweets [candy]; tin [can];✧Words only used in Br. or Am. EngBr. duke, marquis, count, viscount, baron, knight;Am. canyon, everglades, gopher, sagebrush;⏹Social dialect: Varieties of language used by groups defined according to class,education, age, sex, and a number of other social parameters.E.g. old people talk about it “icebox and wireless”; but don‟t know what is “totallystoked”; women tend to “use sort of, kind of, isn‟t it? don‟t you?”Register:a form of language appropriate to a specific situation; a variety of language distinguished according to context, which consists of the field of discourse, the relations between participants, and the mode of discourse.Word choice is a feature among registers.e.g. Tone refers to ―the interval between the first two degrees of a major scale‖ in music,to ―a musical pitch of the voice that serves to change the meaning of a word‖in linguistics, to ―the color of a photograph‖ in photography, and to ― the state of the body with respect to the health and vigor of it s functions‖ in physiology.Style: (formal, informal and colloquial)Slang: used by a specific social group;E.g. spaced out飘飘然的, right on好极了，你说得对, hang-up大难题, rip-off偷窃，索要高价, cool, hot, rave, ecstasy, crib, posse支持者, grass, pot, rap, cool, dig, stoned, bread, split, suck, gork, dis;underworld slang, e.g. crack, payola, C-note, G-man, sawbuck; con, brek, burn, screw;particularly rich in certain domain, such as violence, crime, drugs, sex;Taboo：a strong social prohibition against words, objects, actions, or discussions that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group or community.Euphemism：a mild, comforting, or evasive expression that takes the place of one that is taboo, negative, offensive, or too direct. P122E.g. Gosh God,terminate kill, pass water/relieve oneself/urinate Piss, pass away, departed his life die, chest and limb breast and leg, heavens hell, bless it damn it, developing backward/underdeveloped countries, visually impaired blind.Jargon: the language peculiar to a trade, profession, or other group; functions as a technical or specialized language; allow its users to talk precisely about technical issues in a given field;Linguistic jargon, e.g. lexeme, morpheme, case, lexicon;Jargon of ‗computerese‘, e.g. modem, bit, byte; ROM, RAM, CPU;‗Green‘ jargon, e.g. lead-free, meat-free, zero-emission vehicle, eco-friendly, eco-tourism;Sports jargonReligious language。
Lexicology 词汇学
2-1-4 The Division of the History of the English Language inflection (chiefly British also inflexion) noun Grammar a change in the form of a word (typically the ending) to express a grammatical function or attribute such as tense, mood, person, number, case, and gender.
approve/pass/veto a bill / exercise/use your veto] area, genius, codex [an ancient book written by hand] 2. Words of Greek origin, but came in through Latin chaos [complete/utter/absolute etc chaos], system, crisis, emphasis 3. Words of Greek origin: catastrophe [prevent/avert a catastrophe: Sudan requires food immediately to avert a humanitarian catastrophe.], lexicon, criterion, anonymous [anonymous donor/benefactor; anonymous phone call/letter etc], myth, gymnastics, tragedy, prologue
In 1150 Bernard of Clairvaux 著名的修士 圣伯尔纳 claimed that "Hell is full of good intentions or desires," meaning that a person's deeds do not necessarily reflect his or her intentions. The idea of the road to hell being "paved" with good intentions wasn't used until Samuel Johnson spoke of it in 1775.
英语词汇学chapter 1 Lexicology
With stylistics: Leech defines stylistics as the study of the use of language in literature and considers stylistics a meeting ground of linguistics and literary study. To put it here concerning lexicology, Stylistics is the study of optional variations in the sounds, forms, or vocabulary of a language, different situations of use, or different literary types.
Lexicology
The
first semester of 2013-2014
Chapter one the definition of lexicology
1.1 Lexicology
The term lexicology contains two Greek morphemes: lexicon and logie. The former means word and the latter means learning or the study of. The literal meaning of the term is the science of words
Chapter one the definition of lexicology
Students will use the basic knowledge of English lexicology to understand the material already familiar to them from English classes and apply it in their further study of English.
Englishlexicology_英语词汇学重点讲解
Englishlexicology_英语词汇学重点讲解English lexicology英语词汇学Chapter1 basic concepts of words and vocabularyClassification of wordsChapter2 the development of the english vocabularyModes of vocabulary development 1150Chapter 3 word formationMorphemes , allomorphsChapter 4 word formation21.Affixation, prefixation suffixation ,/doc/214202390.html,pounding (characteristics formation )3.Conversion , blending , clipping , acronymy4.Initialisms , acronyms5.Back-formation , words from proper namesChapter5 word meaning1.The meanings of ‘meaning’2.Reference ,concept ,sense3.Motivation(onomatopoeic,morphological ,semantic , etymological)4.Types of meaning < grammatical , lexical , conceptual , associative> Chapter 6 sense relations and semantic field Polysemy , homonymy , synonymy , antonymyChapter 7 changes in word meaningExtension , narrowing , elevation , degradationChapter 8 meaning and context1.Types of context (extra-linguistic, linguistic)2.Role of contexta.elimination of ambiguityb.indication of referencec.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaningChapter9 english idioms1.Classification of idioms(nominal , adjectival , verbal , adverbial )2.sentence and useChapter 10 english DictionariesTypes of dictionary , three good Dictionarya.Longman dictionary of contemporaryb.Collins COBUILD english Dictionaryc. A Chinese-english DictionaryUnit 1Methods of study ,there are generally two approaches to the study of words ,namely synchronic and diachronicAims and significance of the courseLanguage study involves the study of speech sounds ,grammar and vocabulary .vocabulary has proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult .Willkins asserts ‘without grammar very little can beconveyed ,without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed’ A good knowledge of morphological structure of english words and rules of word-formation will help learners develope their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power.V ocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary .The term vocabulary is used in different senses1.It can refers to the total number of the words in a language2.It can stands for all the words used in a particular historical period3.Also used to all the words of a given dialectClassification of wordsWords may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency ,into content words and function words by notion ,and into native words and borrowed words by originBasic word stock have characteristics1.All national character2.Stability3.Productivity4.Polysemy5.Collocability6 Neutral in style7 Frequent in useWords void (lack)of the stated characters ,do not belong to the common core of the language ,they include the following: Terminology 术语，专有名词JargonSlang 俚语，黑话ArgotDialectal wordsArchaismsNeologismsContent words(=notional words) and function words (=empty words) Native words and borrowed wordsApart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock ,in contrast to borrowed words ,native words have two other features Neutral in styleFrequent in useBorrowing words :words taken over from foreign languagesare known as borrowed words and loan words or borrowings in simple terms Loan words under four classesDenizens 同化词Aliens 异化词Translation-loans 译借词Semantic-loans 借意词The Indo-European language familyWhich can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar ,theIndo-Europe is one of them .it is thought to be a highly inflected language They accordingly fall into eight principle groups ,which can be grouped into an Eastern set : Balto-slavic, Indo-Iranian, American and Albanian; a Western set; Celtic , Italic, Hellenic,GermanicA historical overview of the english vocabularyThe first people known to inhabit the land were CeltsThe second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions450- < old > -1150-（Middle）-1500- -NOWModes of vocabulary developmentWe can concluded that modern english vocabulary develops through three channels < > creation , semantic change , borrowing Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials namely roots ,affixes and other elementsSemantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new needBorrowing has palyed a vital role in the development ofvocabulary ,particularly in earlier timesMorphemes :minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes,in other words ,th e morphemes is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words ’Chapter 5Word meaningWords are but symbols , many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference .1.reference is the relationship between language and the word .The reference a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary <随意的>and conventional <传统的>2.Concept<概念>=notionIn many cases meaning is used in the sense of ‘concept ’meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical3.Sense :generally speaking ,the meaning of ‘meaning’is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’ . ‘sense’denotes the relationships inside the language.Motivation <理据>Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaningOnomatopoeic motivation 拟声的理据Morphological motivation 形态的理据Semantic motivation 语义<联想>的理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a wordEtymological motivation 词源的理据The meaning if many words often related directly to their origins, Types of meaninga.Grammatical meaning an Lexical meaning语法和词汇意义b.Conceptual meaning and associative meaning 概念和联想意义Chapter 6The subjects that have long held the interest and attention ofsemanticists are ,polysemy 多义的, homonymy , synonymy , antonymy , and hyponymyTwo approaches to polysemyDiachronic approach and synchronic approachThe meanings were acquired by extension ,narrowing ,analogy ,transfer The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation HomonymyBased on the degree of similarity ,homonyms fall into three classes:perfect homonyms ,homographs and homophones1.Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling but different meaning .Bank n. The edge of the river ,lakeBank n . An establishment for money businessBear n. A large heavy animalBear v. To put up withDate n. A kind of fruitDate n. A boy or a girl friend2.Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaningBow n. Bending the head as a greetingBow n. The device used for shooting arrowsSow v. To scatter seedsSow n. Female adult pig3.Homophones are words identical only in sound butdifferent in spelling and meaningDear n. A loved personDeer n.a kind of animalRight a. correctWrite v.to put down on paper with a penRite n. Ceremonial procedureSon n. A male child of someoneSun n. The heavenly body from which the earth gets warmth and light Of three types ,homophones constitute the largest number and are most commonOrigins of homonymsChange in sound and spellingBorrowingShortingAs homonyms are identical in sound or spelling ,particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns<双关>for desired effect of ,say, humor,sarcasm or ridicule<嘲弄> On Sunday they pray for you and on Monday they prey <折磨>on you So-called pious<虔诚的>gentleman and ladies 善男信女The sardonic tone is unmistakable 讽刺的语气是不言而喻的SynonymySynonymy is one of the characteristic features of vocabulary of natural languagesTypes of synonyms1. Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning ,including conceptual and associative meanings2. Relative synonymy also called near-synonyms are similaror nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of given quality.For example .to change a thing is to put another thing in its place ;to altera thing is to alter it in different manner and at different times .’A man change his habits ,alters his conduct ,and varies his manner of speaking’Look at stagger /reel/totter.stagger implies unsteady movement characters by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course . Stagger under a heavy load ;reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling .Silent沉默的，无言的，寂静的/ tacit , shine闪耀，发光/ glitter 华丽夺目，炫耀/sparkle闪耀，活跃，焕发活力和才智/glare强光，瞪眼，炫耀, different/ various, idle空闲的，懒惰的，无意义的/lazy/indolent , strange奇怪的/odd 古怪的/ queer,古怪的，可疑的large / huge庞大的/tremendous极大的，巨大的，惊人的，极好的/colossal Sources of synonyms1.BorrowingAs a result of the borrowing ,words of native origin form many couplets and triplets with those from other language2.Dialects and regional english3.Figurative an euphemistic4.Coincidence with idiomatic expressionsDiscrimination of synonymsThe differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation , connotation ,and application1.Difference in denotation .‘I did not comprehend his arguments ,although i understood the language , and all the sentences’A lump of sugar一块糖, a slice of meat一片肉, a chunk ofwood , a sheet of paper A cake of soapTypes of antonyms1.Contradictory termsThe assertion of one is the denial of the otherAnother distinctive feature of this category <类型>is that such antonyms are non-gradable2.Contrary terms3.Relative termsHolds water <站得住脚的>Characters of antonyms1.Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms2.A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3.Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion .pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respectively4.Contrary terms are gradable antonymsDestitute / opulent dull / livelyHyponymyHyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.That is the meaning of more specific word word is included in that of another more general word .For instance ,tulip and rose are hyponyms of flowerSuperordinate termsHammer , saw , screwdriver ,spanner, plaice, cod , herring ,sole Semantic field <领域>The massive word store of a language like english an be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas.An integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense 语义相互关联It is general belief that.....Personal address system 个人称呼KinshipTypes of changesWord-meaning changes by modes ofExtension< 扩展>,narrowing<缩小> ,degradation< 降格>,elevation< 升格>,and transferCauses of changes: it is in response to some needExtra-linguistic factors1.Historical reason2.Class reason3.Psychological 心理学的，精神上的reasonThe role of context <语境>1.Elimination of ambiguity <消除歧义>2.Indication of referents <限定所指>3.Provision of clues for inferring word -meaning <为猜测词义提供线索>①Definition②Explanation③Example④S ynonymy⑤Antonymy⑥Hyponymy⑦Relevant details⑧Word structureChapter 9Idioms consists of set phrases and short sentences ,which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas .therefore, idioms are colorful ,forcible andthought-provoking.For example ,fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with ( tolerate)In a board sense ,idioms may included colloquialisms ,slang experience, proverbs .Character of Idioms1.Semantic unityBeing phases or sentences ,idioms each consist of more than one word ,but each is a semantic unity. Idiom have their respective literal meanings .for instance, till the cows come home Keep in mind take offto no avail like a breeze2.Structural stability 结构稳定First the constituents of idioms cannot be replacedLip service <support only="" in="" words="" ,not="" fact="" bdsfid="283"> is not to be changed into mouth service . Kick the bucket bury the hatchet。
lexicology(词汇学)
1. Word: a word is a minimal free of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.2. All the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular period.3. The connection (relationship) between sound and meaning is conventional and arbitrary.e.g. a “dog” is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word automatically suggest the animal in question. It is only a symbolic connection; woman, for example, become Frau in German, Femme in French and fumv in Chinese. [mi:t] is used to mean meet, meat and mete. Knight and night has the same sound.4. Basic word stock characteristics: all national character; stability; productivity; polysemy; collocability.5. Indo-European language family:[Eastern] 1. Balto-Slavic (Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian, Russian),2. Indo-Iranian (Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany (derived from the dead languageSanskrit)),3. Armenian,4. Albanian.[Western] 1. Celtic (Irish, Welsh, Breton, Scottish, Cornish, Breton, Pictish),2. Italic (Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Romanian),3. Hellenic (Greek),4. Germanic (German, English, Danish, Icelandic),5. Hittite (0),6. Tocharian (0).6. Old English was characteristic by “full of endings”, Middle English by “leveled endings”, Modern English by “lost endings”.7. Modes of vocabulary development:Creation: In modern times, this is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.Semantic change: means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. Borrowing: has played a vital role in earlier time. But now not.8. Morphs(形素): morphemes（词素/形位）are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.Allomorph(词素变体): refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme.9. Classifying Morphemes: free v.s. bound derivational v.s. inflectional, lexical v.s. grammatical10. Derivational versus Inflectional MorphemesInflectional(1) does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem.(2) indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.(3) occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.(4) occurs at margins of words.Derivational(1) changes meaning or parts of speech of the stem.(2) Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3) occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.11. root stem baseroot: A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.stem: is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.base: is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.12. Affixation: is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to bases.13. Affixation, compounding, conversion, clipping, acronymy, blending.14. Prefixation: is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to bases.dis-, “not ,the converse of ”: disobey , disloyal, discredit(不信，使怀疑，丢脸)un-, “not, the converse of”: unbulit, unsmilingnon-,“not”,non-violencedis,in,im,il,ir,a—not:apolitical,injustice,illiterate,irresponsibility,improbable,non-virtue,unsmiling mal—badly,bad maltreatmis—wrongly, mistrusttrans--beforemono—over, abovesuper—oneauto—betweensub—selfmal—little, smallinter—bad,badlymini—belowpre—acrossex—former15. Reference: is the relationship between language and the world.Concept: is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Sense: of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language16. Motivation refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. Onomatopoeic M Morphological M Semantic M Etymological M17. Types of meaning:1, Grammatical Meaning and Lexical meaning;2, Conceptual Meaning: is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.Associative Meaning: is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 18. Associative meaning could be fused into 4 categories:Connotative M Stylistic M Affective M Collocative M。
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology(词汇学): is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words、The Nature and Scope of English lexicology:English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages、The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to:English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics(文体论) and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology:According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English、A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power、The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively、The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately、A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise theirproblem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study、Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord(词的定义): A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function、(1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning(声音与意义): almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form(读音与形式):不统一的四个原因(1)the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other (2)the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years(3)some of the difference were creates by the early scribes(4)the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary(词汇): all the words in a language make up its vocabulary Classification of English Words:By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock(基本词汇): is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language、Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary、The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character(全民通用性most important) 2)Stability(相对稳定性)3)Productivity(多产性) 4)Polysemy(多义性) 5)Collocability(可搭配性)没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon(行话) (3)slang(俚语)(4)Argot(暗语) (5)Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms(古语) (7) Neologisms(新词语):Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings、(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words(本族语词): known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes、(mainstream of the basic word-stocks)、Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words(外来语词): words taken over from foreign languages、(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens(非同化词/外来词):are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其她语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans(借义词):they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages(8大印欧语群)The Eastern set:(1)The Balto-slavic Group(波罗的-斯拉夫语族):Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc、(2)The Indo-Iranian Group(印度-伊朗语族):Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc、(3)The Armenian Group(亚美尼亚语族):Armenian、(4)The Albanian Group(阿尔巴尼亚语族):Albanian、The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group(古希腊语族):Greek、(6)The Italian Group(意大利语族):Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc、(7)The Celtic Group(凯尔特语族):Irish,Welsh,Breton etc、(8)The Germanic Group(日耳曼语族):Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc、The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language、2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages、In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections、English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language、Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词:the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements、(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words、3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant、Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme,differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)(1)Free Morphemes(自由词素): have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences、A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself、(independent)、(2)Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself、Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes、2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words、B)suffix:An adjective suffix(形容词后缀) that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective、Free Morpheme =free root(自由词根)Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem(词根与词干)The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity、A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root、Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1、Affixation词缀法(Derivation派生法):the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem、(1)Prefixation(前缀法):It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems、1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc、disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes(逆反前缀): un-,de-,dis- etc、unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis(贬义前缀):mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc、misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀):arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect、overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude(倾向态度前缀):contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc、anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes(方位前缀):extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc、extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order(时间与顺序前缀):fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc、monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes(数字前缀):uni-,mono-, bi-,di-, tri-,multi-,poly- ,semi-,etc、bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes(混杂前缀):auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-、vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation(后缀法): It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems、1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes2、Compounding复合法(also called composition)Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail),hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds(复合词的形式)(1)noun compounds :e、g、: air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot(2)adjective compounds : e、g、acid + head = acid-head(3)verb compounds : e、g、house + keep = housekeep3、Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class、(功能转换,又叫零派生、functional shift/zero-derivation)4、Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word、e、g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5、Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead、e、g、plane from airplane, phone from telephone、四种形式:1)、Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2)、Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3)、Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4)、Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6、Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms、(1)Initialism(首字母缩写词法): initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter、e、g、: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)(2)Acronym(首字母拼音法):Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word、E、g、:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7、Back-formation(逆生法,逆构词)Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation、It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes、(greed from greedy)8、Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e、g、: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt(瓦特,电功率单位)Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word、It is the arbitrary and conventional、It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific、Concept(概念):which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind、Sense(意义):It denotes the relationship inside the language、‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language、’Motivation(理据):It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning、1) Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据):words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises、Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning、E、g、: bang, ping-pong, ha ha、2)Morphological motivation (形态理据):multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines、E、g、: airmail, miniskirt 、例外:black market, ect、3)Semantic motivation(词义理据):refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word、It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word、E、g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation (词源理据):the history of the word explains the meaning of the word、E、g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1、Grammatical Meaning(语法意义):indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2、Lexical Meaning (词汇意义)(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1)Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning、2)Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning、[4types:（1）Connotative(内涵意义):the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations、(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic(文体意义):many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts、（3）Affective(感情意义) :indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question、这种情感价值观分两类:褒义与贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative(搭配意义):is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion、]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field (语义关系与语义场)Polysemy(多义关系)Two approached to polysemy(多义关系的两种研究方法):1、diachronic approach(历时方法) :from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word、First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings、2、synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time、基本意义就是central meaning , 次要意义就是derived meaning、Two processes of development(词义的两种发展类型):1.radiation(辐射型):is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes、(e、g: face, neck)2.concatenation(连锁型):is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning、(e、g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primarymeaning、In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains、Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between、4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy、Generally, radiation precedes concatenation、In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other、Homonymy(同形同音异义关系):words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling、Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1)Perfect homonyms(完全同音同形异义词):words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning、2)Homographs(同形异义词):words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning、(最多最常见)3)Homophones(同音异义词):words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning、Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1)change in sound and spelling :(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2)borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3)Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes(同音同形异义词与多义词的区别):1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings、2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源):Homonymys are from different sources、Polysemant is from the same source、3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning、Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another、In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries、Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色):As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule、Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning 、Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms(完全同义词):also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i、e、both in grammatical meaning and lexicalmeaning, including conceptual and associative meanings、[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology、](2)relative synonyms(相对同义词):also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality、(e、g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing(借词):最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English (方言与地区英语)3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words (单词的修饰与委婉用法):occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact、4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions(与习惯表达一致):win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand、Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同、Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning、(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同、By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words、Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness、(借词:answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal、中性词:policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request、古语词、诗歌:ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application、Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms、They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns、(allow sb、to do sth、- let sb、do sth、/ answer the letter-replyto the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition、Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning、Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning、特点:①The assertion of one is the denial of the other、②Such antonyms are non-gradable、They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them 、(e、g: single/married)2)contrary terms(对立反义词): antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes、(e、g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other、3)relative terms(关系反义词): this type consists of relational opposites、(parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give)Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion(语义内涵)4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite、(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms(反义词的使用)1)Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words、2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast、(e、g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友,weal and woe哀乐)3)To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together、(proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go、/ more haste, less speed、)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion、The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word、For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词与下义词):use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader、Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea、Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory、e、g、(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc、make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language、e、g、(aunt in English, ma y means “父亲的姐姐, 妈妈的姐姐,父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese、(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content、Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form、Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1、Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo、It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized、(e、g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2、Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小):is the opposite of widening meaning、It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense、In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English、(e、g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl)、[ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly、]3、Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble(粗陋的) beginnings to positions of importance、[nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4、Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory(贬损的) sense、[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5、Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer、Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1、Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因):Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time、E、g: pen, car, computer、2 )Class reason(阶级原因):The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation、3) Psychological reason(心理原因):the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors、Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons、2、Linguistic factors(语言内部原因):the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system、1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义与语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word、Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts、Two types of context(语境的种类)1、Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation(非语言语境):In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background、(look out, weekend, landlord )2、Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境):In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears、It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book、分为两类:1) Lexical context(词汇语境):It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question、(e、g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context(语法语境):It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs、(e、g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1、Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1)Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy、2)Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2、Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3、Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy(上下义关系)7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms(习语的定义): are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements、In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms(俗语), Catchphrases(标语),slang expressions (俚语),proverbs(谚语),etc、They form an important part of the English vocabulary、Characteristics of Idioms(英语习语的特点)1、Semantic unity (语意的整体性): words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity、Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom、The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom、2、Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable、1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article、4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity、习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms(英语习语的分类)1、idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 、idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语(as poor as a church mouse)3 、idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语(look into)4 、idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语(tooth and nail 拼命)5 、sentence idioms 句式习语(never do things by halves)Use of idioms(习语的使用)1、Stylistic features(文体色彩):1）colloquialisms(俗语)2）slang (俚语)3）literary expressions(书面表达)The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned(指派)different meanings、2、Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation (语音处理):(1)alliteration头韵法(2)rhyme尾韵法2)lexical manipulation(词法处理)(1)reiteration(duplication of synonyms)同义词并举[scream and shout](2)repetition 重复[out and out](3)juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3、figures of speech(修辞格)(1)simile明喻(2)metaphor暗喻(3)metonymy换喻/以名词代动作:live by one’s pen(4)synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体:earn one’s bre ad(5)Personification拟人法(6)Euphemism委婉语:kick the bucket(die)(7)hyperbole 夸张:a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式):1、addition增加2、deletion删除3、replacement替换4、position-shifting位置转移5、dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology(语源)、Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1、Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries(单语词典与双语词典):最早的词典都就是双语的(1)、Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD)、The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language、(2)、Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, AChinese-English D)2、Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries(语文词典与百科词典)(1)Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc、)可以就是单语或就是双语的(2)Encyclopedic dictionary:1)encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se(本身)but provides encyclopedic information、Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information、2)Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3、Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)(1)Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster’s Third New International Dictionary>(2)Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000](3)Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音与最重要的意义,很少或者几乎不举例。
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into theorigins and meanings of words.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has agiven sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimalfree form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning(4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and theactual thing and idea itself”Sound and form:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary词汇Vocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary词语分类Classification of English Words：1.By use frequency: basic word stock & non basic vocabulary基本词汇的特征:1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的词:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words (6)Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms2.By notion: content words实词 & functional words虚词3.By origin: native words & borrowed wordsNative words（本族语词）: Two other features:(1)neutral instyle (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)1) denizens(同化词，融入英语): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词，可以看出源头）: kowtow3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see / tofu4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed withreference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedpioneer本指开拓者，先引申为先锋。
英语词汇学chapter
The basic vocabulary is consistently updated and expanded as new words and expressions enter the language through changes in culture, technology, and society
• The Changes and Development of English Vocabulary
目录
• Introduction to English Lexicology
• The Composition of English Vocabulary
• The semantic relationship of English vocabulary
Middle stage: During the Middle Ages, schools begin to pay attention to the morphology and semantic changes of words, and compiled a large number of dictionaries and glossaries
Characteristics
English Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the dynamics and complex nature of vocabulary It involves the study of word formation processes, semantic changes, and the use of words in context
Modern stage: With the development of linguistics in the 19th century, scholars have been systematically studying the structure and function of the English vocabulary from a linguistic perspective Since then, English Lexicology has gradually become an independent discipline
English Lexicology 英语词汇学简图
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ English Lexicology 英语词汇学简图Chapter 1 Basic Concepts 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （he definition of a word comprises the following points:(1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3)a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1. 2. 3.4. No enough letters: alphabet from latin Pronunciation changed more rapidly Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling all national character 全民性stability 稳定性productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性terminology 术语jargon 行话slang 俚语argon 黑话dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类by use frequency 按使用频率分：basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇basic word stock 基本词汇1/ 28obvious characteristics 明显的特点nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词neutral in style文体上中性by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词frequent in use 使用频繁denizens 同化词aliens 异形词translation-loans 译借词semantic-loans 借义词---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Chapter 2 DevelopmentIt is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. Prussian 普鲁士语 Lithuanian 立陶宛语 Polish 波兰语 Czech 捷克语Bulgarian 保加利亚语 Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语 Russian 俄语Persian 波斯语 Bengali 孟加拉国语 Hindi 印地语 Romany 普吉赛语Balto-Slavic波罗的海-斯拉夫语Eastern set：东部诸语族：Indo-Iranian印度-伊朗语Armenian 2.1 Indo-European 印欧语亚美尼亚语Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语 Celtic 凯尔特语Italic Western set：西部诸语族：意大利语Scottish 苏格兰语 Irish 爱尔兰语Welsh 威尔士语Breton 布里多尼语Portuguese 葡萄牙语Spanish 西班牙语 French 法语 Italian 意大利语 Roumanian 罗马尼亚语 Norwegian 挪威语 Icelandic 冰岛语 Danish 丹麦语Swedish 瑞典语 German 德语 Dutch 荷兰语 Flemish 佛兰德语English 英语Latin 拉丁语言Hellenic 希腊语——GreekGermanic日耳曼语Scandinavian languages 斯堪的纳维亚语3/ 28Old English (450--1150) —— Anglo-Saxon 古英语盎格鲁-撒克逊语50000-60000 words 5万~6万间词汇 Highly inflected 高度转折 complex endings 复杂的结尾 vowel changes 元音变化 2.2 Historical review 历史概述Middle English (1150-1500) 中古英语French words 法语词汇leveled endings 水平结尾Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语Modern English (1500-up to now) 现代英语Borrow 借词new words 新词no endings 无结尾Late Modern English (1700-up to the present) 晚期现代英语 from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language。
英语词汇学EnglishLexicology
英语词汇学English Lexicology English LexicologyClass: 1104Number:Name:American EnglishI. The Growth of American English th A. From the 17 century to the end of The War of Independence1. The setting of Jamestown (in 1607)2. The setting of Virginia(in 1609)3. The second internal settlement in Plymouth - by "the May Flower".4. By 1732,the English has set up 13 colonies and then English became theircommon language.5. In 1756,the word "American Dialect"was firstly proposed.6. In 1783,the book The American Spelling Book ,advocating the independence of the American English.B. From The War of Independence to The Civil War1. Because of the immigration more and more people began to speak English.2. In the book An American Dictionary of the English Language, the writer told people the characteristic of the spelling of American English. C. After The Civil WarAmerica became the "main country"of the western country. II. Characteristics of American EnglishA. 美国英语的一致性作为美国唯一的官方语言和多民族通用语言，美国英语具有惊人的一致性。
英语词汇学各个章节的内容
英语词汇学各个章节的内容Introduction 部分：Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics.Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization第一章：What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。
1) A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail management 可以次划分为manage 和-ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和fortune blackmail 次划分为black 和 mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is …no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds.What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record ofthe oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differencesoccur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship orirregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet wasadopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter torepresent each sound in the language so that some letters must dodouble duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidlythan spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by theearly scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel ofenriching the English vocabulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音、拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是…sound and form ?不一致。
词汇学
cihuixue词汇学lexicology在语文学时期，是语言学的组成部分，曾经与语音学、语法学并列;在现代语言学里,一般认为音系学、句法学、语义学是语言学的3个组成部分，而词汇学是语义学的一支,也称词汇语义学。
前期词汇学注重分类──历时的词义变异的分类（扩大与缩小，褒义与贬义，抽象与具体，本义与转义等）和共时的功能的分类。
现代词汇学着重理论模式的建立，力求把前期词汇学已有的分类放在符号与公式的基础上，提高它的精密性和可验证性，同时也探索前期未曾探索的领域，例如不同语言里词汇的共性成分。
下面分5部分说明。
词的定义19世纪西方语言学把"词"定义为语言的最小单位；词组成词组，词组组成句子；词是句子的重音所在，又是词的屈折变化的基础；这是这一定义的根据。
20世纪初期，素的观念逐渐成熟，于是有了小于词的"词素"，但是对于词的定义，并没有较好地解决。
现代词汇学倾向于用分解的办法给词下定义,即"词"是形态的、句法的、语义的具体特征的结合。
承认词的三个因素，各用不同的符号代表，可以较为简便地说出词的派生和词类转换等现象并写出支配规则。
词义分析可分为：概念意义现代词汇学采取基本范畴分析法，即选定若干范畴为标志，相联的概念都按此定义。
例如关于"人"这一大范畴，以"人类的"、"成年的"、"男性的"三项为标志，外加正号(＋)、负号(－)、零号(0)作区别。
"妇女"是：人类的＋成年的＋男性的－即"成年的、非男性的人"。
而"男孩"则是：人类的＋成年的－男性的＋即"未成年的、男性的人"。
联想意义"妇女"一词,可以联想"持家"、"养育儿女"、"温柔"等,某一种文化会加上"脆弱",另一种文化会加上"一族之主"等。
Lexicology
LexicologyChapter 11.classification of English words according to different criteriaA.by origin: native words and loan wordsNative words: words of Anglo-Saxon origin and of Old EnglishLoan words: borrowed form other languagesB.by level of usage: common words and literary wordsCommon words: words connected with the ordinary things and activities necessary to everyday life.Literary words: words chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a elevated way.C.notion: function words and content wordsFunction words: words serve grammatically, such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries, etc.Content words: words used to name objects, qualities, actions, etc. which have independent lexical meanings.D.On morphemic levelSimple word: consisting of a single morphemeDerived words: a free morpheme and one( or more than one) bound morphemeCompound words: composed of two or more free morphemesChapter 2(1)Morphemes（语素，词素）: Morpheme is the smallest meaningfullinguistic unit of language, not divisible and analyzable into small forms.(2)Allomorphs（词素变体）：Allomorphs are the various shapes orforms of morphemes.(3)Free morphemes（自由词素）are a word that can be uttered alonewith meaning.(4)Bound morphemes（黏着词素）cannot stand by themselves as acomplete utterance and must appear with at least one or more other morpheme, free or bound.(5)Root（词根）: Root is the basic unchangeable part if a word thatconveys the main lexical meaning of the word.(6)Inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: An inflectional affix serves toexpress meaning such as plurality, tense, etc.(7)Derivational affix（派生词缀）Chapter 3(1)Compounding or composition（复合构词法）is a word-formationprocess consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.(2)Derivation（派生法）is generally defined as a word-formationprocess by which new words are created by the addition of a prefix , or suffix, or combining form(组合语素) to the base.(3)Conversion（词性转化法）：Conversion is a word-formation processwhereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without adding any affix.Chapter 4A.Initialisms（首字母缩写词）: Initialisms is a type if shortening, usingthe first letter of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; initialism is pronounced letter by letter.B.Acronyms（首字母拼写词）: Acronyms are words formed from initialletters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc.pronounced as a word than as sequence of letters.C.Clipping(截短法)：The deleting of one or more syllables from a word.D.Blending （拼缀法）：Blending is a process of word-formation inwhich a new word is formed by combing the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.E.Back-formation （逆序构词法）：A type of word-formation by whicha shorter word is coined by the deleting of a supposed affix from alonger form already present in the language.F.Words from proper names:scientists, names of politicians andstatesmen, name of places, trademarks(商标), literature.G.Reduplication (重叠构词法): It is a minor type of word-formation bywhich a compound word is created by the repetition if one word.H.Neoclassical Formation(新古典主义构词法): New words areformed from elements derived from Latin and Greek.I.Miscellaneous(多种的)Chapter 6(1) Polysemy(一词多义性):a term used to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meaning.E.g.: fair: just and honest; impartial; average; pale, light in color;Tow process leading to Polysemy:A.Radiation(辐射法): the primary or the central meaning stands at thecenter while the secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like ray.B.Concatenation(连接法): the semantic process in which the meaningof a word moves gradually away form its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, until there is no connection between the sense of that is finally developed and the primary meaning.(2) Homonymy(同音异议): Groups of words are pronounced alike, or spell alike, or both, though different in meaning.Types of homonymy:A. Perfect homonyms: words are identical in spelling and sound but different in meaning.(base; lie; )B. Homophones（同音异形异义词）: identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning. (bare, bear; deer, dear; pair, pear;)C. Homographs（同形异音异义词）: words are identical in spelling but differ in sound and meanings. (contact, contact; frequent, frequent;) Source of homonyms:1.phonetic convergence (音变汇合)2.semantic divergence(词义分化)3.foreign influence4.shortening: the word-formation process of clippingChapter７Synonymy:1.having the same meaning2.being of the same language and the same grammatical category3.having the same essential or generic meanings4.differing only in connotative, application or idiomatic use5.having essential identical definitionKinds of synonymsplete synonyms: fully identical in meaning; interchangeable inany context without slightest connotative, affective or stylistic meanings.B.Relative synonyms:(1)In a degree of given quality or in a shade of meaning: having the samedenotative meaning with different degree of intensity.(2)In affective and stylistic meaning(3)In collocation and distribution: a good numbers of words are used indifferent collocationsAntonymy: oppositeness of meaningTypes of antonyms:A.Contraries(相对性反义词): Display a type of semantic contrast,illustrate by the example such as rich and poor.plementary(互补反义词): complementary or contradictoriesrepresent a type of binary semantic opposition—the contrast between the two terms is absolute.C.Conversives(换位反义词):another type of binaryopposition—Conversives or relational opposites, such as lend and borrow.Hyponymy: the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is “included”in the latter one. Semantic field(语义场)Chapter 9Four tendencies in semantic change:A．restriction of meaning (specialization): meat—缩小B．extension of meaning (generalization): bird—扩展C．degeneration of meaning(pejoration):accident—降格D．elevation of meaning (amelioration): minister—升格Chapter 10English idioms:1.all square：an equal point2.gone haywire: go wrong, behave in crazy way3.easy on the eye: quite pretty, good looking4.at the eleventh hour: almost, but not quite, too late to do something; atthe last minute5.on a shoestring: with very little money or resources, especially capitalor stock for starting or running a business.6.the last straw:an additional burden beyond endurancemb ducks: a disabled or disadvantaged person8.once and for all: now and for the last time9.Bag and baggage: with all one’s belongings, often suddenly orsecretly.10.through and through: completely11.a bolt from the blue: a sudden and unexpected event—one of anunpleasant or catastrophic nature12.c ome round to: reach the point of doing sth after unavoidable delay.。
自考英语词汇学 部分章节 重点归纳English Lexicology教程文件
自考英语词汇学部分章节重点归纳E n g l i s hL e x i c o l o g y《英语词汇学》（课程代码：00832）试卷结构Chapter 5 Word Meaning(词的意义)Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between language and the world.Concept(概念)，which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition n. 认识；知识；认识能力, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense(语义)denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)Motivation(词义理据)account for the connection between the linguistic(word) symbol and its meaning.Onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据) words were created by imitating the nature sounds or noises. Morphological motivation(形态理据)compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.很多合成词和派生词都是这类，Semantic motivation(语义理据)refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.(由字面义派生出来的引申义)Etymological motivation(词源理据) the meaning of many words often relate directly to their origins. In other words the history of the word explain the meaning of the word.Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships.Conceptual meaning also known as denotative meaning(外延意义), is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally know as connotations.Stylistic meaning refers to stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing inquestion.(appreciative or pejorative).Collocative meaning is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.Stylistic meaning and affective meaning are revealed by means of collocations.Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field(语义关系和语义场)6.1 Polysemy（多义关系）1．多义关系的形成：Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all nature language that a word has more than one sense.An overwhelming majority of words are polysemous. When a word is first coined, it is always monosemic. But in the course of development, the same symbol must be used to express more meanings. The result is polysemy.2.Two approaches to polysemy(多义关系的两种研究方法):diachronic approach(历时角度)and synchronic approach(共时角度).3.Two process of development(词义发展的两种模式)1）Radiation (辐射型) is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. The meanings are independent of one another. But can all be traced back to the centre meaning .2)Concatenation(连锁型), meaning ‘linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive adj. 连续的；继承的；依次的；接替的 shifts.6.2 Homonymy（同形spelling同音sound异义meaning关系）6.2.1Types of homonyms1.Perfect homonyms(完全同形同音异义词)are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2.Homographs(同形词) are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning .3.Homophones(同音词)are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms1. Change in sound and spelling.2. Borrowing.3. Shortening.6.2.3 Differentiation of homonyms and polysemants(同形同异义词与多义词的区别)6.2.4 Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)6.3 Synonymy(同义关系)—2类型+4来源+3区分1.Definition of synonyms(同义词的定义):words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.2.同义词的2个分类1)absolute synonyms(完全同义词) also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, embrace different shades of meanings or different degree of a given quality.3.同义词的4个来源1) Borrowing. (外来词)2) Dialects and regional English.（方言和区域性的英语）3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words. (词的引申义和委婉语用法)4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions. (与习惯表达巧合一致)4.同义词的辨析（3个区分）1)difference in denotation.(外延意义)2)difference in connotation.(the stylistic and emotive colouring of words)(内涵意义)3)difference in application.应用上（difference in usage. different collocations）6.4 Antonymy反义关系—semantic opposition（语义相反关系）1.反义词的分类：矛盾反义词、对立反义词和关系反义词1) Contradictory terms (exclusive and non-gradable)--oppositeness2) Contrary terms. (a scale between two poles or extremes, gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.)—semantic relativity3) Relative terms.(interdependent相互依存)—relational opposites2.三类反义词的特点和区别Some of the characteristics of antonyms1)Antonyms are classified on the basic of semantic opposition.(adj. v. n.)there aremore synonyms than antonyms.2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.3)Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked andunmarked terms respectively.4)Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each hasits own corresponding opposite. Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite.3.使用：解释词义。
词汇学复习整理
Chapter 1LEXICOLOGY: Lexicology is the science of words, which is concerned with the study of vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, the origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words.Chapter 21.The history of English languageHistory of English language can be divided into Old English(450AD-1150AD), Middle English (1150AD-1500AD), and Modern English (1500AD-present).2.Classification of English wordsEnglish words can be divided into different groups in terms of the origin, the level of usage and the notion.By originNative words (Anglo-Saxon/ old English)Loan words (borrowed)By level of usage: 5 categoriesStandard/ popular word/ common wordsLiterary wordsColloquial wordsSlang wordsTechnical wordsBy notionContent words: They have the independent lexical meaning, e.g. noun, verb, adjective, adverb.Function words: They are determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries, and grammatical signals, functional makers.Pick up the slang words and explain.1.Father said nix to our plan, so we couldn’t go to the museum. (nothing, no)2.When the buck leads, the world suffers. (money, dollars)3.He says he’ll be a great writer but that’s a lot of boloney; he’ll never be. (nonsense)4.I’ll clobber you if you don’t do what you’re told, said the angry father. (beat sb.repeatedly)5.I think I’m just a hick at heart. (a foolish person from the country)6.He thought his idea was wonderful, but in fact, it was complete rot. (nonsense)Chapter 3Compounding: refers to the faculty and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words, e.g. schoolboy.Derivation: derivation is "Used to form new words, as with happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine.Conversion: the creation of word from an existing word without any change in form, e.g. the adjective clean becomes the verb clean.Clipping: the formation of a new word by shortening it, e.g. ad from advertisement Acronyms: are abbreviations that are formed using the initial components in a phrase or name. These components may be individual letters (as in CEO) or parts of words (as in Benelux)Blending: word formed from parts of two or more other words. These parts are sometimes, but not always, morphemes, e.g. smog from smoke and fog.- The word “prejudice” implies that a judgment is made ___ (before/ after) the facts are studied.- A subcutaneous (皮下的) inflection is ___ (on/ under) the skin.- Supersensory impressions are ___ (within/ beyond) the normal limits of the senses.- The transpolar (跨越南北极的) flight goes ___ (around/ across) the pole.- A legislature with one chamber is ___ (unicameral/ bicameral).- A bicameral legislature has ___ (one/ two) chambers.- An interlinear has the meaning inserted ___ (opposite/ between) the lines.- Relation between cultural groups are said to be ___ (intercultural/ subcultural).- A multiplied insect has ___ (many/ two) feet.- Mark Twain’s The Mysterious Stranger was published posthumously, that is ___ (before/ after) his death.1. They are going to summer in Guilin.2. They hurrahed his wonderful performance.3. You have to round you lips in order to make the sound /u:/.4. They are great sillies.5. She dusted the furniture every morning.- Bicycle- Sergeant, SARGE- Gymnasium, GYM- Kilogram, KILO- Business, BIZ- Dormitory, DORM- Influenza, FLU- Automobile, AUTO- Sci-fi- Smog- Chinglish- Medicare- Email- Newscast- Brunch- telecast, television+broadcastChapter 4Two types of word meaningGrammatical meaningLexical meaningTense meaning of verbs: works, workedAspect meaning of verbs: working, workedCase meaning of nouns: John’s, boy’s, children’sPlural meaning of nouns: girl, girls; man, menComparative degree of adjectives or adverbs: bigger, simplerSuperlative degree of adjectives or adverbs: biggest, simplestDenotative meaning:the literal meaning of a word; there are no emotions, values, or images associated with denotative meaning. Scientific and mathematical language carries few, if any emotional or connotative meaningsConnotative meaning:The meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase. OR A meaning of a word or phrase that is suggested or implied, as opposed to its literal meaning. The communicative value, an expression has by virtue of what itrefers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. Include both physical characteristics and psychological and social properties.Stylistic meaningAffective meaning (详见下)Conceptual meaningConceptual meaning is often described as dictionary meaning or literal meaning of a word. It is the core of the meaning of a word. It is relatively constant and stable, because it is the meaning agreed upon by all the members of the same speech community.2 Associative meaningAssociative meaning is that part of meaning which has been supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It is the meaning which arises of the associations a word acquires. It is open-ended, unstable and indeterminate, because it varies with culture, time, place, class, individual experiences, etc. Associative meaning includes connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meanings.1)Connotative meaningConnotative meaning is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. Connotations are apt to vary from age to age and from society to society. Talking about connotation is in fact talking about the real world experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.2)Stylistic meaningLanguage use can be formal, neutral and casual in style. The stylistic features of words, which make words appropriate for appropriate situations, constitute stylistic meanings of words.3) Affective meaningAffective meaning refers to that part of meaning which conveys emotions and attitudes of a language user. Sometimes affective meanings are brought out only in context.4)Collocative meaningCollocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words that go before or come after a word in question.Chapter 5SynonymyAntonymHyponymy (下位词): is a word or phrase whose semantic range is included within that of another word. For example, scarlet, vermilion, carmine, and crimson are all hyponyms of redFind the general word in each group- Automobile, vehicle- Book, dictionary- Captain, officer- Ceremony, wedding- Emotion, love- Occupation, teaching- We planted many ___ including ___. (Carrots, vegetables)- Is she a ___ or another kind of ___？(Doctor, surgeon)- It gave me a great ___ of ___. (Feeling, relief)- That ___ is going to be a ___. (Building, restaurant)Chapter 6Translate English idioms into Chinese or vice versa.- Cowards die many times before their deaths.- Easy come, easy go.- Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.- Nothing ventured, nothing gained.- One swallow does not make a summer. 一花独放不是春- The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak. 力不从心- Where there’s a will, there’s a way. 有志者事竟成Chapter 7Give at least one English example of each figure of speech.Simile (like, as)MetaphorPersonificationMetonymy (the act of referring to sth by the name of sth else that is closely connected with it, for example using the White House for the US president)Euphemism: an indirect word or phrase that people often use to refer to sth embarrassing or unpleasant, sometimes to make it seem more acceptable than it really is: 'Pass away' is a euphemism for 'die'.Hyperbole/ exaggeration: a way of speaking or writing that makes sth sound better, more exciting, dangerous, etc. than it really isOxymoron/ paradox: a phrase that combines two words that seem to be the opposite of each other, for example a deafening silenceChapter 8Remember some American and British word spelling and words for the same objects, e.g. Sweets (BrE), candyDefense (AmE), defenceDifferences in spellingDivergence British spelling American spelling our…or colour, neighbour color, neighbor ou…o mould, smoulder mold, smolder re…er centre, theatre center, theater gue…g catalogue, dialogure catalog, dialog ll…l travelling, travelingjeweller, jewelerskillful skilful mme…m programme, gramme program, gram omission of axe, judgement ax, judgment silent…e good-bye good-byce…se defence, licence defense, license e…i enquire, enclose inquire, inclose y…I tyre, dyke tire, dikec…k sceptic, disc skeptic, disks…z cosy, tsar cozy, tzarise…ize naturalise, utilise naturalize, utilizeSpecial casesBritish Americancheque, cigarette check, cigaretdraught, gaol, grey draft, jail, graykerb, plough, pyjamas curb, plow, pajamasstorey, waggon story, wagonAmerican and British words for common ideas or objectsAmerican Britishalumnus (of a school or university) graduatebar public house, pubcan (as a can of soup) tingraduate post graduate student candy sweetsclipping cuttingcloset cupboardcommuter ticket season ticket conductor guardsweetscorn maizedrugstore chemist’sfaculty (of university) staffgas, gasoline petrolinstructor lecturerjumper sweaterlong distance call trunk callmail, mailbox, mailman post, pillar box, postmanpackage parcelrailroad railwayschedule timetableshorts underpants or short trousers sneakers gym-shoesumbrella brollywaistcoat weskitwaste basket dustbintrash garbagepants trouserscracker biscuitelevator liftfirst floor ground floorpedestrian crossing zebra crossingliving-room sitting roomsidewalk pavementfreshman first-year studentsophomore second-year studentjunior third-year studentsenior fourth-year studentsoccer footballstore shopzip code post codesick illradio wirelesseyeglasses spectaclespaperboy newsboyprinciple headmastermovie star film starFinal Test—Items and Notes1. Check the only misspelled word in each group and write the correct form for each. (1’*5)e.g. A. whisper B. laughter C. confront D. confidence2. Change the following words into the class as required in the brackets. (1’*10)e.g. Develop (n) ___3. Complete the sentences by filling in the blanks with the following words. (1’*10)e.g. Fear laid ___ her show of bravery.4. Put the following pairs of antonyms in to the right groups according to the characteristics of antonym. (1’*15)5. Provide ONE English example for each figure of speech given below. (2’*5)6. Explain the italicized part in each sentence in your own words. (2’*5)7. Put the following Chinese proverbs into English and vice versa. (2’*10)8. Change the following British words into the corresponding American ones vice versa. (1’*10)9. Answer the question with examples. (10’)。
English Lexicology (I) 英语词汇学
english lexicology (英语词汇学)
The Ger Germanic language that remained after the East Germanic split off developed into two new groups, North Germanic and West Germanic. The West Germanic group includes English. The North Germanic branch includes Viking Norse, which developed into Old Norse and eventually into modern Scandinavian languages such as Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish.
The Indo-European Family
Linguists have divided the Indo-European languages into several groups, or branches. For example, the Italic branch includes Latin and its descendants the Romance (‘originating in Rome’) Languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian), as well as other extinct languages. Other groups important in the history of English include Celtic (e.g., Welsh, Irish, and Scots Gaelic), Hellenic (Greek), etc.
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More slang words for money: Chickenfeed (a small unimportant amount of money) Peanuts (esp. AmE. A sum of money so small that is not worth considering) Buck (American dollar) Some other interesting ones (1) NATO ----no action, talk only (used by some American girl students talking of their boyfriends) (2) back-door man --lover of a married woman (3) Spaghetti bang bang (4) Apple polisher
Chapter Six
Types of meaning
Word-meaning is not single but a composite consisting of different parts. These are called as different types of meaning. The main types of meanings are: 1) Grammatical meaning 2) Lexical meaning
a chair: the denotative definition: 'it is a piece of furniture for a person to sit on, having a back, and usually four legs'. So denotative meaning is also called as 'the dictionary meaning'. constant and stable, and it is this aspect of meaning that makes communication possible.
Mother: denotative meaning: a female parent Connotative meaning: love, care, tenderness January: It denotes 'the first month of the year. It connotes 'cold weather, a biting north wind, snow, central heating, skating,' etc.
Different lexical items which have different meanings may have the same grammatical meaning, for example, books, pencils, goes, writes. On the other hand, the same word may have different grammatical meaning: go, goes. Went, gone.
Another example: home, the conceptual meaning: a dwelling place. But when you come across the term in actual reading you may make out more sense than that. It may remind you 'your family, friends, warmth, safety, love, convenience'. 'East or west, home is best.'
A foreign-born plumber in New York City wrote to the Federal Bureau of Standards that he had found hydrochloric acid 盐酸 did a good job of cleaning out clogged堵塞 drains. The Bureau wrote: The efficiency of hydrochloric acid is indisputable, but the corrosive residue is in-compatible不 和谐的 with metallic permanence. The plumber replied he was glad the bureau agreed. Again the bureau wrote: We cannot assume responsibility for the production of toxic and noxious有害的 residue with hydrochloric acid and suggest you use an alternative procedure. The plumber was happy again at the bureau's agreement with his idea. Then the bureau wrote: Don't use hydrochloric acid. It eats holes out of the pipes.
road : different 源自onnotations for people from different countries. To the Eskimos who travel by sledge, road often connotes snowcovered ground, while to people who live in big cities, road connotes smooth avenues with trees alongside, or streets crowded with people and heavy traffic. Uncle Sam, with favorable connotation to most Americans, but opposite to some countries.
Statesman: loyalty, devotion to public welfare Politician: deceit, bragging, like a villain Dragon: emperor in Chinese; evil spirit in English
Note:connotations may be considered on two levels: connotations pertaining to individuals and connotations to a group. (1) to individuals: Each individual has his own experience, and his connotations of a word may well be based on his personal experience with the object that the word refers to. For example, father will have different connotations for different people.
'Denotative meaning' involves the relationship between a linguistic(esp. a lexical item) and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers to (Crystal).
conceptual meaning of woman: three features: +man, -male, +adult. But we think of not only the physical feature of a woman, but also the psychological features and social and family roles and so on: frail, prone to tears ,emotional and short-sighted. 'Anyway, she is a woman': a lot of meanings not be covered by the conceptual meaning of the word 'woman'.
6.2 Lexical meaning
Lexical meaning can be subdivided into (1)denotative meaning, ) (2)connotative meaning, ) (3)social meaning and ) (4)affective meaning. )
6.2.3 Stylistic meaning
Stylistic meaning is 'that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use." Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features form the stylistic meanings of words. In some dictionaries, these stylistic features are clearly marked as 'formal', 'informal', literary', 'archaic', 'slang' and so on.