太阳能光伏系统蓄电池充电中英文对照外文翻译文献

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光伏系统中英文对照

太阳能光伏系统专业词汇中英对照顺德中山大学太阳能研究院罗宇飞孙韵琳一、太阳电池相关词汇太阳电池solar cell将太阳辐射能直接转换成电能的器件单晶硅太阳电池single crystalline silicon solar cell以单晶硅为基体材料的太阳电池多晶硅太阳电池multi crystalline silicon solar cell以多晶硅为基体材料的太阳电池非晶硅太阳电池amorphous silicon solar cell用非晶硅材料及其合金制造的太阳电池。

薄膜太能能电池Thin-film solar cell用硅、硫化镉、砷化镓等薄膜为基体材料的太阳电池。

这些薄膜通常用辉光放电、化学气相淀积、溅射、真空蒸镀等方法制得。

多结太阳电池multijunction solar cell由多个p‐n 结形成的太阳电池。

化合物半导体太阳电池compound semiconductor solar cell用化合物半导体材料制成的太阳电池带硅太阳电池silicon ribbon solar cell用带状硅制造的太阳电池光电子photo-electron由光电效应产生的电子。

太阳电池的伏安特性曲线I-V characteristic curve of solar cell受光照的太阳电池，在一定的辐照度和温度以及不同的外电路负载下，流入的电流I 和电池端电压V 的关系曲线。

短路电流short-circuit current （Isc）在一定的温度和辐照度条件下，光伏发电器在端电压为零时的输出电流。

开路电压open-circuit voltage （Voc）在一定的温度和辐照度条件下，光伏发电器在空载（开路）情况下的端电压。

最大功率maximum power (Pm)在太阳电池的伏安特性曲线上，电流电压乘积的最大值。

最大功率点maximum power point在太阳电池的伏安特性曲线上对应最大功率的点，亦称最佳工作点。

太阳能光伏系统专业词汇中英对照

太阳电池solar cell将太阳辐射能直接转换成电能的器件单晶硅太阳电池single crystalline silicon solar cell以单晶硅为基体材料的太阳电池多晶硅太阳电池so multi crystalline silicon solar cell以多晶硅为基体材料的太阳电池非晶硅太阳电池amorphous silicon solar cell用非晶硅材料及其合金制造的太阳电池。

薄膜太能能电池Thin-film solar cell用硅、硫化镉、砷化镓等薄膜为基体材料的太阳电池。

这些薄膜通常用辉光放电、化学气相淀积、溅射、真空蒸镀等方法制得。

多结太阳电池multijunction solar cell由多个p‐n 结形成的太阳电池。

短路电流short-circuit current （Isc）在一定的温度和辐照度条件下，光伏发电器在端电压为零时的输出电流。

开路电压open-circuit voltage （Voc）在一定的温度和辐照度条件下，光伏发电器在空载（开路）情况下的端电压。

最大功率maximum power (Pm)在太阳电池的伏安特性曲线上，电流电压乘积的最大值。

最大功率点maximum power point在太阳电池的伏安特性曲线上对应最大功率的点，亦称最佳工作点。

最佳工作点电压optimum operating voltage (Vn)太阳电池伏安特性曲线上最大功率点所对应的电压。

光伏发电中英对照文献

外文参考文献译文及原文目录外文文献译文 (1)1.中国光伏发电的战略地位 (1)2.世界光伏产业现状和发展预测 (2)3.中国光伏发电市场和产业现状 (3)4.中国光复发电的市场预测和规划建议 (5)5.结论 (6)外文文献原文 (7)1.China's strategic position PV (7)2.The world's current situation and development of photovoltaic industryforecast (9)3.The Chinese PV market and industry statu s (10)4.China's PV market forecasting and planning proposals (13)5.Conclusions (15)外文文献译文1、中国光伏发电的战略地位1.1 中国的能源资源和可再生能源现状和预测；无论从世界还是从中国来看，常规能源都是很有限的，中国的一次能源储量远远低于世界的平均水平，大约只有世界总储量的10％。

从长远来看，可再生能源将是未来人类的主要能源来源，因此世界上多数发达国家和部分发展中国家都十分重视可再生能源对未来能源供应的重要作用。

在新的可再生能源中，光伏发电和风力发电是发展最快的,世界各国都把太阳能光伏发电的商业化开发和利用作为重要的发展方向。

根据欧洲JRC 的预测，到2030年太阳能发电将在世界电力的供应中显现其重要作用，达到10%以上，可再生能源在总能源结构中占到30％；2050 年太阳能发电将占总能耗的20%，可再生能源占到50％以上，到本世纪末太阳能发电将在能源结构中起到主导作用。

我国政府重视可再生能源技术的发展，主要有水能、风能、生物质能、太阳能、地热能和海洋能等。

我国目前可再生能源的发展现状如下：水能：我国经济可开发的水能资源量为3.9 亿千瓦，年发电量1.7 万亿千瓦时，其中5 万千瓦及以下的小水电资源量为1.25 亿千瓦。

毕业设计论文外文文献翻译光伏电力系统中英文对照

翻译原文 (4)Photovoltaic (PV) Electric Systems (4)The Advantages of Mitsubishi Solar Panels (5)1光伏电力系统光伏电力系统利用太阳能电池吸收太阳光线，并将这种能量转化成电能。

这个系统让广大家庭通过一种清洁，可靠，平静的方式来产生电能，这样就可以补偿将来的部分电能支出，也减少了对输电网的依赖。

太阳能电池一般是由经改进的硅，或者其他能够吸收阳光并将之转化成电能的半导体材料制成。

太阳能电池是相当耐用的（1954年在美国安装的第一个光伏电力系统至今仍在运营）。

绝大多数的生厂商都担保自己的产品的电源输出至少维持20年。

但大多数的有关太阳能研究的专家认为一个光伏电力系统至少能维持25到30年。

1.1 太阳能电池的类型目前有单晶硅，多晶硅和薄膜三种基本形式的光伏组件。

这些类型的电池工作效率都很好但单晶硅电池效率最好。

薄膜技术的电池以成本低为特色，而且伴随着太阳能电池板的发展它的效率也在不断地提高。

越来越多的生厂商以及各种各样的电池型号在当今市场上出现。

一个太阳能技术的支持者可以帮你分析各个系统的利弊，如此你就可以得到为你所用数十年的最佳的系统设计方案。

1.2光伏电力系统如何运作光电板通常安装在建筑物顶部，通过逆变器来引到建筑物中。

逆变器将通过太阳能板产生的直流电转化成交流电，而在当今美国交流电是向建筑提供电动力的主要形式。

朝南方向的太阳能板能使能量的收集效果最大化，大部分都是与建筑物顶部成60度的位置安放太阳能电池。

有关太阳能电池发电的更多的信息，可以查询Cooler Planet’s的《太阳能电池如何工作》。

朝南方向的太阳能板能使能量的收集效果最大化，大部分都是与建筑物顶部成60度的位置安放太阳能电池。

1.3 太阳能电池板与光伏建筑一体化太阳能电池板是用于捕获太阳光的平面板，他们以阵列的形式安装在建筑物顶部或者柱子上。

他们是传统的用于获得太阳能的阵列形式。

太阳能光伏术语（中英文对照）

太阳能光伏术语（中英文对照）太阳光伏能源系统名词术语(中英问对照)本标准规定了太阳光伏能源系统得名词术语.其中包括:一般术语，光伏特性与光伏转换术语,结构与系统术语，标定与测试术语以及工艺术语等五部分。

一般术语1、太阳光伏能源系统solａr photoｖoltａic eneｒgy sｙｓtem系指利用太阳电池得光生伏特效应，将太阳能直接转换成电能得发电系统。

1．2 大气质量（AM）Air Ｍaｓs (AM）直射阳光光束透过大气层所通过得路程,以直射太阳光束从天顶到达海平面所通过得路程得倍数来表示.当大气压力P=1、013巴，天空无云时，海平面处得大气质量为1。

在任何地点,大气质量得值可以从以下公式算出：P 1大气质量=-———X-——-Pｏｓiｎθ其中，Ｐ为当地得大气压力，以巴表示。

Pｏ等于1、01３巴θ为太阳高度角1．3 太阳电池ｓolar cell通常就是指将太阳光能直接转换成电能得一种器件。

1。

４硅太阳电池ｓiliconｓｏlａr cell硅太阳电池就是以硅为基体材料得太阳电池.1.5 单晶硅太阳电池singｌe cｒystaｌｌinｅsilicon soｌar cell单晶硅太阳电池就是以单晶硅为基体材料得太阳电池。

1。

6非晶硅太阳电池（ａ-si太阳电池)amｏrphouｓsilicｏn solar cｅll用非晶硅材料及其合金制造得太阳电池称为非晶硅太阳电池，亦称无定形硅太阳电池,简称a-si太阳电池。

1.7多晶硅太阳电池polycrysｔａｌlｉｎe siｌicｏn solar ceｌl多晶硅太阳电池就是以多晶硅为基体材料得太阳电池.１。

8 聚光太阳电池组件phoｔovolｔaic ｃoｎcｅnｔrator moduｌe系指组成聚光太阳电池,方阵得中间组合体,由聚光器、太阳电池、散热器、互连引线与壳体等组成.1。

９聚光太阳电池方阵场phｏto-volｔaic conｃeｎｔrａtoｒarrａy fielｄ由一系列聚光太阳电池方阵组成得聚光光伏发电系统叫聚光太阳电池方阵场。

光伏发电逆变器毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献

光伏发电逆变器毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献附录：文献翻译TMS320LF2407, TMS320LF2406, TMS320LF2402TMS320LC2406, TMS320LC2404, MS320LC2402DSP CONTROLLERSThe TMS320LF240x and TMS320LC240x devices, new members of the ‘24x family of digital signal processor (DSP) controllers, are part of the C2000 platform of fixed-point DSPs. The ‘240x devices offer the enhanced TMS320 architectural design of the ‘C2xx core CPU for low-cost, low-power, high-performance processing capabilities. Several advanced peripherals, optimized for digital motor and motion control applications, have been integrated to provide a true single chip DSP controller. While code-compatible with the existing ‘24x DSP controller devices, the ‘240x offers increased processing performance (30 MIPS) and a higher level of peripheral integration. See the TMS320x240x device summary section for device-specific features.The ‘240x family offers an array of memory sizes and different peripherals tailored to meet the specific price/performance points required by various applications. Flash-based devices of up to 32K words offer a reprogrammable solution useful for:◆Applications requiring field programmability upgrades.◆Development and initial prototyping of applications that migrate to ROM-baseddevices.Flash devices and corresponding ROM devices are fully pin-to-pin compatible. Note that flash-based devices contain a 256-word boot ROM to facilitate in-circuit programming.All ‘240x devices offer at least one event manager module which has been optimized for digital motor control and power conversion applications. Capabilities of this module include centered- and/or edge-aligned PWM generation, programmable deadband to prevent shoot-through faults, and synchronized analog-to-digital conversion. Devices with dual event managers enable multiple motor and/or converter control with a single ‗240x DSP controller.The high performance, 10-bit analog-to-digital converter (ADC) has a minimum conversion time of 500 ns and offers up to 16 channels of analog input. The auto sequencing capability of the ADC allows a maximum of 16 conversions to take place in a single conversion session without any CPU overhead.A serial communications interface (SCI) is integrated on all devices to provide asynchronous communication to other devices in the system. For systems requiring additional communication interfaces; the ‘2407, ‘2406, and ‘2404 offer a 16-bit synchronous serial peripheral interface (SPI). The ‘2407 and ‘2406 offer a controller area network (CAN) communications module that meets 2.0B specifications. To maximize device flexibility, functional pins are also configurable as general purpose inputs/outputs (GPIO).To streamline development time, JTAG-compliant scan-based emulation has been integrated into all devices. This provides non-intrusive real-time capabilities required to debug digital control systems. A complete suite of code generation tools from C compilers to the industry-standard Code Composerdebugger supports this family. Numerous third party developers not only offer device-level development tools, but also system-level design and development support.PERIPHERALSThe integrated peripherals of the TMS320x240x are described in the following subsections:●Two event-manager modules (EV A, EVB)●Enhanced analog-to-digital converter (ADC) module●Controller area network (CAN) module●Serial communications interface (SCI) module●Serial peripheral interface (SPI) module●PLL-based clock module●Digital I/O and shared pin functions●External memory interfaces (‘LF2407 only)●Watchdog (WD) timer moduleEvent manager modules (EV A, EVB)The event-manager modules include general-purpose (GP) timers, full-compare/PWM units, capture units, and quadrature-encoder pulse (QEP) circuits. EV A‘s and EVB‘s timers, compare units, and capture units function identically. However, timer/unit names differ for EV A and EVB. Table 1 shows the module and signal names used. Table 1 shows the features and functionality available for the event-manager modules and highlights EV A nomenclature.Event managers A and B have identical peripheral register sets with EV A starting at 7400h and EVB starting at 7500h. The paragraphs in this section describe the function of GP timers, compare units, capture units, and QEPs using EV A nomenclature. These paragraphs are applicable to EVB with regard to function—however, module/signal names would differ.Table 1. Module and Signal Names for EV A and EVBEVENT MANAGER MODULESEV AMODULESIGNALEVBMODULESIGNALGP Timers Timer 1Timer 2T1PWM/T1CMPT2PWM/T2CMPTimer 3Timer 4T3PWM/T3CMPT4PWM/T4CMPCompare Units Compare 1Compare 2Compare 3PWM1/2PWM3/4PWM5/6Compare 4Compare 5Compare 6PWM7/8PWM9/10PWM11/12Capture Units Capture 1Capture 2Capture 3CAP1CAP2CAP3Capture 4Capture 5Capture 6CAP4CAP5CAP6QEP QEP1QEP2QEP1QEP2QEP3QEP4QEP3QEP4External Inputs DirectionExternalClockTDIRATCLKINADirectionExternal ClockTDIRBTCLKINBGeneral-purpose (GP) timersThere are two GP timers: The GP timer x (x = 1 or 2 for EV A; x = 3 or 4 for EVB) includes:● A 16-bit timer, up-/down-counter, TxCNT, for reads or writes● A 16-bit timer-compare register, TxCMPR (double-buffered with shadow register), forreads or writes● A 16-bit timer-period register, TxPR (double-buffered with shadow register), forreads or writes● A 16-bit timer-control register,TxCON, for reads or writes●Selectable internal or external input clocks● A programmable prescaler for internal or external clock inputs●Control and interrupt logic, for four maskable interrupts: underflow, overflow, timercompare, and period interrupts● A selectable direction input pin (TDIR) (to count up or down when directionalup-/down-count mode is selected)The GP timers can be operated independently or synchronized with each other. The compare register associated with each GP timer can be used for compare function and PWM-waveform generation. There are three continuous modes of operations for each GP timer in up- or up/down-counting operations. Internal or external input clocks with programmable prescaler are used for each GP timer. GP timers also provide the time base for the other event-manager submodules: GP timer 1 for all the compares and PWM circuits, GP timer 2/1 for the capture units and the quadrature-pulse counting operations. Double-buffering of the period and compare registers allows programmable change of the timer (PWM) period and the compare/PWM pulse width as needed.Full-compare unitsThere are three full-compare units on each event manager. These compare units use GP timer1 as the time base and generate six outputs for compare and PWM-waveform generation using programmable deadband circuit. The state of each of the six outputs is configured independently. The compare registers of the compare units are double-buffered, allowing programmable change of the compare/PWM pulse widths as needed.Programmable deadband generatorThe deadband generator circuit includes three 8-bit counters and an 8-bit compare register. Desired deadband values (from 0 to 24 µs) can be programmed into the compare register for the outputs of the three compare units. The deadband generation can be enabled/disabled for each compare unit output individually. The deadband-generator circuit produces two outputs (with orwithout deadband zone) for each compare unit output signal. The output states of the deadband generator are configurable and changeable as needed by way of the double-buffered ACTR register.PWM waveform generationUp to eight PWM waveforms (outputs) can be generated simultaneously by each event manager: three independent pairs (six outputs) by the three full-compare units with programmable deadbands, and two independent PWMs by the GP-timer compares.PWM characteristicsCharacteristics of the PWMs are as follows:●16-bit registers●Programmable deadband for the PWM output pairs, from 0 to 24 µs●Minimum deadband width of 50 ns●Change of the PWM carrier frequency for PWM frequency wobbling as needed●Change of the PWM pulse widths within and after each PWM period as needed●External-maskable power and drive-protection interrupts●Pulse-pattern-generator circuit, for programmable generation of asymmetric,symmetric, and four-space vector PWM waveforms●Minimized CPU overhead using auto-reload of the compare and period registersCapture unitThe capture unit provides a logging function for different events or transitions. The values of the GP timer 2 counter are captured and stored in the two-level-deep FIFO stacks when selected transitions are detected on capture input pins, CAPx (x = 1, 2, or 3 for EV A; and x = 4, 5, or 6 for EVB). The capture unit consists of three capture circuits.Capture units include the following features:●One 16-bit capture control register, CAPCON (R/W)●One 16-bit capture FIFO status register, CAPFIFO (eight MSBs are read-only, eightLSBs are write-only)●Selection of GP timer 2 as the time base●Three 16-bit 2-level-deep FIFO stacks, one for each capture unit●Three Schmitt-triggered capture input pins (CAP1, CAP2, and CAP3)—one input pinper capture unit. [All inputs are synchronized with the device (CPU) clock. In order fora transition to be captured, the input must hold at its current level to meet two risingedges of the device clock. The input pins CAP1 and CAP2 can also be used as QEPinputs to the QEP circuit.]●User-specified transition (rising edge, falling edge, or both edges) detection●Three maskable interrupt flags, one for each capture unitEnhanced analog-to-digital converter (ADC) moduleA simplified functional block diagram of the ADC module is shown in Figure 1. The ADC module consists of a 10-bit ADC with a built-in sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit. Functions of the ADC module include:●10-bit ADC core with built-in S/H●Fast conversion time (S/H + Conversion) of 500 ns●16-channel, muxed inputs●Autosequencing capability provides up to 16 ―autoconversions‖ in a single session.Each conversion can be programmed to select any 1 of 16 input channels●Sequencer can be operated as two independent 8-state sequencers or as one large16-state sequencer (i.e., two cascaded 8-state sequencers)●Sixteen result registers (individually addressable) to store conversion values●Multiple triggers as sources for the start-of-conversion (SOC) sequence✧S/W – software immediate start✧EV A – Event manager A (multiple event sources within EV A)✧EVB – Event manager B (multiple event sources within EVB)✧Ext – External pin (ADCSOC)●Flexible interrupt control allows interrupt request on every end of sequence (EOS) orevery other EOS●Sequencer can operate in ―start/stop‖ mode, allowing multiple ―time-sequencedtriggers‖ to synchronize conv ersions●EV A and EVB triggers can operate independently in dual-sequencer mode●Sample-and-hold (S/H) acquisition time window has separate prescale control●Built-in calibration mode●Built-in self-test modeThe ADC module in the ‘240x has been enhanced to pro vide flexible interface to event managers A and B. The ADC interface is built around a fast, 10-bit ADC module with total conversion time of 500 ns (S/H + conversion). The ADC module has 16 channels, configurable as two independent 8-channel modules to service event managers A and B. The two independent 8-channel modules can be cascaded to form a 16-channel module. Figure 2 shows the block diagram of the ‘240x ADC module.The two 8-channel modules have the capability to autosequence a series of conversions,each module has the choice of selecting any one of the respective eight channels available through an analog mux. In the cascaded mode, the autosequencer functions as a single 16-channel sequencer. On each sequencer, once the conversion is complete, the selected channel value is stored in its respective RESULT register. Autosequencing allows the system to convert the same channel multiple times, allowing the user to perform oversampling algorithms. This gives increased resolution over traditional single-sampled conversion results.Figure 2. Block Diagram of the ‘240x ADC ModuleFrom TMS320LF2407, TMS320LF2406, TMS320LF2402TMS320LC2406, TMS320LC2404, MS320LC2402数字信号处理控制器TMS320LF240x和TMS320LC240x系列芯片作为’24x系列DSP控制器的新成员，是C2000平台下的一种定点DSP芯片。

光伏系统中蓄电池的充电保护IC电路设计-外文翻译

Design of a Lead-Acid Battery Charging and Protecting IC in Photovoltaic SystemZENG De-you,LING Chao-dong,LI Guo-gang (Yuanshun IC Design R&D Center, Huaqiao University, Quanzhou 362021, China) Source: Microelectronic Device&Technology,June 20071.IntroductionSolar energy as an inexhaustible, inexhaustible source of energy more and more attention. Solar power has become popular in many countries and regions, solar lighting has also been put into use in many cities in China. As a key part of the solar lighting, battery charging and protection is particularly important. Sealed maintenance-free lead-acid battery has a sealed, leak-free, pollution-free, maintenance-free, low-cost, reliable power supply during the entire life of the battery voltage is stable and no maintenance, the need for uninterrupted for the various types of has wide application in power electronic equipment, and portable instrumentation. Appropriate float voltage, in normal use (to prevent over-discharge, overcharge, over-current), maintenance-free lead-acid battery float life of up to 12 ~ 16 years float voltage deviation of 5% shorten the life of 1/2. Thus, the charge has a major impact on this type of battery life. Photovoltaic, battery does not need regular maintenance, the correct charge and reasonable protection, can effectively extend battery life. Charging and protection IC is the separation of the occupied area and the peripheral circuit complexity. Currently, the market has not yet real, charged with the protection function is integrated on a single chip. For this problem, design a set of battery charging and protection functions in one IC is very necessary.2.System design and considerationsThe system mainly includes two parts: the battery charger module and the protection module. Of great significance for the battery as standby power use of the occasion, It can ensure that the external power supply to the battery-powered, but also in the battery overcharge, over-current and an external power supply is disconnected the battery is to put the state to provide protection, the charge and protection rolled into one to make the circuit to simplify and reduce valuable product waste of resources. Figure 1 is a specific application of this Ic in the photovoltaic power generation system, but also the source of this design.湖北科技学院本科毕业论文（设计）：外文翻译Figure1 Photovoltaic circuit system block diagramMaintenance -free lead -acid battery life is usually the cycle life and float life factors affecting the life of the battery charge rate, discharge rate, and float voltage. Some manufacturers said that if the overcharge protection circuit, the charging rate can be achieved even more than 2C (C is the rated capacity of the battery), battery manufacturers recommend charging rate of C/20 ~ C/3. Battery voltage and temperature, the temperature is increased by 1 °C, single cell battery voltage drops 4 mV , negative temperature coefficient of -4 mV / ° C means that the battery float voltage. Ordinary charger for the best working condition at 25 °C; charge less than the ambient temperature of 0 °C; at 45 °C may shorten the battery life due to severe overcharge. To make the battery to extend the working life, have a certain understanding and analysis of the working status of the battery, in order to achieve the purpose of protection of the battery. Battery, there are four states: normal state, over -current state over the state of charge, over discharge state. However, due to the impact of the different discharge current over -capacity and lifetime of the battery is not the same, so the battery over discharge current detection should be treated separately. When the battery is charging the state a long time, would severely reduce the capacity of the battery and shorten battery life. When the battery is the time of discharge status exceeds the allotted time, the battery, the battery voltage is too low may not be able to recharge, making the battery life is lower.Based on the above, the charge on the life of maintenance -free lead -acid batteries have a significant impact, while the battery is always in good working condition, battery protection circuit must be able to detect the normal working condition of the battery and make the action the battery can never normal working state back to normal operation, in order to achieve the protection of the battery.3.Units modular design3.1The charging moduleChip, charging module block diagram shown in Figure 2. The circuitry includes current limiting, current sensing comparator, reference voltage source, under -voltage solar batteryarray Charge controller controller Discharge controller DC loadaccumulatordetection circuit, voltage sampling circuit and logic control circuit.Figure2 Charging module block diagramThe module contains a stand -alone limiting amplifier and voltage control circuit, it can control off -chip drive, 20 ~30 mA, provided by the drive output current can directly drive an external series of adjustment tube, so as to adjust the charger output voltage and current . V oltage and current detection comparator detects the battery charge status, and control the state of the input signal of the logic circuit. When the battery voltage or current is too low, the charge to start the comparator control the charging. Appliances into the trickle charge state when the cut -off of the drive, the comparator can output about 20 mA into the trickle charge current. Thus, when the battery short -circuit or reverse, the charger can only charge a small current, to avoid damage to the battery charging current is too large. This module constitutes a charging circuit charging process is divided into two charging status: high -current constant -current charge state, high -voltage charge status and low -voltage constant voltage floating state. The charging process from the constant current charging status, the constant charging current of the charger output in this state. And the charger continuously monitors the voltage across the battery pack, the battery power has been restored to 70% to 90% of the released capacity when the battery voltage reaches the switching voltage to charge conversion voltage Vsam charger moves to the state of charge. In this state, the charger output voltage is increased to overcharge pressure V oc is due to the charger output voltage remains constant, so the charging current is a driverV oltage amplifierV oltage sampling comparatorStart amplifier State level control Charging indicator Logical moduleUndervoltage detection circuitR - powerCurrent sampling comparator Limiting amplifier Power indicator湖北科技学院本科毕业论文（设计）：外文翻译continuous decline. Current down to charge and suspend the current Ioct, the battery capacity has reached 100% of rated capacity, the charger output voltage drops to a lower float voltage VF.3.2 Protection ModuleChip block diagram of the internal protection circuit shown in Figure 3. The circuit includes control logic circuit, sampling circuit, overcharge detection circuit, over -discharge detection comparator, overcurrent detection comparator, load short -circuit detection circuit, level -shifting circuit and reference circuit (BGR).Figure3 Block diagram of battery protectionThis module constitutes a protection circuit shown in Figure 4. Under the chip supply voltage within the normal scope of work, and the VM pin voltage at the overcurrent detection voltage, the battery is in normal operation, the charge and discharge control of the chip high power end of the CO and DO are level, when the chip is in normal working mode. Larger when the battery discharge current will cause voltage rise of the VM pin at the VM pin voltage at above the current detection voltage Viov, then the battery is the current status, if this state to maintain the tiov overcurrent delay time, the chip ban on battery discharge, then the charge to control the end of CO is high, the discharge control side DO is low, the chip is in the current mode, general in order to play on the battery safer and more reasonable protection, the chip will battery over -discharge current to take over the discharge current delay time protection. The general rule is that the over -discharge current is larger, over the shorter the discharge current delay time. Above Overcharge detection voltage, the Sampling circuitOver discharge detection comparatorControl logic circuitLevel conversion circuit Overcharge detection comparator Over -current detection comparator2 Over -current detection comparator1Over -current detection circuitLoad short detection circuitchip supply voltage (Vdd> Vcu), the battery is in overcharge state, this state is to maintain the corresponding overcharge delay time tcu chip will be prohibited from charging the battery, then discharge control end DO is high, and charging control terminal CO is low, the chip is in charging mode. When the supply voltage of the chip under the overdischarge detection voltage (Vdd <Vdl,), then the battery is discharged state, this state remains the overdischarge delay time tdl chip will be prohibited to discharge the battery at this time The charge control side CO is high, while the discharge control terminal DO is low, the chip is in discharge mode.ProtectionmoduleFigure4 Protection circuit application schematic diagram4.Circuit DesignTwo charge protection module structure diagram, the circuit can be divided into four parts: the power detection circuit (under-voltage detection circuit), part of the bias circuit (sampling circuit, the reference circuit and bias circuit), the comparator (including the overcharge detection /overdischarge detection comparator, over-current detection and load short-circuit detection circuit) and the logic control part.This paper describes the under-voltage detection circuit (Figure 5), and gives the bandgap reference circuit (Figure 6).湖北科技学院本科毕业论文（设计）：外文翻译Figure5 Under -voltage detection circuitFigure6 A reference power supply circuit diagramBattery charging, voltage stability is particularly important, undervoltage, overvoltage protection is essential, therefore integrated overvoltage, undervoltage protection circuit inside the chip, to improve power supply reliability and security. And protection circuit design should be simple, practical, here designed a CMOS process, the undervoltage protection circuit, this simple circuit structure, process and easy to implement and can be used as high -voltage power integrated circuits and other power protection circuit.Undervoltage protection circuit schematic shown in Figure 5, a total of five components: the bias circuit, reference voltage, the voltage divider circuit, differential amplifier, the output circuit. The circuit supply voltage is 10V; the M0, M1, M2, R0 is the offset portion of the circuit to provide bias to the post -stage circuit, the resistance, Ro, determine the circuit's operating point, the M0, M1, M2 form a current mirror; R1 M14 is the feedback loop of the undervoltage signal; the rest of the M3, M4 and M5, M6, M7, M8, M9, M10, M11, M12, M13, M14, composed of four amplification comparator; M15, DO, a reference voltage, the comparator input with the inverting Biasing circuit Reference circuit Bleeder circuit difference amplifier Output circuitAmplifierAmplifierinput is fixed (V+), partial pressure of the resistance R1, R2, R3, the input to the inverting input of the comparator, when the normal working of the power supply voltage, the inverting terminal of the voltage detection is lost to the inverting terminal voltage of the comparator is greater than V+. Comparator output is low, M14 cutoff, feedback circuit does not work; undervoltage occurs, the voltage divider of R1, R2, R3, reaction is more sensitive, lost to the inverting input voltage is less than V when the resistor divider, the comparator the output voltage is high, this signal will be M14 open, the voltage across R into M at both ends of the saturation voltage close to 0V, thereby further driving down the R1> R2, the partial pressure of the output voltage, the formation of the undervoltage positive feedback. Output, undervoltage lockout, and plays a protective role.5. Simulation results and analysisThe design of the circuit in CSMC 0.6 μm in digital CMOS process simulation and analysis of the circuit. In the overall simulation of the circuit, the main observation is that the protection module on the battery charge and discharge process by monitoring Vdd potential and Vm potential leaving chip CO side and DO-side changes accordingly. The simulation waveform diagram shown in Figure 7, the overall protection module with the battery voltage changes from the usual mode conversion into overcharge mode, and then return to normal working mode, and then into the discharge mode, and finally back to normal working mode. As the design in the early stages of the various parameters to be optimized, but to provide a preliminary simulation results.湖北科技学院本科毕业论文（设计）：外文翻译Figure7 Overvoltage and under-voltage protection circuit simulation waveform6.ConclusionDesigned a set of battery charging and protection functions in one IC. This design not only can reduce the product, they can reduce the peripheral circuit components. The circuit uses the low-power design. This project is underway to design optimization stage, a complete simulation can not meet the requirements, but also need to optimize the design of each module circuit.光伏系统中蓄电池的充电保护IC电路设计曾德友，凌朝东，李国刚（华侨大学元顺集成电路研发中心，福建泉州 362021）来源：微电子器件与技术 2007年第6期1.引言太阳能作为一种取之不尽、用之不竭的能源越来越受到重视。

多晶硅太阳能电池毕业论文文献翻译中英文对照

英文翻译Polycrystalline silicon solar cellsAs we all know, solar energy has many advantages, photovoltaic power generation will provide the main energy of mankind, but at present it, to make solar power a large market, is the general consumer acceptance, increased solar cell efficiency and reduce production costs should be our overriding goal, from the current development of the international solar cell can see the trend of its silicon, polycrystalline silicon, ribbon silicon, thin film materials (including trend of its silicon, polycrystalline silicon, ribbon silicon, thin film materials (including microcrystalline silicon thin films, compound-based thin film and dye film).From industrial development, it has been the focus of the direction of single crystal to polycrystalline, mainly due to;（1）the beginning and end of solar cell materials can supply less and less;（2）in terms of the solar cell, a square substrate is more cost-effective, by direct coagulation casting method and obtained direct access to a square polysilicon materials;（3）of polysilicon production technology continue to make progress, casting furnace automatic production cycle of each (50 hours) can produce over 200 kg ingots, grain size to achieve centimeter level;（4）in recent years as research and development of silicon technology quickly, in which technology has been applied to the production of polycrystalline silicon cells, such as selective etching the emitter, back surface field, corrosion suede , surface and bulk passivation, thin metal gate electrode, using screen-printing technology enables the gate electrode width down to 50 microns to 15 microns high, rapid thermal annealing technology for polysilicon production process can significantly shorten the time, single time of thermal process can be completed within a minute using this technology in the 100 square centimeters of silicon chip to make the cell conversion efficiency of over 14%. It was reported in 50 to 60 micron silicon substrate produced more than 16% cell efficiency.Mechanical groove, screen printing technology in polycrystalline on the efficiency of more than 17%, no mechanical groove in the same area on the efficiency of 16%, with buried gate structure, mechanical groove 130 on a square centimeter of polycrystalline cell efficiency of 15.8%.The following two aspects of the polysilicon to discuss battery technology.Laboratory efficient battery technology Laboratory techniques often do not consider the cost of battery production and mass production can only achieve maximum efficiency of the method and means to provide specific materials and processes that can achieve the limit.1.On the absorption of lightFor the optical absorption is mainly:(1)reduce the surface reflection;(2)Change the path of light in the cell body;(3)using the back reflection.For silicon, anisotropic chemical etching method applied in (100) surfaceproduced textured pyramid-shaped, lower surface light reflection. But silicon crystal to deviate from the (100) surface, using the above methods can not make even the suede, the current use of the following methods:（1）laser grooveGroove with a laser method can be produced in the polysilicon surface, inverted pyramid structure, in 500~900nm wavelength range, reflectance was 4 to 6%, with double-layer antireflection coating surface produced considerable. In the (100) reflection of silicon chemical production rate of 11% of the flock. Produced by laser textured surface than in the smooth double-layer antireflection coating film (ZnS/MgF2) short circuit current to increase by about 4%, mainly long-wave light (wavelength greater than 800nm) the reasons for slanting into the battery. Laser production of suede problems in etching, surface damage caused by the introduction of a number of impurities at the same time, through chemical treatment to remove surface damage layer. Solar cells made by this method are usually higher short circuit current, open circuit voltage is not high, mainly due to cell surface area increased, the recombination current increase.（2）Chemical grooveApplication of mask (Si3N4or SiO2) isotropic corrosion, etching solutions for acid etching solutions, but also for the higher concentration of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide solution, the method can not create the kind formed by anisotropic etching cone-like structure. According to reports, the approach down the face of the formation of micron spectral range 700 to 1030 significantly reduced reflex. But the mask layer will be formed at higher temperatures, causing decreased performance polysilicon materials, especially for lower quality polycrystalline materials, reduce the minority carrier lifetime. Application of the technology made of polysilicon in cell conversion efficiency of 16.4%. Mask layer screen printing method can also be formed.（3）reactive ion corrosion (RIE)This method is a non-mask etching process, the formation of suede particularly low reflectivity in the spectral range 450 to 1000 micron reflectivity can be less than 2%. Only from the optical point of view, is an ideal method, but problem is serious silicon surface damage, the battery open circuit voltage and fill factor decreased.（4）produced antireflection filmFor efficient solar cells, the most common and most effective way is to double-layer antireflection coatings deposited ZnS/MgF2, its optimal thickness depends on the thickness of the oxide layer below the surface characteristics and battery, for example, the surface is smooth or textured surface，anti-reflection technology has evaporated Ta2O5, PECVD deposition Si3N3 so. ZnO conductive film can be used as anti-reflective material.2.MetallizationIn the efficient production of the battery, the metal electrode to the battery design parameters such as surface doping concentration, PN junction depth, the metal material to match. General area of small laboratory cell (area less than 4cm2), so they need small metal gate line (less than 10 microns), the general approach to lithography,electron beam evaporation, rge-scale production of industrial plating process is also used, but the combination of evaporation and lithography, do not belong to low-cost technology.3.PN junction formation technology（1）emitter formation and phosphorus getteringFor efficient solar cells, emitter diffusion formation of choice commonly used in the formation of heavy metal impurities in the region below the electrode in the spread between the electrodes to achieve light levels, the shallow emitter diffusion is increased concentration of cell response to blue light, and also allows silicon surface easily passivated. Two-step diffusion method diffusion process, diffusion process and increase corrosion buried diffusion process. Currently used selection proliferation, 15 × 15 cell conversion efficiency of 16.4%, n + +, n + sheet resistance of the surface region were 20Ω and 80Ω.For Mc-Si materials, expansion of phosphorus gettering effect on the battery has been widely studied, a longer period of phosphorus gettering process (usually 3 to 4 hours), make some of Mc-Si of the minority carrier diffusion length increase of two orders of magnitude.（2）the formation of back surface field and aluminum getteringIn Mc-Si cell, the back p + p junction by the formation of uniform diffusion of aluminum or boron, boron source is generally BN, BBr, APCVD SiO2: B2O8 such as evaporation or diffusion of aluminum screen printing of aluminum, 800 degrees completed sintering , on the role of aluminum gettering carried out extensive research, and in different phosphorus diffusion gettering, aluminum gettering at a relatively low temperature. Physical defects which also involved the dissolution and deposition of impurities, while in higher temperatures, the deposition of impurities easily dissolve into the silicon, on the Mc-Si have a negative impact. Far, to the regional background field has been applied to silicon solar cell technology, but in the polysilicon, the application of aluminum or the back surface field structure.（3）Double Mc-Si cellsMc-Si double the battery positive side for the conventional structure, on the back for the N + and P + cross-cutting structure, so that generated a positive light, but in the back of the photo birth rate near the back electrode can be effectively absorbed. Back electrode as an effective complement to the positive electrode, also planted as an independent flow of sub-collector on the back of the light and the scattered light to be effective, it was reported in the AM1.5 conditions, the conversion efficiency of over 19%.360毕业设计网4.Surface and bulk passivationFor Mc-Si, due to higher grain boundary exist, point defects (vacancies, interstitial atoms, metal impurities, oxygen and nitrogen and their compounds) and in vivo defect on the surface passivation is particularly important, in addition to the previously mentioned The gettering, the passivation process has a number of ways, by thermal oxidation to silicon dangling bonds saturated is a relatively common method, make Si-SiO2interface recombination velocity greatly decreased, the passivation effect depends on the launching area surfaceconcentration, the interface state density and the electron and hole cross sections were floating. Annealed in hydrogen atmosphere can passivation effect is more obvious. Nitride deposited by PECVD the recent positive is very effective because the process of film has the effect of hydrogenation. The process can also be applied to large scale production. Application of Remote PECVD Si3N4 surface recombination velocity is less than can 20cm / s.多晶硅太阳能电池众所周知，利用太阳能有许多优点，光伏发电将为人类提供主要的能源，但目前来讲，要使太阳能发电具有较大的市场，被广大的消费者接受，提高太阳电池的光电转换效率，降低生产成本应该是我们追求的最大目标，从目前国际太阳电池的发展过程可以看出其发展趋势为单晶硅、多晶硅、带状硅、薄膜材料（包括微晶硅基薄膜、化合物基薄膜及染料薄膜）。

太阳能发电-中英文翻译Solarelectricalenergygeneration文献翻译

文献翻译英文原文：Solar electrical energy generationAlong with economical development, society's progress, the people to the energy proposed that more and more high request, seeks for the new energy to become the urgent topic which the current humanity faces. The existing energy mainly has 3 kinds, namely thermal power, water and electricity and nuclear power.The thermal power needs to burn fossil fuels and so on bunker coal, petroleum. On the one hand the fossil fuel reserves limited, the fever are less, is facing the danger which dries up. It is estimated that the world oil resource will have 30 years then to dry up again. On the other hand the combustion fuel will discharge CO2 and the sulfur oxide compound, will therefore cause the greenhouse effect and the acid rain, will worsen the terrestrial environment.The water and electricity must submerge the massive lands, has the possibility to cause the ecological environment to destroy, moreover large reservoir, once collapses, the consequence will be inconceivable. Moreover, country's hydro-electric resources are also limited, moreover must receive the season influence.The nuclear power in the normal condition no doubt is clean, but has the nuclear leakage accidentally, the consequence is similarly fearful. The former Soviet Union Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station accident, has caused 9,000,000 people to receive the varying degree harm, moreover this influence has not terminated.These force the people to seek for the new energy. The new energy must simultaneously meet two conditions: First, the implication rich will not dry up; Second, is safe, is clean, will not threaten the humanity and the destruction environment. At present found the new energy mainly had two kinds：first, solar energy; second, fuel cell. Moreover, the wind power generation may also be the auxiliary new energy. And, the most ideal new energy is greatly positive energy.1. The solar electrical energy generation is the most ideal new energyShines is huge on Earth's solar energy, about 40 minutes shine on Earth's solar energy, then sufficiently supplies global humanity one year energy the expense. It can be said that the solar energy is true inexhaustible, the inexhaustible energy. Moreover the solar electrical energy generation is absolutely clean, does not have the environmental damage. Therefore the solar electrical energy generation is honored asis the ideal energy.Obtains the electric power from the solar energy, must carry on the electro-optical transformation through the greatly positive battery to realize. It completely was formerly different with other power source electricity generation principle, has the following characteristic: ①Non-depletion danger; ②Clean (does not have environmental damage) absolutely; ③It is not distributed the resources the region the limit; ④But is using electricity place nearby generates electricity; ⑤The energy quality is high; ⑥The user easy to accept from the sentiment; ⑦The gain energy expenditure's time is short. The deficiency is:①The illumination energy distribution density is small, namely must take the huge area; ②Obtains the energy with four seasons, the day and nights and cloudy clear and so on meteorological conditions concerns. But generally speaking, the flaw does not cover the fine jade, takes the new energy, the solar energy has the enormous merit, therefore receives various countries the value.Must enable the solar electrical energy generation to achieve the practical level truly; first, must raise the solar energy electro-optic conversion efficiency and reduce its cost; second, must realize the solar electrical energy generation with present's electrical network networking.At present, solar panels mainly has the mono-crystalline silicon, the polycrystalline silicon, the amorphous state silicon three kinds. The mono-crystalline silicon solar cell conversion efficiency is highest, has reached above 20%, but the price is also the most expensive. The amorphous state silicon solar cell conversion efficiency is lowest, but the price is the cheapest, from now on most will be hopeful uses in generally generating electricity will be this kind of battery. Once its big area module electro-optic conversion efficiency achieves 10%, each watt generating set price falls to 1-2 US dollars, then sufficiently compete with present's electricity generation way. It is estimated that at the end of this century it may achieve this level.Certainly, in the special use and the laboratory uses the solar cell efficiency must be much higher, if the US Boeing develops by the gallium arsenic semiconductor with the positive electricity place which too the stibium gallium semiconductor overlaps becomes, the electro-optic conversion efficiency may reach 36%, has caught up with the coal-burning electricity generation efficiency quickly. But because it is too expensive, at present can only be restricted on the satellite uses.2. Solar electrical energy generation applicationAlthough solar electrical energy generation day and nights, clear and rain, season influence, but may carry on scattered, therefore it is suitable for various each household minute to carry on the electricity generation severally, moreover must join in the power supply network, causes each family when the electric power is wealthy may sold it to the Electricity company, when the insufficiency be possible from the Electricity company to buy up. Realizes this point’s technology not to be difficult to solve, the key lies in must have the corresponding legal safeguard. Now the US, Japan and so on developed country has made the corresponding law, guaranteed that carries on the solar electrical energy generation the family benefit, encourages the family to carry on the solar electrical energy generation.Japan has realized the solar electrical energy generation system the same electricity company electrical network's networking in April, 1992, had some families to start to install the solar electrical energy generation equipment. The Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry started from 1994 take individual housing as an object, implemented to purchases the solar electrical energy generation equipment's expense to subsidize 2/3 systems. Requests the first year had 1000 households families, when 2000 to have 70,000 households families to install the solar electrical energy generation equipment.According to the Japanese Department concerned estimates in the Japanese 21,000,000 households individual housing, if has 80% to install the solar electrical energy generation equipment, then may satisfy 14% which the national total power needs, if units and so on factory and office building also carry on the solar electrical energy generation with the room, then the solar electrical energy generation will occupy the national electric power 30%-40%. The current hindrance solar electrical energy generation popular most primary factor is the expense is expensive In order to satisfy the general family power requirement 3 kilowatt generating system, needs 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 Japanese Yen, has not included the installment wages. The concerned expert believed that when must fall at least to 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 Japanese Yen, the solar electrical energy generation only then can popularize truly. The key to reduce the expense lie in the solar cell to raise the conversion efficiency and to reduce the cost.Some time ago, the US Texas Instruments Company and SCE Corporation announced that they develop one kind of new solar cell, each unit is the diameter less than 1 millimeter bead, they distribute regularly densely and numerously on the softaluminum foil, looks like many silkworm eggs to cling on the paper is the same. Then distributes in about 50 square centimeters area has 1,700 such units. This kind of new battery's characteristic is, although the conversion efficiency has 8%-10%, but the price is cheap. Moreover aluminum foil bottom bush soft solid, may look like the cloth to fold equally at will, and durable, hangs in toward the sun place then may generate electricity, is convenient. It is said that uses this kind of new solar cell, so long as each watt power capacity equipment 1.5 to 2 US dollars, moreover each round of once electricity's expense might also fall to 14 cents about, definitely may compete with the ordinary power plant. Each family hangs this kind of battery on the roof, the wall toward the sun, every year may obtain 1,000-2,000 degrees electric powers.3. Solar electrical energy generation prospectThe solar electrical energy generation has a more exciting plan. First, Japan proposes creates the century plan. Prepares the desert and the sea area carries on the electricity generation using the ground, and through superconducting cable whole world solar power station connection unification electrical network in order to global. According to reckoning, to 2000, in 2050, in 2100, even if all uses the solar electrical energy generation supplies the whole world energy, the occupying land area is also 651,100 square kilometer, 1,867,900 square kilometer, 8,291,900 square kilometers. 8,291,900 square kilometers only occupy the complete sea area 2.3% or the complete desert area 51.4%, even is the Sahara area 91.5%. Therefore this plan has the possibility to realize.Another one is the space electricity generation plan. As early as in 1980 the NASA and Department of Energy proposed that in the spatial construction solar power station tentative plan, prepares on the synchronous orbit to put one long 10 kilometers, to extend 5 kilometer big plates, above covers entirely the solar cell, like this then may provide 5,000,000 kilowatts electric powers. But this needs to solve to the ground wireless electric transmission question. Already proposed with the micro wave beam, the laser beam and so on each kind of plan. At present although has realized the short distance, the short time, the low power microwave wireless electric transmission with the mockup, but to true practical also has the long distance.Along with our country technology's development, in 2006, China had three enterprises to enter global first ten, symbolizes that China will become one of global new energy science and technology central, in the world the solar energy light bends down widespread application, what caused present to be deficient was raw materialsupply and the price rise, we needed dissemination of technology at the same time, to use the new technology, with the aim of reducing the cost large scale, was this new energy long-term development provides the driving force!The solar energy use mainly divides into several aspects: The family with the small solar energy power plant, the large-scale incorporation power plant, the building integration light bends down the glass curtain wall, the solar energy street light, the scenery supplementary street light, the scenery supplementary power supply system and so on, now main application way for construction integration and scenery supplementary system.The world present had the nearly 200 companies to produce the solar cell, but produces the plants mainly hand in the Japanese business.Recent years the South Korean Tri-star, LG expressed the positive participation's desire, China two sides across the Taiwan Strait are similarly very warm-hearted. It is reported that our country Taiwan in 2008 crystallizes the silicon solar cell productivity to reach 2.2GW, later will expand by every year 1GW productivity in the past and started to produce the thin film solar cell, this year will strengthen vigorously, Taiwan anticipated that “the solar cell great nation” emulated to Europe. in 2010 various countries and the area have above 1GW the productive plan solar cell manufacturer to have Japanese Sharp, German Q-Cells, Scho~Solar, turns 5 prestige RWE Solar, Chinese Suntech Power and so on 5 companies, above other 7 500MW productivity company.Recent years the world solar cell market advanced triumphantly, an excellence, but the rare financial storm brought the economic crisis, was similarly presses in solar cell market on dark clouds, the Major enterprise like Germany Q-Cells achievement declined accordingly, because pre-year the world too positive electricity market also the demand will be this year worn out, the petroleum price dropped, but the competitive power counter-promotion and so on disadvantage factor lowered But at the same time, the people also see the US. After the Obama comes on stage, soon applies the Green New Deal policy, may have 150,000,000,000 US dollar subsidy funds including the among them green energy program, Japan will also carry out the subsidy system to continue to popularize solar cell's application4. Solar cell electricity generation principle:The solar cell is pair of light has the response and can transform the energy of light the electric power the component. Many kinds of materials can produce the lightto bend down the effect, for example: Mono-crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, gallium arsenic, selenium indium copper and so on. Their electricity generation principle basic same, presently take crystal as example description light electricity generation process. The P crystalline silicon may result in the N silicon after the doping phosphorus, forms the P-N knot.When light illumination solar cell surface, part of photons by silicon material absorption; The photon energy transfer has given the silicon atom, caused the electron to occur more moved, becomes the free electron to tie the both sides in P-N to gather has formed the potential difference, when exterior key-on, under this voltage's function, will have the electric current to wind through the exterior electric circuit to have certain output. This process's essence is: The photon energy transforms the electrical energy the process.5. Crystalline silicon solar cell's manufacture process:The silicon is on our star preserves one of most abundant quantity materials. Had discovered after the 19th century scientists crystalline silicon semiconductor characteristic, it changed all nearly, even humanity's thought. 20 century's ends, in our life everywhere obviously “silicon” the f orm and the function, the crystalline silicon solar cell is in the recent 15 years forms the industrial production to be quickest. The production process may divide into five steps approximately: a、depuration process.b、pulls good process.c、slice process.d、system battery process.e、and the seal process.6. Solar cell's application:In the 1960s, the scientists already applied the solar cells in the spatial technology-communication satellite power supply, on the century's end, in the human self-introspection's process, bends down unceasingly regarding the light generates electricity this kind so clean and the direct energy form already even more kind, not only in the spatial application, but also gives full play in the numerous domains.For example: The solar energy garden lamp, the solar electrical energy generation household with the system, the stockaded village power supply's independent system, the light bends down the water pump (potable water or irrigation), the correspondence power source, the petroleum oil pipeline cathodic protection, the fiber optic cable communications pumping station power source, in the seawater desalination system, the cities the guidepost, the highway guidepost and so on. Europe and America and so on advanced countries bend down the electricitygeneration the light to merge the city to use electricity the system and the remote border district nature village power supply system integrate the development direction. The solar cell and the building system's union already formed the industrial production tendency.参考译文：太阳能发电随着经济的发展、社会的进步，人们对能源提出越来越高的要求，寻找新能源成为当前人类面临的迫切课题。

太阳能发电的基础中英文文献翻译

The Basics of Solar Power for Producing Electricity Using solar power to produce electricity is not the same as using solar to produce heat. Solar thermal principles are applied to produce hot fluids or air. Photovoltaic principles are used to produce electricity. A solar panel is made of the natural element, silicon, which becomes charged electrically when subjected to sun light.Solar panels are directed at solar south in the northern hemisphere and solar north in the southern hemisphere (these are slightly different than magnetic compass north-south directions) at an angle dictated by the geographic location and latitude of where they are to be installed. Typically, the angle of the solar array is set within a range of between site-latitude-plus 15 degrees and site-latitude-minus 15 degrees, depending on whether a slight winter or summer bias is desirable in the system. Many solar arrays are placed at an angle equal to the site latitude with no bias for seasonal periods.The intensity of the Sun's radiation changes with the hour of the day, time of the year and weather conditions. To be able to make calculations in planning a system, the total amount of solar radiation energy is expressed in hours of full sunlight perm, or Peak Sun Hours. This term, Peak Sun Hours, represents the average amount of sun available per day throughout the year.It is presumed that at "peak sun", 1000 W/m of power reaches the surface of the earth. One hour of full sun provides 1000 Wh perm = 1 kWh/m - representing the solar energy received in one hour on a cloudless summer day on a one-square meter surface directed towards the sun. To put this in some other perspective, the United States Department of Energy indicates the amount of solar energy that hits the surface of the earth every +/- hour is greater than the total amount of energy that the entire human population requires in a year. Another perspective is that roughly 100 square miles of solar panels placed in the southwestern . could power the country.The daily average of Peak Sun Hours, based on either full year statistics, or average worst month of the year statistics, for example, is used for calculation purposes in the design of the system. To see the average Peak Sun Hours for your area in the United States, Choose the area closest to your location for a good indication of your average Peak Sun Hours.For a view of global solar isolation values (peak sun-hours) use this link: , then, you can use [back] or [previous] on your browser to return right here if you want to.So it can be concluded that the power of a system varies, depending on the intended geographical location. Folks in the northeastern . will need more solar panels in their system to produce the same overall power as those living in Arizona. We can advise you on this if you have any doubts about your area.The four primary components for producing electricity using solar power, which provides common 120 volt AC power for daily use are: Solar panels, charge controller, battery and inverter. Solar panels charge the battery, and the charge regulator insures proper charging of the battery. The battery provides DC voltage to the inverter, and the inverter converts the DC voltage to normal AC voltage. If 240 volts AC is needed, then either a transformer is added or two identical inverters are series-stacked to produce the 240 volts.The output of a solar panel is usually stated in watts, and the wattage is determined by multiplying the rated voltage by the rated amperage. The formula for wattage is VOLTS times AMPS equals WATTS. So for example, a 12 volt 60 watt solar panel measuring about 20 ×44 inches has a rated voltage of and a rated amperage.V × A = Wvolts times amps equals 60 wattsIf an average of 6 hours of peak sun per day is available in an area, then the above solar panel can produce an average 360 watt hours of power per day; 60w times 6 hrs= 360 watt-hours. Since the intensity of sunlight contacting the solar panel varies throughout the day, we use the term "peak sun hours" as a method to smooth out the variations into a daily average. Early morning and late-in-the-day sunlight produces less power than the mid-day sun. Naturally, cloudy days will produce less power than bright sunny days as well. When planning a system your geographical area is rated in average peak sun hours per day based on yearly sun data. Average peak sun hours for various geographical areas is listed in the above section.Solar panels can be wired in series or in parallel to increase voltage or amperage respectively, and they can be wired both in series and in parallel to increase both volts and amps. Series wiring refers to connecting the positive terminal of one panel to the negative terminal of another. The resulting outer positive and negative terminals will produce voltage the sum of the two panels, but the amperage stays the same as one panel. So two 12 volt/ amp panels wired in series produces 24 volts at amps. Four of these wired in series would produce 48 volts at amps. Parallel wiring refers to connecting positive terminals to positive terminals and negative to negative. Theresult is that voltage stays the same, but amperage becomes the sum of the number of panels. So two 12 volt/ amp panels wired in parallel would produce 12 volts at 7 amps. Four panels would produce 12 volts at 14 amps.A charge controller monitors the battery's state-of-charge to insure that when the battery needs charge-current it gets it, and also insures the battery isn't over-charged. Connecting a solar panel to a battery without a regulator seriously risks damaging the battery and potentially causing a safety concern.Charge controllers (or often called charge regulator) are rated based on the amount of amperage they can process from a solar array. If a controller is rated at 20 amps it means that you can connect up to 20 amps of solar panel output current to this one controller. The most advanced charge controllers utilize a charging principal referred to as Pulse-Width-Modulation (PWM) - which insures the most efficient battery charging and extends the life of the battery. Even more advanced controllers also include Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) which maximizes the amount of current going into the battery from the solar array by lowering the panel's output voltage, which increases the charging amps to the battery - because if a panel can produce 60 watts with volts and amps, then if the voltage is lowered to say 14 volts then the amperage increases to (14v ×amps = 60 watts) resulting in a 19% increase in charging amps for this example.Many charge controllers also offer Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD) and Battery Temperature Compensation (BTC) as an optional feature. The LVD feature permits connecting loads to the LVD terminals which are then voltage sensitive. If the battery voltage drops too far the loads are disconnected - preventing potential damage to both the battery and the loads. BTC adjusts the charge rate based on the temperature of the battery since batteries are sensitive to temperature variations above and below about 75F degrees.The Deep Cycle batteries used are designed to be discharged and then re-charged hundreds or thousands of times. These batteries are rated in Amp Hours (ah) - usually at 20 hours and 100 hours. Simply stated, amp hours refers to the amount of current - in amps - which can be supplied by the battery over the period of hours. For example, a 350ah battery could supply continuous amps over 20 hours or 35 continuous amps for 10 hours. To quickly express the total watts potentially available in a 6 volt 360ah battery; 360ah times the nominal 6 volts equals 2160 watts or (kilowatt-hours). Like solar panels, batteries are wired in series and/or parallel to increase voltage to the desired level and increase amp hours.The battery should have sufficient amp hour capacity to supply needed power during the longest expected period "no sun" or extremely cloudy conditions. A lead-acid battery should be sized at least 20% larger than this amount. If there is a source of back-up power, such as a standby generator along with a battery charger, the battery bank does not have to be sized for worst case weather conditions.The size of the battery bank required will depend on the storage capacity required, the maximum discharge rate, the maximum charge rate, and the minimum temperature at which the batteries will be used. During planning, all of these factors are looked at, and the one requiring the largest capacity will dictate the battery size.One of the biggest mistakes made by those just starting out does not understand the relationship between amps and amp-hour requirements of 120 volt AC items versus the effects on their DC low voltage batteries. For example, say you have a 24 volt nominal system and an inverter powering a load of 3 amps, 120VAC, which has a duty cycle of 4 hours per day. You would have a 12 amp hour load (3A × 4 hrs=12 ah). However, in order to determine the true drain on your batteries you have to divide your nominal battery voltage (24v) into the voltage of the load (120v), which is 5, and then multiply this times your 120vac amp hours (5 × 12 ah). So in this case the calculation would be 60 amp hours drained from your batteries - not the 12 ah. Another simple way is to take the total watt-hours of your 120VAC device and divide by nominal system voltage. Using the above example; 3 amps × 120 volts × 4 hours = 1440 watt-hours divided by 24 DC volts = 60 amp hours.Lead-acid batteries are the most common in PV systems because their initial cost is lower and because they are readily available nearly everywhere in the world. There are many different sizes and designs of lead-acid batteries, but the most important designation is that they are deep cycle batteries. Lead-acid batteries are available in both wet-cell (requires maintenance) and sealed no-maintenance versions. AGM and Gel-cell deep-cycle batteries are also popular because they are maintenance free and they last a lot longer.太阳能发电的基础太阳能发电板由天然成分的硅制成，受太阳光控制的电池板。

太阳能中英文对照资料（docX页）

1 主题内容与适用范围本标准规定了太阳能热利用中一部分关于天文与辐射的术语。

本标准适用于太阳能热利用中对太阳辐射的研究与测量。

2 引用标准GB 3102.6 光及有关电磁辐射的量和单位GB 4270 热工图形符号与文字代号3 天文3.1 天球celestial sphere为研究天体的位置和运动而辅设的一个半径为无限长的假想球体。

其中心按需要可设在观测点、地心、日心或银心等。

天体的位置即指沿天球中心至该天体方向在球面上的投影。

3.2 天轴celestial axis天球的自转轴。

它通过天球中心并平行于地球自转轴。

3.3 天极celestial pole天轴与天球相交的两个交点的统称。

3.4 北天极celestial north pole北半天球上的天极。

3.5 南天极celestial south pole南半天球上的天极。

3.6 天顶zenith观测点铅垂线向上延长与天球相交的交点。

3.7 天底nadir观测点铅垂线向下延长与天球相交的交点。

3.8 天赤道celestial equator通过天球中心并垂直于天轴的平面与天球相交的大圆。

3.9 天球子午圈celestial meridian天球上通过天顶和天极的大圆。

同义词天球子午线3.10 时圈hour circle天球上通过两天极的任一大圆。

同义词赤经圈right ascension circle3.11 地平面horizontal plane地球表面观测点以铅垂线为法线的切平面。

3.12 地平圈horizontal circle通过天球中心并垂直于天顶-天底连线的平面与天球相交的大圆。

同义词地平线horizon3.13 地平经圈vertical circle天球上通过天顶和天底的任一大圆。

3.14 角距离angular distance天球大圆上任意两点所对应的圆心角。

3.15 天球坐标系celestial coordinate system为确定天体在天球上的投影位置和运动而引入的球面坐标系。

太阳能电池中英文对照外文翻译文献

(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文翻译英文原文Historical Review of Solar EnergySolar generally refers to the suns radiation energy. Carried out in the solar interior from H together into a helium the nuclear reaction, kept a huge release of energy, and continue to the space radiation energy, which is solar energy. This solar nuclear fusion reaction inside the can to maintain the hundreds of millions of first time. Solar radiation to space launch 3.8x10 ^ 23kW power of the radiation, of which 20 billionth of the Earths atmosphere to reach. Solar energy reaching the Earths atmosphere, 30% of the atmosphere reflectance, 23% of atmospheric absorption, and the rest to reach the Earths surface.Its power of 80 trillion kW, that is to say a second exposure to the suns energy on Earth is equivalent to five million tons of coal combustion heat release. The average per square meter in the atmosphere outside the area of energy per minute to receiveabout 1367w. A broad sense of the solar energy on earth many sources, such as w ind energy, chemical energy, potential energy of water and so on. The narrow sense is limited to solar radiation of solar light thermal, photovoltaic and photochemical conversion of the directly.At this stage, the worlds solar energy is still the focus of the study of solar energy power plant, but the diversification of the use of the condenser, and the introduction of flat-plate collector and a low boiling point working fluid, the device gradually expanded up to maximum output power 73.64kW, Objective To compare the clear and practical, cost remains high. The construction of a typical device are as follows: 1901, California built a solar-powered pumping devices, the use of truncated cone condenser power: 7.36kW; 1902 ~ 1908 years, built in the United States five sets of double-cycle solar-powered engines, the use of flat-panel collector and a low boiling point working fluid; in 1913,Human use of solar energy has a long history. China more than 2000 years ago, back in the Warring States period, one will find that the use of four steel mirror to focus sunlight ignition; use of solar energy to dry agricultural products. The development of modern, solar energy has become increasingly widespread use, it includes the use of solar energy solar thermal, solar photovoltaic and solar energy use, such as the photochemical use. The use of solar photochemical reaction, a passive use (photo-thermal conversion) and the photoelectric conversion in two ways. A new solar power and renewable sources of energy use.Silicon photovoltaic cells mainly in the absorption of solar light energy emitted by silicon photocell is mainly extracted from the sand by the development of Bell Labs. Solar energy is the internal or the surface of the sun sunspot continuous process of nuclear fusion reactions produce energy. Earths orbit on the average solar radiation intensity for the 1367w / ㎡. Circumference of the Earths equator to 40000km, and thus calculated the Earths energy can be obtained 173000TW. At sea level standard for peak intensity 1kw/m2, a point on the Earths surface 24h of the annual average radiation intensity 0.20kw / ㎡, which is equivalent to have 102000TW energy Human dependence on these energy to survive, including all other forms of renewable energy (except for geothermal energy resources), although the total amount of solar energy resources is the human equivalent of the energy used by ten thousand times, but low energy density of solar energy, and it vary from place to place, from time to time change, the development and utilization of solar energy which is facing a major problem. These features will make solar energy in the integrated energy systemof the role of subject to certain restrictions.The use of solar cells, through the photoelectric conversion to solar energy conversion is included in electricity, the use of solar water heaters, the use of solar heat hot water and use water for power generation, using solar energy for desalination. Now, the use of solar energy is not very popular, the use of solar power costs are h igh there, the problem of low conversion efficiency, but for satellite solar cells to provide energy has been applied.Although the Earths atmosphere solar radiation to the total energy only 22 billionths of a radiation energy, it has been as high as 173,000 TW, that is to say a second exposure to the suns energy on Earth is equivalent to five million tons of coal. Earth wind energy, hydropower, ocean thermal energy, wave energy and tidal energy as well as some comes from the sun; even in the face of the earths fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, natural gas, etc.) that is fundamentally Since ancient times the storage of solar energy down, so by including a broad range of solar energy is very large, he narrow sense is limited to solar radiation of solar light thermal, photovoltaic and photochemical conversion of the directly.Solar energy is the first time, but also renewable energy. It is rich in resources, can use free of charge, and without transportation, without any pollution to the environment. For mankind to create a new life, so that social and human energy into a era of reducing pollution.Solar cells have to respond to a light and convert solar energy to power the device. Photovoltaic effect can produce many kinds of materials, such as: single crystal silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, gallium arsenide, copper indium selenium. They are basically the same principle of power generation is now crystal as an example to describe the process of light generation. P-type crystalline silicon available after phosphorus-doped N-type silicon, the formation of P-N junction.When the surface of solar light, the silicon material to be part of photon absorption; photon energy transfer to the silicon atom, electronic transitions have taken place, as a free-electron concentration in the PN junction formed on both sides of the potential difference, when the external circuit connected when the effects of the voltage, there will be a current flowing through the external circuit have a certain amount of output power. The substance of this process are: photon energy into electrical energy conversion process.Si is our planets abundance of storage materials. Since the 19th century,scientists discovered the properties of crystalline silicon semiconductor, it almo st changed everything, even human thought, end of the 20th century. Our lives can be seen everywhere, silicon figure and role of crystalline silicon solar cells is the formation of the past 15 years the fastest growing industry. Production process can be divided into five steps: a, purification process b, the process of pulling rod c, slicing the process of d, the process of system battery e, the course package.Solar photovoltaicIs a component of photovoltaic panels in the sun exposure will generate direct current power generation devices, from virtually all semiconductor materials (eg silicon) are made of thin photovoltaic cells composed of solid. Because there is no part of activity, and would thus be a long time operation would not lead to any loss. Simple photovoltaic cells for watches and computers to provide energy, and more complex PV systems to provide lighting for the housing and power supply. Photovoltaic panels can be made into components of different shapes, and components can be connected to generate more power. In recent years, the surface of the roof and building will be the use of photovoltaic panels components,Even be used as windows, skylights or sheltered part of devices, which are often called photovoltaic facilities with PV systems in buildings.Solar thermalModern technology solar thermal polymerization sunlight and use its energy produced hot water, steam and electricity. In addition to the use of appropriate technology to collect solar energy, the building can also make use of the su ns light and heat energy is added in the design of appropriate equipment, such as large windows or use of the south can absorb and slowly release the sun heat the building materials .According to records, human use of solar energy has more than 3,000 years of history. To solar energy as an energy and power use, only 300 years of history. The real solar as the near future to add much-needed energy, the basis of the future energy mix is the latest thing. Since the 20th century, 70s, solar technology has made rapid advances, solar energy use with each passing day. Solar energy utilization in modern history from the French engineers in 1615 in the Solomon and Germany Cox invented the worlds first solar-powered engines run. The invention is a use of solar energy heating the air to the expansion and pumping machines acting.In 1615 ~ 1900, between the developed world and more than one solar power plant and a number of other solar energy devices. Almost all of these power plantscollect the sun means the use of condenser, engine power is not, the working fluid is water vapor, which is very expensive, not practical value, the majority of individual studies for manufacturing solar enthusiasts. 100 years of the 20th century, the history of the development of solar energy technology in general can be divided into seven stages.1. The First Stage (1900---1920)In this stage, the research focus of solar energy in the world were still on the solar-powered device which variable photospot method were applied and flat plate heat collector and low boiling point actuating medium were started to use; the capacity of the device was gradually expanded with the max. output power of 73.46kW; device was utilized with the definite end-use and in higher cost.The typical built device included: one set of solar energy pumping device constructed in California of U.S in 1901 which employed truncation taper photospot with the power of 7.36kW; 5 sets of twin-circulated solar-powered engine built in U.S in 1902 to 1908 which employed the flat plate heat collector and low boiling point actuating medium; 1 set of solar energy pump comprised of 5 parabolic mirror in a length of 62.5m, width of 4m built in Cairo of Egypt in which the total light collecting area could reach 1250m2.2. The Second Stage (1920-1965)For these 20 years, the research of solar energy was implementing on the poor stage, which the mandate to participate in the development and the research projects had been widely declined due to the mass utilization of fossil fuels and the second world war (1935---1945) while the s olar energy couldn’t satisfy the urgent demand upon the energy. Therefore, the research and development of solar energy was due to be gradually deserted.3. The Third Stage (1945-1965)For these 20 years after the Second World War, some foresight person has noticed that the petroleum and natural gas resources had been rapidly decreased and called for attention on these issues in order to gradually promote the recovery and development of the solar energy research. Solar energy institutes were setup and academic exchanges and exhibitions were held which raised the research upsurge again on solar energy.In this period, great progress was achieved in the research of solar energy, in particular: the foundation theory of selective paints proposed in the First International Solar Thermal Academic Conference in 1955, which black nickel had been developedas the practical selective paints, contributing to development of high-effective heat collector; the practical silicon solar cells developed by Bell Lab in U.S in 1954 which laid the foundation for large scale utilization of photovoltaic generation.Furthermore, there were still other significant results, including:a. One set of 50kW solar stove was built by French National Research Center in 1952;b. The worldwide prototype ammonia-water absorbing air conditioning system heated by flat plate heat collector with the capacity of 5 tons was built in Florida of U.S in 1960;c. An engine equipped with silicon window was invented in 1961.In this stage, research on foundation theory and foundation material of solar energy was reinforced and academic breakthrough, i.e. selective paints and silicon solar cells were achieved. The flat plate had been well developed and ripe in technologies. Progress had been achieved in the research of solar energy absorbing air conditioners and a batch of pilot solar room was established. Preliminary research was conducted on the engine and tower type solar-powered generation technologies.4. The Fourth Stage (1965---1973)In the stage, the research work on solar energy was standstill due to the reason that the utilization technologies of solar energy had entered into the growing stage which was no ripe in process, heavy in investment and lower in effect. Thus it cannot compete with conventional energy, which resulted in the absence of attention and support from the public, enterprise and government.5. The Fifth Stage (1973---1980)After petroleum played a leading role in the worldwide energy structure, it has been a key factor to control the economic and determine the fatal, development and declining of a country. After the explosion of Middle East War at Oc., 1973, OPEC employed the method of declining the production and increasing the price to support the struggle and safeguard the national benefits which resulted in heavy economic attack for those countries that relied on importing large amount of inexpensive petroleum from the region of Middle East. Thus, some people in the western countries were frightened to call that the energy or petroleum crisis had been launched in the world. This crisis made people realized that the existing energy structure should be completely changed and transition to the future energy structure should be speed up.From that on, many countries, especially the industrialized countries turned their attention towards the support on the research and development of solar energy andother renewable energy technologies. The upsurge of developing and utilizing solar energy had been raised again in the world. In 1973, U.S drew up a government scale sunlight power generation program which the research budget for solar energy were increased in a large amount, and solar energy development bank was to established to facilitate the solar energy products to be commercialized. In 1974, Japan published the sunlight program made by the government, among which the solar energy development projects included solar room, industrial-use solar energy system, solar thermal generation, solar cells production system, scattered and large scale photovoltaic generation system. In order to implement this program, the government of Japan input large amount of manpower, material resources and financial resources.The upsurge on the utilization of solar energy raised in 1970s in the world also impacted on China. Some foresight technicians started to devote to the solar energy industry one after another and positively proposed to the relative department of the government and published books and periodicals to introduce the international trends on the utilization of solar energy. Solar stove was popularized and utilized in countryside; solar water heater was launched in the city; solar cells used in space have started to be applied in the ground. In 1975, the first national solar energy utilization working exchanges conference held in An yang, Henan Province further promoted the development of solar energy industry in China. After this meeting, the solar energy research and promotion had been brought into the government program and awarded support of specialized fund and material. In some universities and institutes, solar energy task team and research departments were established one after another. Solar energy research institutes were also launched in some places. At that time, an upsurge on utilization of solar energy was emerging in China.During this period, research and development of solar energy entered into an unprecedented well-developed stage with the following characteristics:a. Each country enhanced planning on solar energy research. Many countries worked out short term and long-term sunlight program. The utilization of solar energy had been a governmental action with intensive support. The international cooperation was very active which some developing countries had started to participate in the utilization of solar energy.b. The research field was expanding; research work was developed day by day and significant results achieved, for example, CPC, vacuum heat collecting pipe, non-crystal silicon solar cells, water-photolyzed hydrogen production and solar energy thermal power generation.c. The solar energy development program worked out by each country existed the problems that the requirement was too high and urgent and insufficient expectation on difficulty in implementation. They have thought to replace the mineral energy in the short time and to utilize the solar energy in large scale. For example, U.S has once scheduled to build a small size solar energy demonstration satellite power station in 1985 and one set of 5 million kW space solar energy power station in 1995. In fact, this program has been adjusted in later, and the space solar energy power station has not yet been realized.d. Products such as solar water heater and solar cells were started to commercialize. The solar energy sector has been preliminarily established with a small scale and ineffective economic effects.6. The Sixth Stage (1980-1992)The upsurge on utilization of solar energy emerged in 1970s was fallen into a stage of being developed in a low and slow step in 1980s. Many countries in the world declined the research budget for solar energy in successive in a large amount, in particular the U.S.The main reasons resulted in this situation were that the international oil price was corrected in a large range while solar energy product cost was still remaining as before which may be of no competitive capability; no any significant breakthrough on solar energy technologies to increase the efficiency and reduce the cost which led to break down people’s confidence to develop solar energy; increased development on nuclear power which may restrain on a certain degree on the development of solar energy.Influenced on the turndown of solar energy in the worldwide in 1980s, research work in China also declined in a certain degree. Due to the reason that the utilization of solar energy was heavy in investment, ineffective in results, difficult in energy storage and large in land covering, solar energy should be considered as the future energy. Some person even proposed that the technology could be introduced after it would be developed successfully. Only few people supported such viewpoint, but it was very harmful which will result in unfavorable influence on the development of solar energy industry.During this period, although the research budget has been mitigated in a large amount, the research work remained uninterruptedly, among which some projects achieved progress which facilitated people to investigate seriously on the program and goads worked out before and to adjust the research focus so that to strive for greatachievement by less input.7. The Seventh Stage (1992---Until Now)Excessive burning of fossil fuel led to worldwide environmental pollution and ecological destruction, which has been threatened the substance and development of human beings. Under such circumstance, UN held the international environment and development conference in Brazil in 1992. On this meeting, a series of importan t document were published including the Environment and Development Manifesto,Agenda of 21st century and UN Framework Pact on Climate Changing in which the environment and development were brought into the integrated framework, and sustainable model was established. After this conference, each country enhanced the development of clean energy technologies, and developed the solar energy in line with the environmental protection so as to make the utilization of solar energy be well developed.After this conference, Chinese government also turned their attention towards the environment and development and pointed out 10 pieces of tactic and measure definitely to develop and popularize the clean energy including solar energy, wind energy, thermal energy, tidal energy and biomass energy in accordance with the reality; worked out Agenda of 21st century in China and further focused the solar energy projects. In 1995, the State Planning, the State Economic and Trade Commission, the State Ministry of Science and Technology worked out the Outline for Development of New and Renewable Energy from 1996 to 2010, which definitely pointed out the goads, objectives and relative tactic and measure towards the development of new and renewable energy from 1996 to 2010 in China. The publishing and implementation of the document further promoted the development of solar energy industry in China.In 1996, UN held the worldwide solar energy summit conference in Zimbabwe. The Solar Energy and Sustainable Development Manifesto was published after the meeting. Important document, i.e.Worldwide Solar Energy 10-Year Action and Program (1996---2005), International Solar Energy Pact, Worldwide Solar Energy Strategic Planning were discussed during the meeting. This meeting further showed eac h country’s commitment to developing the solar energy. Worldwide joint action was required to extensively utilize the solar energy.After 1992, the worldwide utilization of solar energy has entered into a developing stage with the characteristic that:a. The utilization of solar energy can be consistent to the sustainable development and environment protection, and can be carried out jointly to realize thedevelopment strategy in the world;b. Definite development goals with focus projects and effective measure, which will be favorable to overcome the shortage to ensure the long-term development of solar energy industry;c. In the course of expanding the research of solar energy, attention was paid to convert the academic results into production, develop solar energy industry, speed up the progress to be commercialized, expand the utilization field and scale and increase the economic benefits;d. Active international cooperation in the field of solar energy with expanding scale and obvious effect.In view of the review, the development of solar energy in the 20th century was not so smooth. Generally speaking, low tide period was happened after every high tide period. The low tide period lasted for nearly 45 years. The development of solar energy differed with that of coal, petroleum and nuclear energy in understanding and development period, which could be demonstrated that it was very difficulty to develop the solar energy and it cannot be realized to large scale utilize in the short term. On the other hand, it was showed that the utilization of solar energy was also affected by the supply of mineral energy, politics and war. However, in a word, the solar energy has achieved greatly in academic results in 20th century than in any other century.英文翻译太阳能利用史太阳能一般指太阳光的辐射能量。

光伏发电技术中英文资料外文翻译文献

光伏发电技术中英文资料外文翻译文献Research Article 1: Title of the ArticleAbstractResearch Article 2: Title of the ArticleAbstractThis research article focuses on the environmental impact of PV technology. It explains how solar panels convert sunlight into electricity and highlights the role of PV systems in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The article discusses the benefits and challenges associated with PV technology, including its dependence on sunlight, land requirements, and recyclability of materials. It also examines the life cycle assessment (LCA) of PV systems to evaluate their overall environmental performance. The research concludes by suggesting strategies to mitigate the environmental impact of PV technology, suchas improving panel efficiency and implementing responsible recycling practices.Research Article 3: Title of the ArticleAbstractThis article explores the economic aspects of PV technology. It analyzes the cost of installing and maintaining PV systems, including considerations for equipment, installation, and operation. The research discusses various financial incentives, such as government subsidies and tax credits, that promote the adoption of PV technology. It also highlights the economic benefits of PV systems, including job creation and energy independence. The article concludes by discussing the future potential of PV technology in reducing energy costs and stimulating economic growth.Research Article 4: Title of the ArticleAbstractThe focus of this research article is on the technical advancements in PV technology. It discusses the development of new materials and manufacturing processes to improve the efficiency and reliability of solar panels. The article explores the integration of PV systems with smart grid technology and how it enables better management of electricity generation and consumption. It also highlights the role of artificial intelligence and machine learning in optimizing PV system performance. The research concludes by suggesting future research directions in PV technology, such as exploring nanomaterials and enhancing the intelligence of PV systems.Conclusion总结这份文献收录了关于光伏发电技术的各个方面的研究，涵盖了与环境影响、经济考量和技术进展相关的主题。

太阳能光伏电池中英文对照外文翻译文献

太阳能光伏电池中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照翻译光伏系统中蓄电池的充电保护IC电路设计1.引言太阳能作为一种取之不尽、用之不竭的能源越来越受到重视。

太阳能发电已经在很多国家和地区开始普及，太阳能照明也已经在我国很多城市开始投入使用。

作为太阳能照明的一个关键部分，蓄电池的充电以及保护显得尤为重要。

由于密封免维护铅酸蓄电池具有密封好、无泄漏、无污染、免维护、价格低廉、供电可靠，在电池的整个寿命期间电压稳定且不需要维护等优点，所以在各类需要不间断供电的电子设备和便携式仪器仪表中有着广泛的应用。

采用适当的浮充电压，在正常使用(防止过放、过充、过流)时，免维护铅酸蓄电池的浮充寿命可达12~16年，如果浮充电压偏差5%则使用寿命缩短1/2。

由此可见，充电方式对这类电池的使用寿命有着重大的影响。

由于在光伏发电中，蓄电池无需经常维护，因此采用正确的充电方式并采用合理的保护方式，能有效延长蓄电池的使用寿命。

传统的充电和保护IC 是分立的，占用而积大并且外围电路复杂。

目前，市场上还没有真正的将充电与保护功能集成于单一芯片。

针对这个问题，设计一种集蓄电池充电和保护功能于一身的IC是十分必要的。

2.系统设计与考虑系统主要包括两大部分:蓄电池充电模块和保护模块。

这对于将蓄电池作为备用电源使用的场合具有重要意义，它既可以保证外部电源给蓄电池供电，又可以在蓄电池过充、过流以及外部电源断开蓄电池处于过放状态时提供保护，将充电和保护功能集于一身使得电路简化，并且减少宝贵的而积资源浪费。

图1是此Ic在光伏发电系统中的具体应用，也是此设计的来源。

免维护铅酸蓄电池的寿命通常为循环寿命和浮充寿命，影响蓄电池寿命的因素有充电速率、放电速率和浮充电压。

某些厂家称如果有过充保护电路，充电率可以达到甚至超过2C(C为蓄电池的额定容量)，但是电池厂商推荐的充电率是C/20~C/3。

电池的电压与温度有关，温度每升高1℃，单格电池电压下降4 mV，也就是说电池的浮充电压有负的温度系数-4 mV/℃。

光伏发电系统外文翻译文献

文献信息：文献标题：A New Controller Scheme for Photovoltaics Power Generation Systems（光伏发电系统的一种新的控制方案）国外作者：Tamer T.N.Khatib，Azah Mohamed，Nowshad Amin文献出处：《European Journal of Scientific Research》,2009，Vol.33 No.3, pp515-524字数统计：英文1337单词，7006字符；中文2149汉字外文文献：A New Controller Scheme for Photovoltaics PowerGeneration SystemsAbstract:This paper presents a new controller scheme for photovoltaic (PV) power generation systems. The proposed PV controller scheme controls both the boost converter and the battery charger by using a microcontroller in order to extract maximum power from the PV array and control the charging process of the battery. The objective of the paper is to present a cost effective boost converter design and an improved maximum power point tracking algorithm for the PV system. A MATLAB based simulation model of the proposed standalone PV system has been developed to evaluate the feasibility of the system in ensuring maximum power point operation.1.IntroductionRecently, the installation of PV generation systems is rapidly growing due to concerns related to environment, global warming, energy security, technology improvements and decreasing costs. PV generation system is considered as a clean and environmentally-friendly source of energy. The main applications of PV systems are in either standalone or grid connected configurations. Standalone PV generationsystems are attractive as indispensable electricity source for remote areas. However, PV generation systems have two major problems which are related to low conversion efficiency of about 9 to 12 % especially in low irradiation conditions and the amount of electric power generated by PV arrays varies continuously with weather conditions. Therefore, many research works are done to increase the efficiency of the energy produced from the PV arrays.The solar cell V-I characteristics is nonlinear and varies with irradiation and temperature. But there is a unique point on the V-I and P-V curves, called as the maximum power point (MPP), at which at this point the PV system is said to operate with maximum efficiency and produces its maximum power output. The location of the MPP is not known but can be traced by either through calculation models or search algorithms. Thus, maximum power point tracking (MPPT) techniques are needed to maintain the PV array’s operating point at its MPP. Many MPPT techniques have been proposed in the literature in which the techniques vary in many aspects, including simplicity, convergence speed, hardware implementation and range of effectiveness. However, the most widely used MPPT technique is the perturbation and observation (P&O) method. This paper presents a simple MPPT algorithm which can be easily implemented and adopted for low cost PV applications. The objective of this paper is to design a novel PV controller scheme with improved MPPT method.The proposed standalone PV controller implementation takes into account mathematical model of each component as well as actual component specification. The dc–dc or boost converter is the front-end component connected between the PV array and the load. The conventional boost converter may cause serious reverse recovery problem and increase the rating of all devices. As a result, the conversion efficiency is degraded and the electromagnetic interference problem becomes severe under this situation. To increase the conversion efficiency, many modified step-up converter topologies have been investigated by several researchers. V oltage clamped techniques have been incorporated in the converter design to overcome the severe reverse-recovery problem of the output diodes. In this paper, focus is also given in the boost converter design. Another important component in the standalone PV systemsis the charge controller which is used to save the battery from possible damage due to over-charging and over-discharging. Studies showed that the life time of a battery can be degraded without using a charge controller.The proposed new controller scheme for the standalone PV system controls both the boost converter and the charge controller in two control steps. The first step is to control the boost converter so as to extract the maximum power point of the PV modules. Here, a high step-up converter is considered for the purpose of stepping up the PV voltage and consequently reducing the number of series-connected PV modules and to maintain a constant dc bus voltage. A microcontroller is used for data acquisition that gets PV module operating current and voltage and is also used to program the MPPT algorithm. The controller adopts the pulse width modulation (PWM) technique to increase the duty cycle of the generated pulses as the PV voltage decreases so as to obtain a stable output voltage and current close to the maximum power point. The second control step is to control the charge controller for the purpose of protecting the batteries. By controlling the charging current using the PWM technique and controlling the battery voltage during charging, voltages higher than the gassing voltage can be avoided.2.Design of the Proposed Photovoltaic SystemMost of the standalone PV systems operate in one mode only such that the PV system charges the battery which in turns supply power to the load. In this mode of operation, the life cycle time of the battery may be reduced due to continuous charging and discharging of the battery. The proposed standalone PV system as shown in terms of a block diagram in Figure 1 is designed to operate in two modes: PV system supplies power directly to loads and when the radiation goes down and the produced energy is not enough, the PV system will charge the battery which in turns supply power to the load. To manage these modes of operation, a controller is connected to the boost converter by observing the PV output power.3.MethodologyFor the purpose of estimating the mathematical models developed for the proposed standalone PV system, simulations were carried in terms of the MATLAB codes. Each PV module considered in the simulation has a rating of 80 Watt at 1000 W/m2, 21.2 V open circuit voltage, 5A short circuit current. The PV module is connected to a block of batteries with of sizing 60 Ah, 48 V.4.Results and DiscussionThe simulation results of the standalone PV system using a simple MPPT algorithm and an improved boost converter design are described in this section. Simulations were carried out for the PV system operating above 30o C ambient temperature and under different values of irradiation. Figure 9 shows the PV array I-V characteristic curve at various irradiation values. From the figure, it is observed that the PV current increase linearly as the irradiation value is increased. However, the PV voltage increases in logarithmic pattern as the irradiation increases. Figure 10 shows the PV array I-V characteristic curve at various temperature values. It is noted from the figure that, the PV voltage decreases as the ambient temperature is increased.Figure 4 compares the PV array P-V characteristics obtained from using the proposed MPPT algorithm and the classical MPPT P&O algorithm. From this figure, it can be seen that by using the proposed MPPT algorithm, the operating point of PV array is much closer to the MPP compared to the using the classical P&O algorithm.In addition, the proposed boost converter is able to give a stable output voltage as shown in Figure 5. In terms of PV array current, it can be seen from Figure 6 that the PV current is closer to the MPP current when using the improved MPPT algorithm. Thus, the track operating point is improved by using the proposed MPPT algorithm. In terms of efficiency of the standalone PV system which is calculated by dividing the load power with the maximum power of PV array, it is noted that the efficiency of the system is better with the proposed MPPT algorithm as compared to using the classical P&O algorithm as shown in Figure 7.5.ConclusionThis paper has presented an efficient standalone PV controller by incorporating an improved boost converter design and a new controller scheme which incorporates both a simple MPPT algorithm and a battery charging algorithm. The simulation results show that the PV controller using the simple MPPT algorithm has provided more power and better efficiency (91%) than the classical P&O algorithm. In addition, the proposed boost converter design gives a better converter efficiency of about 93%. Such a PV controller design can provide efficient and stable power supply for remote mobile applications.中文译文：光伏发电系统的一种新的控制方案摘要：本文提出了一种新的光伏（PV）发电系统控制器方案。

外文文献原文和翻译---蓄电池

DescriptionTechnical FieldThe present invention relates to a power source system having a power accumulator for supplying when a commercial power source oe other interruptible power source breaks down,a power supply control method Of the power source system,a power supply control program Of the power source system,a computer readable recoding medium having power supply control program Of the power source system recoded thereon.Background ArtIn recent years ,a power accumulator has drawn wide attention and been used as backup power source.A backup power source is changed when a commercial power source operated normally,and continues supply power to equipment in place of the commercial power source when commercial power source has a defect.Examples of such a backup power source include a UPS（Uninterruptive Power Source）.By instantaneously switching the commercial power source to an output of the backup power source in case of power outage,a computer or a storage unit in use,as well as network equipment such as a server are prevented from being stopped.Such a backup power source combined with the power accumulator is controlled to maintain residual capacity representing the state of charge at a high level.In this system,generally because surplus power is charged in power accumulator efficiently by a power generation action of an electric motor,charge|discharge control is performed so that the SOC does not exceed 100%.In order to supply power to the electric motor when necessary,charge|discharge control is performed so that the SOC does not decrease to 0(zero).Specially,normally in power accumulator,the control is performed so that the SOC fluctuates within a range of 20% to 80%.With regard to elevators,on the other hand,a hybrid elevator that has a cage and a counterweight to inhibit unnecessary power consumption during the operation of hybrid elevator has been developed.Such a hybrid elevator utilizes the power of its battery at the time of power outage,so that in case of power outage or other abnormal state during of operation of the hybrid elevator,the power for driving the elevator is supplied from a power source to carry the elevator to the nearest floor or any floor and safely retrieve the passage from the stage.The following method is proposed as a method for controlling an automatic landing device of the elevator.Patent Document 1,for example,discloses a method for detecting the output voltage ,output current,and a temperature of a battery power source to perform a rescue operation in response to the power supply capacity of the battery power source.Here,as a method for calculating the power supply capacity,a method for calculating the power supply capacity from the open voltage,internal resistance,and minimum voltage(operable voltage) of the battery power source is generally known ,as shown is equation (1) below.The minimum voltage used for calculating the power supply capacity is set with a certain degree of margin,in view of the life of the battery power source .Power Supply Capacity= minimum voltage*(open voltage - minimum voltage)\internal resistance (1)Moreover,the hybrid elevator has to always secure energy amount for carrying the elevator to a necessary floor in case of emergency during the normal operation of commercial power source ,and thereon a large power accumulator with a large capacity required.In the method disclosed in Patent Document 1,the output voltage and the voltage set value are compared with each other by a discharge time and discharge state of the battery is detected by the magnitude relation there between to control the operation of the elevator.Therefore,when the power supply capacity of the battery power source is low,the power supply capacity will be lost,thereby stopping the power supply from the battery.In this case,because charging of the battery power source is started after the interruptible power source returns ,and the rescue operation is conducted upon completion of the charging,the elevator cannot be carried to the nearest floor to perform rescue operation in the case of an abnormal situation of the interruptible power source.As a result,the passengers remain trapped in the elevator.Moreover,when the interruptible power source is stopped due to disaster like as in the hybrid elevator,it is necessary for the backup power source to ensure the minimum power supply capacity for enabling minimum operation. Consequently,because a margin becomes necessary in the capacity of the backup power source,a large power accumulator is necessary.In addition,the minimum voltage used for calculating the power supply capacity has a margin,in view of the life property.Therefore,the value of the actual power supply capacity is smaller than the that of the primary power supply capacity of the power accumulator.Disclosure of inventionAn object of the present invention is to provide a power source system capable of realizing at least the minimum backup function ,increasing the life duration of a power accumulator,and reducing the size of the power accumulator by temporarily improving the power supply capacity of a power accumulator when an interruptible power source is stopped by disaster or the like.The present invention also provide a power supply control method of the power source system ,a power supply control program Of the power source system and a computer readable recoding medium having power supply control program Of the power source system recoded thereon.A power source system according to an aspect of the present invention has:a power unit for supplying power to a load service;a power accumulator for supplying the power to a load service in place of the power unit when the power unit is stopped,and a controller for controlling power supply from the power accumulator to a load service;wherein the controller sets an operable voltage,which is determined as an output voltage foe ending discharge of the power accumulator,at a first voltage when the power unit is operated,and sets the operable voltage at a second voltage lower than the first voltage when the power unit is stopped ,thereby increasing the power supplied to the load device by the power accumulator.According to the power source system described above,the power supply capacity of the power accumulator can be improved by reducing the operable voltage of the power accumulator when the power unit is stopped,the operable voltage being set during the normal operation of the power unit.Furthermore,because the operable voltage of the power accumulator is reduced after the power unit is stopped,and the number of the times that the power accumulator is over-discharged duo to the decrease in the operable voltage can be prevented from increasing.,the life duration of the power accumulator can be increased.In addition,the size of the power accumulator can be reduced because it is not necessary to increase the capacity of the power accumulator beforehand in the light of an increase in power supply when the power unit is stopped.Brief description pf the drawings:[Fig.1 ] Fig.1 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a power source system according to Embodiment 1 of the present invention.Best Mode For Carrying the invention.(Embodiment 1)Fig.1 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a power source system according to Embodiment 1 of the present invention.As shown in Fig.1,a power source system 10 according to the present invention has an interruptible power source 100,a load device 200,a power accumulator 300,a charge|discharge control device 400,a power supply control device 500,and an electric control unit 600.The interruptible power source 100 is ,for example ,a commercial power source,such as a generator having an engine as a source of power.The power accumulator 300 stores surplus power from the interruptible power source 100 and regenerative electric power generated by the load device 200,and supplies the stored electric power to the load device 200 according to need.The power accumulator 300 is configured by connecting N number of electric power accumulation element blocks B1,B2,......BN in series.Each of the electric power accumulation element blocks B1,B2,......BN is configured electrically connecting a plurality of electrical storage elements 301 series.An alkaline storage battery such as a nickel hydride battery ,an organic battery such as a lithium-ion battery ,and an electrical double layer capacitor can be used as each of the electrical storage elements 301 .Note that the number N of electric power accumulation element blocks and the the number of the electrical storage elements 301 are not particularly limited.The power accumulator 300 has a predetermined range of operating voltage determined beforehand ,so that the battery characteristics,life duration and reliability of the power accumulator 300 are not degraded.Operable voltage,which is the minimum voltage (final voltage) of this operating voltage range is the voltage for ending discharge of the power accumulator 300 .During the normal operation ,when the output voltage of the power accumulator 300 falls below the operable voltage,discharge of the power accumulator 300;namely,power supply from he power accumulator 300,is stopped.However,power supply from the power accumulator 300 is possible until the output voltage of the power accumulator 300 falls below the operable voltage;namely,by reducing the operable voltage.In this case,the power accumulator 300 is over-discharged temporarily,but the the battery characteristics and the like of thepower accumulator 300 are not impinged so long as the discharge of the power accumulator 300 is executed without degrading the the battery characteristics,life duration and reliability of the power accumulator 300.The charge|discharge control device 400 controls charge|discharge of the power accumulator 300.The charge|discharge control device 400 is connected to the interruptible power source 100,load device 200 and power accumulator 300,and controls the charge from the interruptible power source 100 to the power accumulator 300 and the discharge from the power accumulator 300 to the load device 200.When consumption current of the load device 200 increases drastically or the electric power required by the load device 200 exceeds predetermined value , The charge|discharge control device 400 discharges the insufficient electric power from the power accumulator 300 to the load device 200 .The charge|discharge control device 400 performs the charge|discharge control such that the SOC of the power accumulator 300 normally falls within an approximate range of 20% to 80%.However,a load leveling power source or a plug-in hybrid vehicle that effectively utilizes night power is charged when the SOC is 100%,and is discharged when the load device thereof requires energy.The power supply control device 500 controls power supply from the power accumulator 300 to the load device 200 when the interruptible power source 100 is stopped.The total control ECU 600 is connected to the charge|discharge control device 400 and the power supply control device 500 to control the entire power source system 10 .Next,the power supply control device 500 of the power source system 10 according to Embodiment 1 of the present invention is described. In Fig.1 the power supply control device 500 has a voltage measuring part 501,a current measuring part 502, a temperature measuring part 503,a communication 504 ,and a controller 520.外文参考文献翻译描述：科学领域：该项发明和一种当商业性供电或其他间断电源损坏时拥有提供电源供应的的动力蓄电池，一种电源系统的电源供应控制程序，一个拥有电源系统已经刻录好的程序的电源控制程序的计算机的可读记录媒介。

太阳能热光伏发电系统研究与仿真外文翻译本人版

一切论文免费Introduction1.1 Photovoltaic Energy Conversion1.2 solar Cells and Solar Energy Conversion1.3 solar Cell ApplicationsReferences1.1PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY CONVERSIONPhotovoltaic energy conversion is the direct production of electrical energy in the form of current and voltage from electromagnetic (i.e., light,including infrared, visible. and ultraviolet) energy. The basic four steps needed for photovoltaic energy conversion are:1. a light absorption process which causes a transition in a material(the absorber) from ground state to an excited state,2.the conversion of the excited state into (at least) a free negativeand free positive-charge carriers pair, and3. discriminating transport mechanism, which causes the resultingfree negative-charge carriers to move in one direction (to a con-tact that we will call the cathode) and the resulting free positive-charge carriers to move in another direction (to a contact that wewill call the anode).The energetic photogenerated negative-charge carriers arriving, at the cathode result in electrons which travel through an external path (an electric circuit). While traveling this path, they lose their energy doing something useful at an electrical "load," and finally they return to the anode of the cell. At the anode, every one of the returning electrons completes the fourth step of photovoltaic energy conversion, which is closing the circle by4. combining with an arriving positive-charge carrier, thereby returning theabsorber to the ground state.In some materials, the excited state may be a photogenerated free electron-free hole pair. In such a situation, step 1 and step 2 coalesce. In some materials, the excited state may be an exciton, In which case steps 1 and 2 are distinct.A study of the various man-made photovoltaic devices that carry out these four steps is the subject of this text. Our main interest is photovoltaic devices that can efficiently convert the energy in sunlight into usable electrical energy. Such devices are termed solar cells or solar photovoltaic devices. Photovoltaic devices can be designed to be effective for electromagnetic spectra other than sunlight. For example, devices can be designed to convert radiated heat (infrared light) into usable electrical energy. These are termed thermal photovoltaic devices. There are also devices which directly convert light into chemical energy. In these, the photogenerated excited state isused to drive chemical reactions rather than to drive electrons through an electric circuit. One example is the class of devices used for photolysis. While our emphasis is on solar cells for producing electrical energy, photolysis is briefly discussed later in the book .1.2 SOLAR CELLS AND SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSIONThe energy supply for a solar cell is photons coming from the sun .This input is distributed ,in ways that depend on variables like latitude, time of day, and atmospheric conditions ,over different wavelengths .the various distributions that are possible called solar spectra. The product of this light energy input, in the case of a solar cell, is usable electrical energy in the form of current and voltage. Some common "standard" energy supplies from the sun, which are available at or on the earth, are plot- ted against wavelength (λ) in W/㎡/nm spectra in Figure 1.l A. An alternative photons/㎡-s/nm spectrum is seen in Figure 1.1B.The spectra in Figure 1.1A give the power impinging per area(㎡)in a band of wavelengths 1 nm wide (the bandwitdth ∆λ)centered on each wavelength λ. In this figure, the AM0 spectrum is based on ASTM standard E 490FIGURE 1.1 Solar energy spectra.(a): Data expressed in watts per ㎡per nm bandwidth for()d hc λλλλΦ⎰AMO (from Ref .1 with permission) and for AM l.5G , and AW1.5D spectra(from Ref.2, with permission).(b): The AM l.5G data expressed in terms of impinging photons per second per cm² per 20 nm bandwidth.and is used for satellite applications. The AM1.5G spectrum, based on ASTM standard G173, is for terrestrial applications and includes direct and diffuse light .It integrates to 1000 W/㎡.the AM1.5D spectrum,also based on G173 ,is for terrestrial applications but includes direct light only. It integrates to 888 W/㎡. The spectrum in Figure 1.l B has been obtained from the AM1.5G spectrum of Figure 1.l A by converting power to photons per second per cm2 and by using a bandwidth of 20nm. Photon spectra Φ(λ), exemplified by that in Figure 1.l B, are more convenient for solar cell assessments, because optimally one photon translates into one free electron-free hole pair via steps 1 and 2 of the four steps needed for photovoltaic energy conversion.Standard spectra are needed in solar cell research, development, and marketing because the actual spectrum impinging on a cell in operation can vary due to weather, season, time of day, and location. Having standard spectra allows the experimental solar cell performance of one device to be compared to that of other devices and to be judged fairly, since the cens can be exposed to the same agreed-upon spectrum. The comparisons can be done even in the laboratory since standard distributions can be duplicated using solar simulators.The total power Pin per area impinging on a cell for a given photon spectrum Φ。