语用学课程论文：Positive Politeness Strategies in Oral Communication
礼貌的语用分析
海南师范大学外国语学院2012级《英语语言学概论》课程论文题目：礼貌的语用分析(Analysis on the politeness in Pragmatics)姓名：蒋小慧学号： 201203010409专业：英语年级： 2012级系别：英语系完成日期： 2014年12月指导教师：范会兵Analysis on the politeness in PragmaticsAuthor: Jiang Xiaohui Supervisor: Fang Huibing (Foreign Language college, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158)AbstractNowadays，the world gradually become a whole and people communicate with each others more frequently. However, verbal communication is n‟t an action about one person, it happens at least between two people to make our communication more harmony and successful. Therefore, people who apply language to communicate must obey some basic pragmatic principles. Politeness Principle is important for us to apply and obey when we want to talk with others in our daily life. In this passage, I will clarify the development of politeness principle, its main contents and evaluation.Key words: pragmatics, Politeness Principle, Cooperative Principle, face礼貌的语用分析作者：蒋小慧指导老师：范会兵（海南师范大学外国语学院，海口，571158）摘要：在当今社会，世界逐渐融为一体，人们的言语交流也越来越频繁。
语用学Politeness and interaction
POSITIVE
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
FACE refers to our need to be accepted and liked by others and our need to feel our social group shares common goals. POSITIVE POLITENESS orients to preserving the positive face of other people. When we use positive politeness we use speech strategies that emphasize our solidity with the hearer, such as informal pronunciation, shared dialect or slang expression, nicknames more frequent reference to speaker and hearer as we, and requests which are less indirect.
Pre-sequences:
utterance before a speech act to check if a speech act can be make. pre-request pre-invitation pre-announcement
Take
a look at this. Clean up the kitchen floor. Pass the salt. Have some more cake. Peel these potatoes.
Clean
up the kitchen. Peel these potatoes. Pass the salt. Take a look at this. Have some more cake.
英语商务谈判中礼貌策略的运用
外语教学研究中国电力教育2008年12月下 总第127期随着全球经济一体化的加快和外商对中国投资的热情高涨，中国的对外经济交流活动也越来越频繁。
对外商务谈判也变得比以往任何时候都更加重要。
同时，对英语商务谈判技巧的把握也成为越来越受关注的话题。
众所周知，商务谈判是一种通过语言进行的经济活动。
它的成功与否依赖于语言的运用。
在商务谈判中，谈判双方既相互竞争又要相互合作。
在保持合作关系的前提下，每一方都会想方设法地去赢取自身的最大利益。
所以怎样平衡谈判中的竞争和合作，对谈判者来说是非常重要的。
这需要通过使用恰当的语言来实现，尤其是使用礼貌语言。
一、面子理论人们在言语交际方面拥有众多的策略手段，其中一个主要手段是礼貌。
应用语言学中，对礼貌策略的研究代表是Leech 的礼貌原则和Brown ＆Levinson 的面子理论。
由于Grice 提出的合作原则无法解释某些故意违反合作原则以达到某种特殊含义的言语行为，Leech 提出了礼貌原则和其六大准则，并认为发话人把话说的间接，违反合作原则是表达礼貌的需要。
Leech 的礼貌原则修补了合作原则的不足。
Brown ＆Levinson 在他们的著作《Universal in Language Usage: Politeness Phenomena》（后来1987年更名为《Politeness: Some Universals of Language Usage》）提出了面子理论。
二者的不同在于，前者是从会话的角度，后者从个人的面子需求来研究礼貌策略的。
面子理论中涉及三个概念：面子（face），面子威胁行为（face-threatening acts/FTAs），和礼貌策略（politeness strategies）。
1.面子和面子威胁行为Brown ＆Levinson 认为面子是每个社会成员想为自己争取的公开的自我形象（self-image）。
面子包括负面面子（negative face）和正面面子（positive face）。
Pragmatic Politeness语用学论文
Pragmatic Politeness in Chinese and American CulturesChangcheng常程Class 4, Grade 2009No. 200905140401The School of Foreign LanguagesChina West Normal UniversityA Paper for PragmaticsJune 2012Pragmatic Politeness in Chinese and American Cultures Abstract:This paper studies pragmatic politeness in both Chinese and American cultures. It gives a general idea of some pragmatic knowledge of politeness and comparisons of Chinese and American ways of expressing politeness in different situations. In brief, the findings in this paper support the view that politeness varies quite different in different cultures. By understanding this, we can communicate better with foreigners and get a better understanding of our own culture.In this paper I would focus the study of politeness in Chinese and American cultures.Firstly，I will explain some famous pragmatic theories on politeness of China and foreign countries, like Confucius, Gu Yueguo, Levinson and Goffman. Secondly, I‟ll do some comparisons on different aspects of pragmatic politeness between China and the U.S. There‟re greetings,giving and receiving compliments, during a meal, usage of euphemisms, and misunderstanding responses. In the end, I‟ll draw a conclusion and list the referent resources I‟ve used.Key words: linguistic,pragmatic,politeness,Chinese,American,cross-cultural communicationPoliteness can be understood as a social phenomenon. It is a tool to develop good interpersonal relationships. People live in society, they communicate in certain manner of politeness. But people in different culture have different understanding of being polite thus confusion and misunderstanding occurs on cross-cultural communications. Therefore, we have to study the differences in different cultures so that we can avoid misunderstanding and behave ourselves in appropriate ways in any condition.Pragmatic theories on politeness:In Chinese culture:Confucius (B.C. 551-479), who lived at a time when the slavery system had disintegrated and there were constant wars between feudal states; the former aristocratic social hierarchy was shattered and chaos reigned over the land. To reform the society, Confucius advocated the restoration of “li”(礼) or politeness. which referred to the social politeness and the order of the slave society of the Zhou Dynasty (周礼).To Confucius, it was the model of an ideal society. Restoring li, it was necessary to put each individual in his place according to his social position. Confucius set much store by zhengming (正名)because he thought, if names are not called, speech cannot be used appropriately, thus li cannot be restored, and principle cannot be maintained.Modern Chinese Politeness can be realized in a number of ways, among which the use of language is an important one. With the development of Confucius theory and pragmatic theories, more and more attention has been paid to the ways in which language is used to show politeness and also the difference between different languages and cultures.Prof. Gu Yueguo, a scholar of Beijing Foreign Studies University, has traced the origin of the concept of politeness in the Chinese culture, and has also formulated a different set of politeness maxims, which he thinks are more suitable to Chinese. Theories in foreign countries:“Face theory” was put forward by Brown and Levinson, which is based on the face concept raised by Goffman. According to Goffman, “face” is a thing of communicators who all have to pay attention to. It is just like “mianzi”(面子) in Chinese culture.I f one wants his face cared for, he should care for other people‟s face. They also hold the view that the problem for any one is the internal aggression while retaining the potential for aggression in internal social control, and especially in external competitive relations with others. Politeness presupposes that potential for aggressionas it seeks to disarm it, and makes possible communication between potentially aggressive parties.Another influential theory concerning politeness is Leech‟s Politeness Principle. Leech places PP as a member of a set of principles which he called Interpersonal Rhetoric; other important principles within Interpersonal Rhetoric include theCo-operative Principle and the Irony Principle.These principles do not provide the main motivation for talking, but serve as regulative factors to ensure that once conversation is under way, it will not follow a fruitless or disruptive path. Instead of basing his theory on the concept of face, Leech patterns on Grice‟s CP and divides the PP into a number of maxims.Comparison:Greeting:Greeting is an important part of speech communication. Along with the constant increasing knowledge of people, greeting is characterized by fashion and costume.In 1990, an American complained, “I‟m tired of nosy Chinese! Every time I come in or go out, they ask, …Going to work?‟ …Coming home?‟ …Going shopping?‟ …Eaten yet?‟”I looked around furtively then whispered, “Do you know why they ask me so many questions?”He looked surprised and whispered back, “No. Why?”“Because they report to the Communists on us.”“Really?” His eyes widened as paranoia took a toehold.“Not really,” I said, laughing. “That‟s just how Chinese greet one another!”(From Dr. Bill Brown)In this story, we can know that Americans usually greet people with a simple “H i” or “Good Morning” or “Nice weather today!” But Chinese, we say with “Ni Hao”(How are you?) and we ask what you are doing. And unlike Americans, who don‟t want an honest answer to “How are you?” Chinese do expect an answer.To show care and concern for others is considered as a polite act. The Chinese think that they are being polite by showing concern for the other person, and asking all these questions will help build intimacy between themselves. But American s would feel that person is invading their privacy.Giving and Receiving Compliments:When we listen to people speak a foreign language that we understand, we notice that the native speakers of that language use words and phrases in a manner different from what we are used to. In American English, for example, people say “Thank you” frequently. A word for “thank you” exists in almost every language, but how and when it is used is not always the same. In Chinese language, we do not thank people for trivial as well as important or unusual favors. For Americans, this expression is used as a polite response to different kinds of favors and compliments, and is often automatic.When being complimented, an English-speaking person would readily accept the compliment by saying something like “Thank you” to show his appreciation of the praise, but a Chinese speaker would try to deny the truth of the compliment. They both are being modest and they both think they are behaving properly. The English speaker is being polite to the extent that by accepting and showing appreciation of the compliment, he avoids hurting the positive face of the person who makes it; the Chinese speaker is showing modesty by denigration himself, ignoring the factuality of the compliment paid to him. As has been mentioned, self-denigration has been at the core of the Chinese concept of politeness for over two thousand years, the Chinese, in order to show modesty, will go to such lengths as to underrate what he himself has achieved and deny the truth of a complimentary remark.Sometimes, American repeat the sentence hundreds of times a day.“Have a good flight?” “Not at all bad, thank you.”“You are a beautiful woman.” “Thank you”“And your name, sir?” “Hare.”“Thank you. We‟ll see you tomorrow at 8then.”We can easily notice how often Americans use the expression “thank you”. A customer, after paying $100 for a meal in a restaurant, says, “thank you” to the person who hands him he bill. In response to “ I like the color of your car.”, an American might answer “thank you” In both of these cases, no great favor or compliment was extended, yet “thank you” was the most frequent response. While Americans say “thank you” readily whene ver possible, either for a trivial compliment or for a big favor they received, their Chinese counterpart tend to keep the heavy word of thanks in their hearts and leave it unsaid. They would try to look for a chance to do something for the helper in return. They think the heartfelt gratitude is not worth mentioning. On the other hand, if you repeat your gratitude orally, the people would think that you treat him as an outsider. They think it as their obligation to give you a hand whenever you have trouble and turn to him for help. He regards it as his honor and pleasure to be helpful. It‟s universal both in America and in China on this point. During a meal:In American family, people usually say fewer words when they‟re eating than Chinese do. They may pray before the meal and say “help yourself” if there‟s a guest. During the meal they may discuss something interesting and less serious.A:“How was your school day?”B:“Not bad, just a little bit boring.”A:“How‟s your work?”C:“Good. My boss forgot to take toilet paper so he couldn‟t come out until I came. God, he was so embarrassed and he said thanks. That was the first time he‟d said …thanks‟ to someone, can you believe it?”After the conversation, people continue to eat in pleasant mood. They like easy and quiet atmosphere while eating.In China, people prefer annoying and fun atmosphere during dinner, especially with friends. If the table is too quiet and gentle, they may feel uncomfortable. They tell jokes, gossip others, argue the latest news, etc.Euphemisms in Different Cultures:Euphemism is the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. For instance, we refer to "die" as” pass away”.It‟s rude of one to violate a taboo either in language or in culture both Chinese and American cultures.Take the word “old” as an example.In America, people like to be energetic and young. Almost everyone wishes to stay young forever. And being old lay the concept of sick, incompetent and lazy to Americans. So there is no American who prefers to be considered as old, which means useless and a burden to his or her family as well as to the society.In China, we love and respect the old much more than the Americans do. We often leave the seats to the old people in a bus, and it is considered as polite and a good virtue and the elderly people will accept, take it for granted and say “thank you”. But in the U.S., a person will get angry if he was offered a seat on a bus because of he is regarded as old. He thinks he is far from being incapable of taking care of himself, and thus other people‟s offer of seat is an insult to him.Chinese culture respects the old and treats “being old” as a symbol of wisdom, forgiveness, experienced, and kindness. Therefore, old people are respected in the family and in the society. Then the word lao (old) in Chinese are used to modify these people. It is not a taboo, but a respectful addressing word to show esteem to the addressee, such as laoshi (teacher), laoban (boss), laozong (general manager). The addressee is not necessarily old in age and Chinese people merely attempt to show their respect and politeness in this way. Some people refer to their friends in the way of adding “lao” in front of their last names, like “lao Zhang”, “lao Wang”. They express intimacy to the addressee. Sometimes Chinese call foreigners “laowai” just to show our friendliness, not because of their age or appearance. . Misunderstanding responses:Let‟s see the dialogue that follows.A: You‟ve got a nice coat.B: Thank you. My sister bought it for me in Beijing. Do you like it?A: Oh, yes. It looks fine and I appreciate the pretty color.B: Well, if you really like it, I‟ll ask my sister to buy one for you too.The A in the dialogue compliments B‟s coat just to show his or her friendliness and begin a conversation, but B misinterprets A‟s intention as desiring to buy a same coat. As a result, A is embarrassed and the conversation can hardly continue. Chinese rarely use such sente nce pattern as “I like your….” for fear of being misunderstood as admiring the things other possesses. Moreover, it is very common for a man to commend a pretty woman in American culture, but he may offend a Chinese girl by saying, “You are a se xy girl.” She would feel kind of insulted by such a compliment that is barely accepted for her owing to Chinese culture.The function of an apology is to make up for rude words or acts, and it serves as a remedy to recover the harmonious relationship. How to make and accept an apology is a very important part in the pragmatic politeness. When someone says sorry, we should not say “It doesn‟t matter.” in English in response as we do in Chinese. We should say, “That‟s all right”, “That‟s OK.”, or “No problem.” When our work gets compliment from others, we tend to say, “It‟s nothing.” and “You flatter ed me.” or “Never mind.” to show our modesty. But in English, “Never mind.” is used to comfort the interlocutor as a means of showing politeness.Therefore, we should know more about the differences between Chinese and American culture, so that we can try to avoid misunderstandings, which are usually caused by pragmatic mistakes in mutual communication.ConclusionTo conclude, I‟d like to say that pragmatic politeness exists with different manners in different cultures. We need to distinguish the contrary aspects of Chinese and American cultures in order to deal with the awkward situations that related to pragmatic politeness. Only in this way can we avoid misunderstandings in thecross-cultural communication and become a master of words.References:George Yule：Pragmatics 上海外语教育出版社，2000；Gu, Yuehuo：Politeness Phenomenon in Modern Chinese 1990；Leech, G. Principles of Pragmatics 1983；维基百科语料收集：(1) The performative hypothesis:1) Clean up this mess!2)Thereby order you that you clean up this mess.(2) Performative and constative:1)I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.2)I promise to finish it in time.(3) Strategies: Come on go to the party. Everyone will be there. We will have fun.(4) Spatial deixis: I am not here now.Temporal deixis: 1) I live here now. 2)I lived there then.(5) Names and referents 1) Can I borrow your Shakespeare？2) Yeah, it‟s over there on the table.(6)The role of co-text1)The cheese sandwich is made with white bread.2)The cheese sandwich left without paying.(7) The role of co-text:Man: Does your dog bite?Woman: No.(The man reaches down to pet the dog. The dog bites the man‟s hand.) Man: Ouch! Hey! You said your dog doesn‟t bite.Woman: He doesn‟t. But that‟s not my dog.(8) A positive politeness strategy:1) A. How about letting me use your pen?B. Hey, buddy, I‟d appreciate it if you‟d let me use your pen.2)Hi. How‟s it going? Okay if I sit here? We must be interested in the same crazy st aff. You take a lot of notes too, huh? Say,do me a big favor and let me use one of yo ur pen.(9)Regularity :Ifoundan old bicycle lying on the ground. The chain was rusted and the tires were flat.(10) Presupposition:1)A. Mary‟s dog is cure.B. Mary has a dog.B is the presupposition of A2) He stopped smoking.B. He smoked once.B is the presupposition of A。
positive politeness strategy例子
positive politeness strategy例子
积极礼貌策略是指在交际中为了增进人际关系和缓和紧张气氛而使用的一种礼貌方式。
以下是一些积极礼貌策略的例子：
1. 礼貌用语：例如“请”、“谢谢”、“不好意思”等，用于表示尊重和礼貌。
2. 称赞和赞美：对他人的成就、外表或行为表示肯定和赞美，比如“你的演讲做得很好”、“你的服装很漂亮”等。
3. 符合性：表示对对方意见的认同和支持，比如“我同意你的观点”、“你说得对”等。
4. 问候和关心：向对方表示问候和关心，比如“你好吗？”、“最近过得怎么样？”等。
5. 尊重对方的立场：在表达自己观点的同时，尊重对方的立场，比如“我明白你的担忧”、“我理解你的立场”等。
这些积极礼貌策略可以帮助促进积极的人际关系，增进彼此之间的理解和尊重。
浅析英语课堂语用学的重要性
浅析英语课堂语用学的重要性英语教学以语言学习为基本目的，教师课堂用语显得更为重要.？英语课堂用语不仅扮演着一般课堂用语的基本角色，而且还是英语学习者（学生）模仿和学习的基本素材，所以英语课堂用语的恰当和得体就显得尤为重要。
1英语课堂语用失误英语教师在使用课堂用语的时候就要注意尽量不要使用导致学生负面面子和正面面子受损的FTA。
例如：某教师在课堂的复习环节中想让学生朗读一下上次课讲过的课文，于是他对这个同学如是说：“xxx，Please read the text”. 仔细体会这句话，不难发现这个请求的祈使句其实是老师对学生发出的一道命令。
我国素来有讲求师道尊严的传统，笔者发现很多老师习惯于对学生发出指令性的课堂用语，特别是在基础教育阶段更是如此。
然而事实上，从语用实践来看指令性的课堂用语或多或少会对学生形成一种压力，令他倍感紧张，该学生也许会想假如读不好肯定免不了老师的斥责或是来自同学的嘲笑。
于是，有些学生为了避免斥责或嘲笑，宁可说：“Sorry”.如果长期这样，这位学生可能为了保全自己的“面子”逐渐就对英语课采取消极逃避的态度，甚至缺课。
曾经在一次教学检查座谈会上，有一位学生和笔者谈起英语课上大家不敢发言时说，他们绝大多数同学都想学好英语，也想积极回答问题，可是当看到前面同学好不容易鼓起勇气回答了，老师却只说了个“good”，甚至“Not completely right”，自己就顿时失去了那种回答问题的渴望而退缩了。
其实他们每一位同学都非常希望多得到老师的鼓励和褒奖，这样其他同学也很羡慕，自己就很有“面子”。
这个教学经历，让笔者深感课堂用语的巨大作用。
2英语课堂语用策略根据会话含义理论：为保证听话者的正面面子不受威胁，说话者就要懂得正面的礼貌策略（positive-politeness strategies），也就是说千方百计让听话者的面子得到尊重。
说话者可以通过对听话者的行为和言语表示出认可和赞许，或者尽可能地迎合听话人心意和取悦听话人的言语。
英语语用学学科论文
连云港师范高等专科学校英语语用学学科论文班级：12英教专科一班姓名：余王丹学号：1221013125摘要：本文主要从语用学的角度对语言交际中的礼貌现象进行了研讨，以旨更全面地展示语用礼貌观。
本文共分四部分：一、礼原则的由来；二、礼貌原则的解析；三、礼貌策略；四、礼貌原则的应用。
加深对礼貌原则的理解可以有助于提升自身的语用能力。
关键词：语用学礼貌原则教学应用一、礼貌原则的由来(一)礼貌的界定在众多关于礼貌的各种文献中，围绕“礼貌”一词进行的研究主要有五个方面，具体如下：(1)礼貌是人们在交际中的一种现实目的(Politeness as areal-world goa1)。
人们在说话过程中运用礼貌原则的目的就是取悦他人。
(2)礼貌是一种敬重(Politeness as the deference)。
(3)礼貌是一种语体(Politeness as the register)。
语体是指“与社交语境有关的系统化变体”(Lyons，1977)。
或者指在一定场合下人们说话或写作时的语言变化(Holliday，1978)。
(4)礼貌是一种话语表层现象(Politeness as an utterancelevel phenomenon)。
该观点认为，礼貌是一种表层语法编码，该观点主要是离开语言运用的实际环境去研究礼貌问题。
(5)礼貌是一种语用现象(Politeness as a pragmatic phi—nominee)。
该观点在语用学界已经成为人们的一种共识。
总之．在语用学领域，人们关心的不是说话人是否真正对他人友善，而是他说了什么，以及他的话语对听话人产生了什么影响。
把礼貌看成敬重、语体，是一种社会语言学现象，不属于语用学的范围，而把礼貌看成一种话语表层现象，就是脱离了语境去谈礼貌，这是一种超理想化的理论，因为语言形式是和语境、说话人和听话人之间的关系紧密联系的。
（二）礼貌原则提出的必要性在英语语用学习领域中，提及言语行为理论(Speech Act Theory)．人们会很自然地联想到美国语言哲学家格赖斯(H．P．Grieve)的会话含义学说(Convocational Implicate)，即为了保证会话的顺利进行，谈话双方必须共同遵守一些基本原则，尤其是用来解释会话结构的“合作原则”(Cooperative Principle)。
浅析语用学中的礼貌原则优秀7篇
浅析语用学中的礼貌原则优秀7篇中西方礼貌原则对比分析语言学篇一中西方礼貌原则对比分析不同文化类型中的“礼貌原则”存在着差异，这些差异在礼貌用语中有充分的体现。
礼貌是对比语言学中语用对比研究一个不可忽略的问题，在迥异的中西方文化中更是如此。
中西方两种文化的礼貌原则有着较大的差异，了解这种差异对我们的现实生活具有指导意义。
一、中西方“礼貌原则”的理论研究1．西方文化中的礼貌概念西方“礼貌”理论中较有影响的理论框架当属Brown & Levinson的“面子论”及Leech的“礼貌原则”。
两种理论对礼貌的内涵及外延作了较为系统深刻的研究，对不同文化领域的礼貌研究都有一定影响和借鉴意义。
Brown＆Levinson的“面子”概念建立在Gofman的定义基础上。
根据Gofman的理论，面子对每一个人来说是最神圣的、不可侵犯的，对每一个交际者来说是最基本的、不容忽视的。
但Brown＆Levinson的面子概念更为具体，他们认为所有理性的社会成员都具有面子。
他们根据个人需要把面子分为两类：消极面子(negative face)，即个人拥有行动自由、不受干涉的权利；积极面子(Positive face)，即个人的正面形象或“个性”包括希望这种自我形象受到赞许的愿望。
面子有双层性，而且构成面子的双方面是相互矛盾的。
在交往时，一方面我们需要与对方有所关联，或者关注对方，并且要向对方表示出我们的关注。
面子的“关联”方面就是积极面子，Levinson把它称之为积极礼貌(Positive politeness)。
“积极面子”所常用的语篇方略是：恭听对方谈话，对其表示兴趣，表示与对方有共同之处，相互以名字称呼等。
如：“Agree，I have always believed that，too．”另一方面，我们要维护一定的独立性，并且向对方表示我们也尊重他们的独立需求。
面子的“独立”方面就是消极面子，Levinson把它称之为消极礼貌(negative politeness)。
语用学——礼貌原则
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4、越是无能的人，越喜欢挑剔别人的 错儿。 01:28:2 401:28: 2401:2 8Saturday, December力 ，自胜 者强。 20.12.1 220.12. 1201:2 8:2401: 28:24D ecembe r 12, 2020
国外的研究
E.Goffman从社会学角度提出了“面子”问题
要想自己不丢面子，最保险的方法就是不去伤害 别人的面子。因此，人们在谈话中往往是贬低自 己，抬高对方。
国外的研究
P.Brown和 S.Levinson合写了《语言运用中的 普遍性》
沿用了Goffman的“面子”概念，认为人有两 种面子。因此，礼貌行为也分两种，一种是积极 的（positive politeness），即满足对方面子 上正面的要求（如表扬对方的职业、地位、成就、 相貌、孩子等）；一种是消极的（negative politeness），即满足对方面子上的反面需求 （如尽量不去侵犯对方的人身、财产、自由等）
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6、意志坚强的人能把世界放在手中像 泥块一 样任意 揉捏。 2020年 12月12 日星期 六上午 1时28 分24秒0 1:28:24 20.12.1 2
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7、最具挑战性的挑战莫过于提升自我 。。20 20年12 月上午 1时28 分20.12. 1201:2 8December 12, 2020
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8、业余生活要有意义，不要越轨。20 20年12 月12日 星期六 1时28 分24秒0 1:28:24 12 December 2020
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9、一个人即使已登上顶峰，也仍要自 强不息 。上午 1时28 分24秒 上午1时 28分01 :28:242 0.12.12
• 10、你要做多大的事情，就该承受多大的压力。12/12/
从语用学角度看英语请求中的礼貌原则
的。 （三）塞尔的间接言语行为理论
美国语言学家塞尔(Searle, 1969)在言语行为理论的基础上进一步 提出了间接言语行为(indirect speech act)的概念并用其发展的言语行为
一、引言 语用学时研究在特定情景中的特定话语，研究如何通过语境来理
解和使用语言。作为一项重要语用原则，礼貌问题一直是语用学的研究 热点，通过言语行为表达礼貌是很常用的手段。在现实社会中，由于语 言运用不当而引起的不必要的误解的例子十分常见。礼貌作为人们交 际活动的基本准则,是维系友好和谐的人际关系的工具,是实现人与人 之间成功交际的基本条件。本文旨在运用礼貌原则和间接言语行为等 语用学理论,根据请求语自身的特点,从而建立起对请求语中礼貌策略 语用分析的框架。
week. Do you have any time? C: Sorry to bother you, but could you help me with the new project? 以上例子中，A 是一个祈使句，在很多时候是很不礼貌的，为此说
话人便使用了 B，间接地请求听话人帮助说话人做新项目；C 首先采用 道歉的形式,再以征询意见的方式向对方发出请求。因此在同等条件下， 例 B、C 就比 A 要恰当得多。
规则 2：给对方留有余地。它适合于交际双方权力和地位平等，但 社交关系不很密切的场合，比如商人和顾客之间。给对方留有余地意味 着说话人所提出的意见或请求，可能会被对方拒绝。例如：
D: I think it would not be a bad idea if you get a haircut. 规则 3：增进双方相互的友好。该规则是为了增进交际双方的友情， 它适用于亲密的朋友，甚至恋人之间。 E: How about picking me up after school? （二）布朗和列文森的礼貌与面子观
Realizations of Negative Politeness
Realizations of Negative PolitenessAbstract: negative politeness is the redress oriented to a hearer’s negative face, which appeals to the hearer’s desire not to be impeded or put upon, to be left free to act as they choose. This paper mainly discusses about several realizations of negative politeness.摘要：负面礼貌是针对听话者负面脸面的补偿和挽救，主要是使听话者的意愿不被侵犯或勉强，使听话者按照他们自己的自由意志做事。
这篇论文主要讨论了几种负面礼貌的实现形式。
Key words: negative politeness、strategies、realizationBy performing negative politeness strategies S (speaker) minimizes the imposition the FTA puts on H (hearer). With the consideration of status, power, distance, gender, the situation and content, the speaker will use what he/she thinks the listener can accept instead of what he/she wants to convey.ⅠBrown and Levinson’s five strategies in negative politenessBrown and Levinson (1987:131) first list five strategies: “be conventionally indirect”; “don’t presume/assume”; “don’t coerce H”; “communicate S’s wants to not impinge on H’s”; and “redress other wants of H’s”.1 Strategy One“Being conventionally i ndirect” means that S adopts a roundabout way to convey his/her intention.(1) Can you post this letter for me? (This is a classic way to ask the hearer to post the letter, not asking about the hearer’s ability to post the letter).2 Strategy Two“no presuming or assuming”means that S uses utterance carefully to avoid presuming or assuming that something in the FTA is desired or believed by H. Questioning and hedging are often used to achieve this purpose. For example, S may use personalization or words like “think”, “believe”, “assume”, etc, to suggest that what S says is not so reliable thus giving H options to deal with the imposition. Here are two examples:(2) I think that’s just how it is.(3) In my opinion, it is not reliable3 Strategy Three“No coercing” means that S tries to avoid coercing H to respond when the FTA involves predicting an act of H .S may use strategies like “be conventionally indirect”mentioned above, “be pessimistic”, “minimize the imposition”, and “give deference”.“G ive deference”means that S tries to defuse potential FTAs by showing deference to H. In order to achieve this end S can convey that H is of higher social status or of more power than S by elevating H on the one hand. For example, in theWatergate tapes Petersen addresses Nixon as “Mr.President” on just a few occasions, one of which is when Peterson is doing FTA (Brown and Levinson 1987:183).(4) Well, Mr. President, if I could only put your mind at ease…4 Strategy FourCommunicate S’s wants to not impinge on H’s means to indicate that S is aware of H’s negative face wants and is taking them into S’s consideration. S can achieve this end by such politeness strategies as “indicate reluctance”to impose on H, “impersonalize” and “state the FTA as a general rule”.“Stati ng the FTA as a general rule” means to state the FTA as an instance of some general social rule, regulation, or obligation thus dissociating S and H from the particular imposition of it.(5) Passengers will please refrain from flushing toilets on the train.5 Strategy Five“Redressing other wants of H’s”means to compensate the FTA done on H by satisfying some other particular wants of H’s. For instance, S can satisfy H’s wants to be respected, esteemed or felt to be superior by incurring a debt.(6) I’ll never be able to repay you if you could do me a favor.In fact, realization of negative politeness can build on vocabulary level, and discourse level. The following will be a through exploration.ⅡThe realization of negative politeness on vocabulary level1 Pronounsa. When criticizing, using “we”instead of “you”can be a way of negative politeness.(1) We don’t sit on the ground. (Meaning to tell a child not to sit on the ground, the sentence is easy to understand and also the criticism and imposition can hardly felt).b. Using indefinite pronoun “one”or “someone”instead of personal pronoun “you”, can also weaken the influence of an FTA.(2) One shouldn’t do things like that. (It can be more easily accepted than “you shouldn’t do things like that” because it sounds like a comment, not a reproach).2 Using politeness markersWhen making requirements, “ask” and “request” are more polite than “demand”and “require”; when making rejections, “decline”is more polite than “reject”and “refuse”.(3) Can you tidy up your desk, please?3 Using understatementsUnderstatements can be used to avoid hurting other’s feeling by adopting other ways describe body deficiency, bad conditions, aging, poverty, unemployment, unqualified educational life.(4) He doesn’t seem a nice guy. (It sounds like an indefinite impression, not his/her personal opinion.)Lasersohn(1999) calls understatement “semantic slack”and “pragmatic slack”. Understatement is a kind of pragmatic figure, a speaker-hearer related figure. The aim is to reduce the threat of negation with the subjective and emotional consideration; the speaker adopts vague, elastic and soft understatement to avoid threatening face of the hearer. Using vague language appropriately can increase the tenacity and flexibility of language, leading to a fully exhibition of communicating function.4 Using hedgesHedges in pragmatics are by no means a cause of frustration, depression or anxiety in discourse; on the contrary, no matter what kinds of vagueness a proposition may have, it is of positive significance. The following are words or structures that have vague characters: it’s said that…, approximately, it has been reported that…, more or less, a little bit, I’m afraid, probably, etc. we maybe know whether someone likes Chinese food or not from his answer “I’m getting used to it”. Vagueness of natural language is representation of accuracy, flexibility and vividness of language.5 Using discourse markersUsing the discourse markers, such as I swear, I’m sure, I believe, I think, by the way, frankly, etc to show politeness.Discourse markers function to accommodate interpersonal relationships, to reduce face-threatening in the cases when the speaker’s and the listener’s ideascontradict or conflict and when the speaker encounters a refusal, which mean the speaker’s and /or listener’s face want is threatened. Indicators, such as actually, in fact, as a matter of a fact, mitigate mood, as a result, embarrassment is avoided. Such expressions can be used to alleviate what’s said, especially alleviate the expression of amending others, disagreement and complaining. In this way vagueness id reached to increase its negotiation and acceptance.6 Using derivative wordsDerivative word, such as prefixes “un”, “non”, “in”, or “im”+ adjectives that have positive values, to replace the negative adjectives, such that unhappy, immoral, unfaithful, non-scientific. It is in fact an indirect way to say the same thing unfavorable. We can understand happiness as not happy, not necessarily sad, but what is interesting is that when we say something is unhappy, what we usually mean is that the person is sad (Chen Xinren. 2008: 12).ⅢThe Realization of Negative Politeness on Syntax LevelUsing different tenses, aspects and moods can make suggestions or requirements more polite.1 Using the past tense(1) I was wandering if you could tidy up (it postpones the wishes to the past, so a distance of time is produced. It is attitudinal).2 Using the progressive aspect(2) I’m wandering if you could tidy up your desk (the continual aspects in English posses the characteristics of temporariness and possible incompleteness).3 Using passive voiceSometimes one chooses to avoid pointing out who is the actor of an action because of the consideration of fact and polite fiction(3) It is regretted that… (It seems that the speaker is not th subject of the sentence, so the speaker’s responsibility is reduced, and the negative face of speaker is maintained).4 Using partial negation structures(4) A. he doesn’t work. B. he doesn’t work hardIn A, the speaker means that he does not work at all, and is a direct criticizing; in B, the speaker seems to merely mean he is not diligent enough.(5) A. I don’t like him. B. I don’t like him very much.In A, it means “he is bad, and I do not have a good impression of him”; in B, it may have the meaning “I am not interested in communicating with him”5 Using formal sentences(6) A. I want to…how you feel about… B. I wanna…how about…Comparatively, A shows more respect than B does.6 Negation questions(7) You couldn’t tidy up your desk, could you?7 Using conditional clause(8) If I were you, I should get the car se rved (“I should” means “you should” in fact)8 Using questions(9) M: Do I have to take the test?W: Do you want to pass the course?9 Using partial agreement(10) A: We’ll all miss Bill and Anglia, won’t we?B: Well, we’ll miss Bill.10 Using comparative forms(11) A: Do you like these apricots?B: I’ve tasted better.11 Using negation shift(12) Man: I suppose we should look for a big house, but I don’t see how we can afford one right now.Women: if only we hadn’t spent so much on our vacation this year.ⅣThe Realization of Negative Politeness on Discourse Level1 The choice of conversational topicsConsidering the respect for others, westerners try not to interfere with other’s private lives. They avoid asking about marriage, income, religion, family and manyother embarrassing issues. They can thus create safe and free space for both sides in interpersonal communication. Some topics, such as weather, jobs, and hobbies, local and national events are acceptable almost everywhere in the world. Often as topics, they talk about one’s appearance, characteristics, family members and things that have been done. For example, “you have beautiful eyes”, “your hair looks nice”, “you gave an excellent speech”. In general cases, a hearer will response politely to a polite speech act by the speaker. Changing to a related topic during the conversation can also soften the mood, give the reason, and make listener believe the conclusion.When people first meet, asking questions is a common way to learn about other people. If a person is good at asking questions, conversations can flow smoothly and much information can be shared. Also, if someone excels at asking open-ended questions, both participants can relax and enjoy fluent conversations. People, who enjoy conversations that flow in an effortless way, tend to want to continue having conversations with each other. This is how relationships begin after two people meet.Communication appropriateness means that the valued rules, norms and expectations of the relations are not violated. Effectiveness means the accomplishment of valued goals of communication.2 Giving strong linguistic feed backAs conversational coordination increases, communicators’skills increase. Conversational coordination involves all those behaviors that assist in the smooth flow of an encounter. Minimizing response latencies, providing for smooth initiation, and conclusions of conversational episodes, avoiding disruptive interruptions, providing transitions between themes or activities, and providing informative feedback cues all assist in managing the interaction and maintaining appropriate pacing and punctuation of a conversation.Western culture pays more attention to independence and individual freedom. Avoiding imposing is regarded as politeness. This explains why in some talk shows there are often long stretches of utterance and comparably more strong supportive feedback to show his/her attitude rather than common feedback like oh, um, that’s right, etc.3 Using pre-requestOne way of avoiding risks is to provide an opportunity for the other to halt the potentially risky action. A requirement often elicits a positive answer as it has raised the status of the listener. Using requirement is an effective method for the speaker to defend his/her own face as well as avoiding hurting others’face. In it one’s social pragmatic competence can be reflected. The following conversation (1) is the case.Her: Are you busy? (=pre-request)Him: Not really. (=go ahead)Her: Check out this book. (=request)Him: Okay. (=accept)The advantage of the pre-request element is that it can be answered either with a “go ahead” response, as in (1), or with a “stop” response as in conversation (2): Him: are you busy? (=pre-request)Her: I’m sorry. (=stop)The response in (2) allows the speaker to avoid making a request. Realizing that it is a response to a pre-request also allows us to interpret the expression “sorry”, not only as apology about being busy, but also as an apology about being unable to respond to the expected requests. A cautious pause means uncertainty, avoiding hasty conclusion and the possibility to be refuted. Thus it can maintain the speaker’s negative face.Conversation can only be successfully processed with the conversation partners coordinating their movements smoothly. Conversational rhetoric is language condensation of wisdom and inspirations in an instantaneous moment without deliberation and abstract. It is because of that, humorous and inspiring expressions afford us chances to enjoy aesthetics of language. The choice of a particularly type of expression that is less direct, potentially less clear, generally longer, and with a more complex structure shows that the speaker is making a great effort, taking face into consideration, than is needed simply to get the basic message across efficiently.ⅤSummaryEvery utterance is uniquely designed for its audience. Our politeness strategiesminimize disagreement. This turns out to be a strong motivation in “polite” exchanges. Different kinds and “degrees of politeness are called for in different situations”(Leech, 1983: 104). Respect of others is a central politeness principle, guiding almost all the polite acts.Bibliography1 Blum-kulka, shoshana. 1990. You don’t Touch lettuce with Your Fingers: Parental Politeness in Family Discourse [J]. Journal of Pragmatics.(14)2:259-288.2 Grundy, Peter. 2000. Doing Pragmatics [M] (2nd ed). London: Arnold.3 leech, Geoffrey N.1983. Principles of Pragmatics [M]. London and New York: Longman.4 Lakoff, R. 1990. Talking Power [M]. New York: Basic Books.5 Levinson, Stephen. 2001. Pragmatics[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language and Research Press.6 Verschueren. Jef. 2000.Understanding pragmatics[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language and Research Press.7 陈融. 1998. 英语的礼貌语言[J]. 现代外语,(3): 23-28.8 何兆熊. 1995. Studies of Politeness in Chinese and English Cultures[J]. 外国语,(5):2-8.。
语用学——礼貌原则
文学作品中的实际应用
·“与舞场里除了同来的女伴以外的任何别的女人 跳舞都是无法容忍的。” ——达西
在舞会上达西除了和同来的两位女伴跳舞之外拒绝和任何别 的女士跳舞，几乎贬损了全舞场的女士，甚至拒绝好友宾利先生
为他推荐的伊丽莎白小姐，严重违背了礼貌原则的得体准则、赞
扬准则、慷慨准则以及谦虚准则。
因此伊丽莎白一直对达西怀有很深的偏见也是顺理成章的。
国内研究
顾曰国基于尊重、谦逊、态度热情、文雅的汉语 言文化特征，仿照Leech的礼貌原则和次则，提出 了汉语的礼貌原则。 ①贬己尊人准则——指与自己或与自己有关的事 物时要贬，与听者或与听者有关的事物时要尊； ②称呼准则——用适切的称呼语与对方打招呼； ③文雅准则——所用语言要文雅，显示说话人有 教养； ④求同准则——说话人和听话人在诸多方面力求 和谐一致，量满足对方的欲望； ⑤德、言、行准则——在行为动机上，尽量减少 他人付出的代价，尽量增大对他人的益处。
理论在《傲慢与偏见》中的应用
。”
“贝内特小姐，说你愿意嫁给我。”
在对伊丽莎白求婚是违反了礼貌原则的得体准则。
这两句话，没有给听话人选择的余地，话语的语气减弱并带
有实验性的倾向，可以看出达西的骄傲自大，这也是他第一次求 婚遭到断然拒绝的原因之一。
理论在《傲慢与偏见》中的应用
国外的研究
E.Goffman从社会学角度提出了“面子”问题
要想自己不丢面子，最保险的方法就是不去伤害 别人的面子。因此，人们在谈话中往往是贬低自 己，抬高对方。
国外的研究
P.Brown和 S.Levinson合写了《语言运用中的 普遍性》 沿用了Goffman的“面子”概念，认为人有两 种面子。因此，礼貌行为也分两种，一种是积极 的（positive politeness），即满足对方面子 上正面的要求（如表扬对方的职业、地位、成就、 相貌、孩子等）；一种是消极的（negative politeness），即满足对方面子上的反面需求 （如尽量不去侵犯对方的人身、财产、自由等）
大学英语课堂及语用学中礼貌策略
大学英语课堂及语用学中礼貌策略摘要: 人与人之间主要是通过语言实现交流目的,表达礼貌的主要手段也主要是语言。
大学英语教课堂做为一个特殊的语言交流场所,师生之间的互动同样需要采用礼貌策略,本文根据作者在英语教学中总结出的学生对英语学习的心态和心理变化过程, 从语用学角度研究了大学英语课堂上礼貌策略的应用。
关键词: 大学英语课堂语用学礼貌策略一、语用学中与礼貌策略相关的一些理论近二十多年来,J.L.Austin,Brown,Levinson,J.R.Searle,H.P.Grice,G.Lee ch等诸多西方学者,从语用学的角度出发,对语言交际中的礼貌现象进行了一系列的探讨和研究。
1979年,美国加州大学哲学家J.R.Searle提出了他的“间接语言行为(inderect speech act)”理论,探讨了委婉话语的表达方式,解释了人们在向他人提出请求时为什么不用直接的命令式而用疑问式。
Brown和Levinson(1978)提到言语交际涉及社会关系和文化,因而存在礼貌策略问题,并提出了语言交际中的“面子”问题和对面子的威胁(face-threatening act,简称FTA)。
美国语言学家H.P.Grice1975年提出了语言交际中的“合作原则”(Cooperative Principle)。
他认为,在人们的语言交际中,为使交际顺利进行,双方都须遵循一定的基础原则。
例如,交流要限制于某一范围内,要有共同的目的,如果交际的双方答非所问,交流就无法进行。
在1976年,Grice还提出了”会话含义学说“(Conversational Implication)这一学说对我们理解话语的“言外之意”和解释礼貌语言的运用具有很强的指导意义。
对礼貌现象作系统研究的应属英国学者G.Leech。
他于1983年在其《语用学原则》(Principle of Pragmatics)一书中提出了“礼貌原则”(Politeness Principle,简称PP)。
语用学论文
这是一个文明的社会，人类拥有一门充满魅力和艺术的技能——语言。
语言是人与人交流中不可缺少的重要工具。
在我们的衣食住行中，没有一样是可以离开语言的沟通与表达的，从而语言成为一门技巧。
语言可以传递信息，可以交流感情，掌握良好的语言技巧，我们可以抒发我们的感情，可以赢得良好的人际关系，可以得到别人的理解和尊重……从而语言成为一门学问。
正确恰当的语言交际中，应该遵守“合作原则”，“礼貌原则”这两大原则，遵循四条准则，即：量准则、质准则、关系准则、方式准则。
在此，我想浅谈一下“礼貌原则”。
什么是礼貌？礼貌通常被理解为说话人为了达到某一目的，如增加或维护交际双方的和睦关系而采取的措施。
表达礼貌的主要手段之一就是语言的运用。
语言学家Leech提出礼貌原则的六大准则，包括得体准则，慷慨准则，赞扬准则，谦逊准则，一致准则，同情准则。
所谓得体准则，就是要求我们交流时少让别人吃亏，多让别人得益。
交流时，应以说话人身份为出发点，注重交流对象，注意场合。
很亲近的同学、朋友间聊天可以是“臭小子，你怎么不来看我”、“二货，你怎么这么傻啊”，但是若对于长辈或上司，应表现出敬重，如“王主任，早上好！”、“韩教授，久仰大名啊！”同学聚会、好友闲谈时可以开玩笑、调侃。
若在会议等正式场合一定要注意措辞。
慷慨准则就是让我们尽量少让自己得意，多让自己吃亏。
适当的时候，跟人交谈，多开开玩笑自嘲一下自己，会让自己更具有亲和力，更容易被人接受。
同样的表达两个没有可比性，“你怎么能跟我比？”和“我怎么能跟你比？”所包含的感情色彩完全不同，后者是把对方捧上一个台阶，而前者相反。
每个人都希望得到赞扬，“你的衣服真漂亮！”“好久不见，越来越年轻了。
”“你家儿子真聪明。
”简单的一句赞美，却能让人心头甜蜜，促进人际关系。
学会发现美，发现别人优点，懂得赞美别人。
可以说中国人是向来很谦虚，中国传统文化正可以体现出“谦逊准则”，我们称自己为“鄙人”“在下”，称自己的妻子“贱内”，称自己的儿子“犬子”，而对别人，则是“尊姓大名”，“令堂身体可好”“您老贵庚”我们都希望被人接受和认可，受到他人尊重，一致准则要求我们尽量减少分歧，增加一致。
礼貌策略在国际商务谈判中的运用学位论文
中文摘要商务谈判是利益双方为了共同利益达成协议的一种过程，本质上是一种言语交际活动。
从某种程度上说，和谐、友好、合作的谈判环境能够使的谈判有效地进行，而有效的谈判则能够从语言使用艺术上获得。
因此，谈判双方应选择恰当的语言技巧和策略。
其中，礼貌策略在商务谈判中应用极为广泛，也是一种行之有效的办法。
本文试分析商务谈判的语言特征，并从商务谈判的例子中分析礼貌策略的合理运用及恰当表达方式，从而得出礼貌语言策略能够增加谈判者之间的信任度，提供谈判中的自觉性，增加谈判成功的机会。
关键词: 国际商务谈判；礼貌策略；语用策略ContentsAbstract (i)摘要................................................................................................................................................. i i1. Introduction and Literature Review (1)1.1 Introduction (1)1.2 Literature review (1)2. Language Features of Business Negotiation and the Definition of Politeness (3)2.1 Language features of business negotiation (3)2.1.1 Idiomatic and professional terms (3)2.1.2 Abundant uses of polite languages (3)2.1.3 Vague languages (4)2.2 The definition of politeness (4)3. Politeness Principle as a Strategy in International Business Negotiation (6)3.1 Politeness principle (PP) and relevant theories (6)3.1.1 Leech’s politeness principle (6)3.1.2 Six maxims of politeness principle (6)3.2 Politeness strategies (7)3.2.1 Positive politeness strategy (7)3.2.2 Negative politeness strategy (7)3.3 The functions of politeness strategy in international business negotiation (8)3.3.1 The benefit of face maintenance (8)3.3.2 The benefit of cooperative relations (8)3.3.3 The benefit of establishment of harmonious negotiation atmosphere (8)3.3.4 The benefit of strategy adaptations (9)3.3.5 The benefit of o ne’s own interests maintenance (9)4. Application of Politeness Strategy in International Business Negotiation (10)4. 1 Application of tact maxim (10)4.2 Application of generosity maxim (12)4.3 Application of humorous expressions (13)4.4 Application of euphemistic expressions (14)4.5 Application of persuasive expressions (15)5. Conclusion (17)Note (18)Bibliography (19)Acknowledgements (20)1.Introduction and Literature Review1.1IntroductionWith the development of globalization, trades with other countries become more and more frequent than ever before. A win-win situation is the most desired one that both parties with common and conflicting interests pursue. In business, it is mostly through negotiations that both parties bridge the difference and reach a fair and mutually satisfactory deal.Business negotiation plays a fundamental role in a transaction because negotiators need to negotiate with each other before signing a contract. If a negotiator is only familiar with the knowledge in trade, then he/she might not be able to deal with transaction successfully. But if he/she knows and utilizes some pragmatic strategies, the business activities will proceed smoothly and lead to what is desired and expected.Politeness, a social phenomenon, touches upon every aspect of life. According to politeness theory, politeness serves to both reflect and regulate social distance (Brown & Levison, 1987).Since business negotiation is not only a complex human activity but also a process in which at least two or more parties with common and conflicting interests try to reach an agreement of mutual benefits, it is of great value to use polite strategy in business negotiation, which not only establishes and maintains but improves the social relationship with each other. Only in this way can both parties establish and maintain a harmonious, friendly and cooperative atmosphere with some appropriate, efficient and effective strategies. Among them, politeness strategy is the most commonly used one that contributes to a successful business negotiation.Not only does the thesis focus on the language features of business negotiation, the theory of politeness principle and its maxims and the politeness strategy, but also emphasize how to use politeness strategy in international business negotiation, especially with the use of abundant examples.1.2Literature ReviewBusiness negotiation is a kind of economic activity which is essentially through the carrier of language driven by interests. As the starting point of economic activities, negotiation plays a significant role in successful transactions. However, people in real communication often do not keep them, even intentionally violate the cooperative principle (Grice, 1975). In order to solve this phenomenon, a great amount of scholars had spent a great deal of time in studying it at home and abroad. Below are some famous scholars who make great contribution to the success of business negotiation from the pragmatic angles.The English scholar, Leech advances the use of language about courtesy problem. As to the pragmatic study about politeness, Leech (1983) puts forward another pragmaticprinciple--the Politeness Principle (PP) from angles of rhetoric and style on the basis of Grice’s cooperation principle. He holds the idea that it’s very common that the misuse of language or rudeness or misunderstanding caused by ignorance of others exists in communication, whereas, politeness through language does is the most commonly used method and the most important pragmatic principle in successful communication.He Ziran (1988), the domestic scholar, also holds that polite language is actually a pragmatic strategy. Xu Chenghuan (1902) thinks that polite language is the leverage that language communication may involve parties, which plays the role in adjusting personal relationships. This is similar to the idea of Lakoff that the polite language among people is a method of reducing friction when communicating. Whereas, professor Ran Yongping (2007) regards that politeness is an expectation associated with the most optimal relevance effect, and it is the result of understanding from a cognitive-pragmatic perspective of politeness and language choice. What’s more, he holds that language, in the form of itself, does not exist in polite problems. Politeness principle is that in the same other conditions, minimizing the expression of impolite beliefs (He Zhaoxiong, 2000:164-165).2. Language Features of Business Negotiation and the Definition of Politeness2.1 Language Features of Business Negotiation2.1.1 Idiomatic and Professional TermsThere is a series of idiomatic and professional terms in business negotiation. Generally speaking, different terms or expressions are used in different situations. For instance, in sales purchases negotiation, it includes price, quality, packing, shipping, insurance, etc. In engineering construction negotiations, it has costs, time limit, commencement, completion and the right to use, etc. All these idiomatic and professional terms have the characteristic of simplicity and pertinence. And the following examples are from Business Correspondence(A Wainwright, 2001).(1) Our usual term of payment is by D/P at 30 day’s sight.(2) Taking into consideration the transport conditions at your end, we have especially reinforced our packing in order to minimize the extent of any possible damage to the goods.(3) If the transaction is concluded on the CIF or CFR Singapore basis, the buyer must have the right to appoint the forwarding company.(4) We regret to say we are unable to accept your order at the previous prices because of a recent rise in the cost of materials.(5) The goods, before being loaded at the port of shipment, must be inspected by an inspection institution agreeable to the buyer in the presence of the buyer’s representative.(6) We should like to know if you can undertake insurance of these goods A.A.R.To sum up, idiomatic and professionalized terms are not only the basic features of business negotiation, but also the necessary parts in the business negotiation as well as in the contract.2.1.2 Abundant Uses of Polite LanguagesPolite languages create a harmonious negotiation atmosphere for both parties in order to make solid foundation for long term business relationships. In foreign trade communication, no matter agreements or disagreements of one’s ideas, it is of great significance to use polite language to show appreciation. The reason is that the success of every transaction depends on the cooperative relations of each other. And the following examples are from English- Foreign Trade Talk in English (Qin Chuan, 2004).(7) -It’s very kind of you to come and see me off at the airport, Ms. Wenhui.-My pleasure, Mr. Wilson.(8) This way please.(9) Thanks for helping me.(10)Thank you once again for everything you’ve done.To sum up, “please, thank you, kindly, appreciate, it’s very kind of you, my pleasure,” etc. are the frequently used expressions in all sections during the course of business negotiation.2.1.3 Vague LanguagesFor the sake of avoiding inconvenience and misunderstanding, language in business negotiation, whether in the oral form or written form of conversation, should be clear and precise. However, in real practice, it’s very easy fo r negotiators to misuse words. Misusing language will lead to an embarrassing situation where both parties disagree with each other while it’s not convenient for them to discuss it directly. Furthermore, sometimes negotiators cannot express their ideas clearly, or they would not like to say it clearly for some pragmatic purposes, in which cases they prefer to put vague languages to rational use.Using vague languages will make the massage sent out obscure in order to avoid what have been said being too fixed so that it can ease up the awkward situation. Vague languages have often been treated as a politeness strategy playing an active role in business negotiation. From pragmatics, vague languages have the function of maintaining the “face”(Brown&Levinson, 1987). It can not only assuage the negotiating atmosphere, but also can sound out his opponent's intentions. The examples below are from English for Business Negotiation (2nd Edition) (Ding Hengqi, Zhang Jing, 2009).(11) We could only tell you that we will try our best to advance the time of delivery.(12) We have always insisted on the principle of “equality and mutual benefit and exchange of needed goods”, but we have adopted much more flexible method in our dealing method in our dealings nowadays.(13) We would like to discuss the possibility of establishing an agency with you.(14) Your presentation make so me feel a little too… you know what I mean.In the above sentences, such phrases as “try our best to advance the time of delivery, much more flexible method, possibility, you know what I mean,” are all general expressions, which convey blurry information to the listeners. All these vague languages can make words become much more euphemistic and implicit, showing consideration for the other party and taking care to preserve the maintenance of both “face s” so that negotiations will go smoothly. Furthermore, the use of vague languages can also bring up specific atmosphere helping to triumph the other side from psychology.In conclusion, it is very important to maintain a harmonious atmosphere and avoid making tense situation in the course of business negotiation. However, conflicts are inevitable. When a face-to-face conflict occurs, in order to save each other’s faces, negotiators need to use vague expressions, otherwise, negotiation may stalemate.2.2 The Definition of PolitenessPoliteness, an important code of human social activity, is the sign of human civilization, andis a social phenomenon which touches upon every aspect of life. According to the Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, politeness is defined as “the combination of interpersonal consideration and linguistic choices affecting the form and function of linguistic interaction” (Richard et al, 2000: 352).Politeness denotes that ease and gracefulness of manners which first sprung up in cities, connected with a desire to please others by anticipating their wants and wishes, and studiously avoiding whatever might give them pain.At the basic level, politeness is one of the major social constraints on human interactions regulating participants’ communicative behavior s by constantly reminding them of taking into consideration the feelings of the others. This is just like the idea of Hudson (1985: 115) –we usually try to avoid exposing others’ weakness, or raising heated controversy, unless we are sure that it will not affect the attitude of others towards us or we are indifferent to their opinions.3.Politeness Principle as a Strategy in International Business Negotiation 3.1Politeness Principle (PP) and Relevant Theories3.1.1 L eech’s Politeness PrincipleLeech regards politeness as a crucial one in explaining “why people are often so indirect in conveying what they mean.” He thus puts forward the Politeness Principle, PP (1983) so as to “rescue the Cooperative Principle (CP)①” in the sense that politeness can satisfactor ily explain exceptions to and apparent derivation from the CP. Politeness Principle is justified in language production and interpretation. Without it, CP is not fully explanatory. CP is needed to account for the indirect relation tween what people say and what they mean. But it, in itself, can not explain why people are so often indirect in the way they talk. Therefore, PP is not just an addition to Grice’s CP, but a necessary complement needed for cases in wh ich CP fails to offer a reasonable and acceptable explanation. Furthermore, PP helps to maintain effective use of language. To a large extent, PP guides man’s linguistic behavior.3.1.2 Six Maxims of Politeness PrinciplePoliteness Principle can be divided into two aspects, that is, to minimize (all things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs, and to maximize (all things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs.Leech’s (1983：132) maxims of PP tend to go in pairs as follow:(i)Tact Maxim(a) Minimize cost to other;(b) Maximize benefit to other.(ii) Generosity Maxim(a) Minimize benefits to self;(b) Maximize cost to self.(iii) Approbation Maxim(a) Minimize dispraise of other;(b) Maximize praise of other.(iv) Modesty Maxim(a) Minimize praise of self;(b) Maximize dispraise of self.(v) Agreement Maxim(a) Minimize disagreement between self and other;(b) Maximize agreement between self and other.(vi) Sympathy Maxim(a) Minimize antipathy between self and other;(b) Maximize sympathy between self and other.It can be obviously seen that “Minimize” and “Maximize” are two key concepts in Leech’s maxims. These six “minimize”s can be summarized as decreasing favor of others, unfavor to others, and conflicts between self and others as much as possible. On the contrary, six “maximize”s can be summarized as increasing favor to others, unfavor to self, and harmony between self and others as much as possible.3.2Politeness StrategiesPoliteness strategies are used to formulate mess ages in order to save the hearer’s face when face-threatening acts are inevitable or desired. Brown and Levinson (1987) suggest some politeness strategies to save face, such as positive politeness strategy and negative politeness strategy.3.2.1 Positive Politeness StrategyPositive politeness strategies orient to preserving the positive face of other people which seek to minimize the threat to the hearer’s positive face. They are used to make the hearer s feel good about their interests and possessions as well as themselves. What’s more, they are most usually used in situations where the audience knows each other fairly well. In addition to hedge and attempt to avoid conflicts, some strategies of positive politeness include statements of friendship, solidarity, compliments, and the following examples are from Brown and Levinson (1987).(i) Attend to hearer’s interests, needs, wantsYou look sad. Can I do anything?(ii) Use solidarity in-group identity markersHeh, mate, can you lend me a dollar?(iii) Offer or promiseIf you wash the dishes, I’ll vacuum the floor.3.2.2 Negative Politeness StrategyNegative politeness strategies orient to preserving the negative face of other people and emphasizing avoidance of imposition on the hearer. This is more likely if there is a social distance between the speaker and the hearer. These strategies presume that the speaker will be imposed on the listener and there is a higher potential for awkwardness or embarrassment than positive politeness strategies. Here are some examples from Brown and Levinson (1987).(i) Be indirectWould you know where Oxford Street is?(ii) Use hedges or questionsPerhaps, he might have taken it, maybe.Could you please pass the rice?(iii) Minimize the impositionIt’s not too much out of your way, just a couple of blocks.Negative Politeness also involves more frequent use of the expressions like please, possibly might, I’m sorry but …etc. E.g.I’m sorry, it’s a lot to ask, but can you lend me a thousand dollars?3.3 The Functions of Politeness Strategy in International Business Negotiation3.3.1 The Benefit of Face MaintenanceIn many language communities, people will use polite language for the sake of others and self’s face maintenance. The reason why people do so is that they want to maintain the harmonious social relations so that communication can smoothly go on to reach the purpose of successful communication. As for business negotiation, face maintenance is one benefit of polite language. Most of the time, negotiators can not enable to make acknowledgement and feeling into compliance. Some words are correct but they are difficult to be accepted. At that moment, negotiators will adopt appropriate politeness strategies in order to save face so that it can enable the other party to accept one’s ideas pleasantly.3.3.2 The Benefit of Cooperative RelationsIt is common psychological need that people expect to have the recipient's approval during human communication process. Under interests’ circumstance, the speaker might express strong feelings followed by undermining bilateral trade cooperation. At this moment, it requires people to avoid contradictions caused by disagreement. Under such circumstance, polite language can help negotiators avoid contradictions when conflicts appear.3.3.3 The Benefit of Establishment of Harmonious Negotiation AtmosphereInternational trade negotiation is a kind of cooperative communication, which should take place in a friendly harmonious atmosphere for the sake of successful transaction. In business negotiation, for the purpose of avoiding direct positive conflicts, negotiators usually resort to politeness strategies to resolve disputes and maintain peace. Politeness strategies not only include how to use language properly, different communication languages used in different occasions, but also include the application of tact maxim, generosity maxim, approbation maxim, modesty maxim, sympathy maxim, agreement maxim, etc, which is good for establishing harmonious negotiation atmosphere.3.3.4 The Benefit of Strategy AdaptationsAs for the ways of expressions and functions, language communications are changeable which are true for verbal strategy. There will be various strategies due to various situations. Vague expression, for example, is a “negative polite” strategy, but in business negotiations it can also be a kind of negotiating tactics facilitating the negotiation smoothly and successfully. When asked to answer questions which cannot be accurately answered, an effective strategy is to use vague expression. Vague expression can reduce the other party’s face threats, and can also offer the leeway.3.3.5 The Benefit of 0ne’s 0wn Interests MaintenanceIn business negotiations, polite language can be used as negotiation skills and tactics to indicate one’s position, to get rid of unnecessary responsibility and to maintain their own interests. There are many unfair phenomena in commercial activities. Some of the big companies trusted in its own advantages often ask other small companies for some unreasonable additional requirements. If these small companies refuse to accept it which might offend large companies, it will lead to the failure of negotiation. A qualified negotiator should be the one who can get rid of unnecessary responsibility wisely. And one of the feasible methods is to tell the big companies that additional requirements can be met only if certain objective conditions can be provided.In conclusion, due to the significant functions of politeness principle as a strategy in business negotiation, it is full of value and necessity to use it appropriately. The following will be focused on how to use politeness principle as a strategy in business negotiation suitably.4. Application of Politeness Strategy in Business Negotiation4. 1 Application of Tact MaximIn music the ‘tone’of an instrument is, speaking non-technically, the way that the instrument sounds. We all know how a piano sounds; pianos all sound much alike but at the same time sound different from one another and we can distinguish a piano that sounds pleasant from one that sounds unpleasant. Similarly, negotiations have a tone. One tone sounds warm, friendly and tact can make the negotiation develop smoothly. From the below picture (A. Wainwright, 2001: 75), we can know that today all parties use language that seems to put them on the same level.According to Leech’s Politeness P rinciple, tact maxim refers to minimize other’s cost and maximize other’s benefits. In business negotiation, the complexity and hardness of negotiation determine that such tactful and flexible language is needed in order to make the negotiation be smooth and successful. Therefore, it is of great necessity and significance to take social factors into consideration when language needs to be used tactfully.A.WAINWRIGHT (2001: 78 ) found the following:It is when the question of tactfulness arises that we see most clearly that there is an intimate connation between thought and language – that we cannot alter the thought without altering the language and that we cannot alter the language without altering the thought.It is also when the question of tactfulness arises that the personal element in business negotiation becomes most crucial. It is universal known that the same language used in one situation may be suitable, while in another it may not be so.For example, a straightforward business letter addressed to a German businessman is likely to be successful, but it may be a failure if it addresses to a Japanese businessmen because it is inappropriate to use forthright tone to the Japanese. One more example, an American business manager had to explain the cause of raising the price to three clients from different countries simultaneously via email. To the Germany client, he presented the main points straightforward, while to the Lebanon one, he started with a detail explanation. However, to the one from Peru, he used a whole page to make a greeting, before coming to the central point. This example shows that it is necessary for the negotiators to consider the cultural and social background before negotiation.Below are two sentences that can also help to understand tactfulness from Business Correspondence (A. WAINWRIGHT, 2001).(15) The weight of the machine is not, as you thought, 500 KG.(16) You were mistaken in thinking that the weight of the machine was 500 KG.Obviously, the second statement suggests more strongly that the address was at fault.Furthermore, the following ways need to be avoided when negotiating(i) The tone of over - humbleness. E. g.(17) We are extremely and sincerely sorry for the error and ask that you accept our humble and sincere apology for the undue inconvenience suffered by you.It seems more acceptable to put it in this way: We are concerned about the inconvenience you have suffered, and apologize sincerely.(18) I am pleased to tell you that….If it were to be changed into You will be pleased to know that…(ii) The tone of degrading others. E. g.(19) All wise office managers around the country order Gold Fish – the most efficient of all office typewriters.No one will be persuaded by such kind of way since he has already been hurt. However, if being put into such a way: Gold Fish is popular among the office managers due to its favorable qualities, why not have a try. Then this utterance would be much more acceptable.(iii) The criticism tone. E. g.(20)Your letter is not clear at all; I can’t understand it.It will be much more polite to revise it as If I understand your letter correc tly…(iv) The forceful tone. E. g.(21) You would of course rather continue to do business with us because…The kind of utterance above is unacceptable. If it is changed to hoping that you will continue to do business with us⋯then it will be much more acceptable.(22) You must not blame us if you failed to check the goods immediately on arrival at your factory.Of course, this kind of utterance is also unacceptable. It is of course commercial practice for the customer to check goods immediately on arrival would be much more acceptable.Also such as the following sentences:(23) Would you like to have another discussion for this project?(24) You must have another discussion for this project.Example (23) makes the other party have broader choosing scope, so it becomes estranged and indifferent. It seems to have an attitude that “Accepting or not is nonsense of him”. Thus the example (23) is understood but of impoliteness. While sentence (24) is straightforward and can’t be refused, i t shows the speaker’s en thusiasm of nearly force. So it is considered as the manifestation of hospitality (He Ziran, 1995:113).“Using language tactfully means to use it politely”(He Ziran, 1998). Negotiators should adopt suitable languages according to circumstances neither being offensive nor over-polite and make sure the negotiation to continue in a harmonious atmosphere.4.2 Application of Generosity MaximGenerosity Maxim refers to minimize self - benefits and to maximize self- cost according to Leech. When applied in business negotiation, it indicates that negotiators should adopt “other attitude”rather than “self attitude”. It is very necessary to take the other party’s wishes, difficulties, backgrounds, feelings and reactions into consideration during negotiation. After that, matters can be dealt from the perspective of counter-party in order to increase the other party’s benefit as much as possible.(25) Look at this dialogue from English-Foreign Trade Talk in English (Qin Chuan, 2004：20).Mr. Qi: Mr. Kain, in honor of your second visit, I’d like to invite you to have“shuan yangro u” at Dong Lai Shun Restaurant tomorrow evening. You know it is instant boiled mutton.Mr. Kain: Thank you. “Shuan yangrou” of Dong Lai Shun is world renowned but I will have headache at the thought of eating mutton.Mr. Qi: What’s the matter?Mr. Kain: The prospects of importing mutton from China are not so good, as we are short foreign exchange this year.Mr. Qi: Egypt is a big market for the export of our beef and mutton. It would also be a great loss for us if you import nothing. We will have to work out a solution.Mr. Kain: Yes. I’m here to solve the problem. Shall we be able to do a barter trade?Mr. Qi: Yes, certainly. But what commodity do you have to exchange for our beef and mutton? Mr. Kain: What about cotton? China imports huge quantities of button form Egypt every year. It is possible for us to sell cotton as payment for your beef and mutton?In this dialogue, both parties consider their mutual benefits and start a successful negotiation. “Other attitude”in negotiations may be more helpful than “self attitude”. More examples are provided here.。
英语语言学论文(礼貌原则的分析)
本科生课程论文论文题目 A Linguistic Analysis on the Politeness Principle 完成时间课程名称现代语言学概论专业年级A Linguistic Analysis on the Politeness PrincipleAbstract: Politeness is a rule and a language between people and people, and it is also the most important communication tool for human beings. And in it is loaded the profound national cultural connotation. Since mankind headed into the era of civilization, polite language has been highly valued in each culture, community and group. On one hand, polite language is an indication of being elegant and civilized, and on the other hand, it is helpful to establish and maintain a good relationship between people. As an observable phenomenon, politeness is something superficial and is recognized as a norm in all societies.People in every culture are trying to be polite when communicating. Furthermore, politeness is culture-specific to some extent and a reflection of specific cultural values in the language.Misunderstandings or even breakdown may occur if the cultural differences of politeness are neglected in cross-cultural communication. So people should be aware of in communication between different cultural groups.Key words: Politeness; the most important; communication; tool; different culturesI. IntroductionVarious politeness theories have been proposed. However, the Politeness Principle proposed by Geoffrey Leech (1983) has been considered the most reasonable and influential theory so far. Leech proposed the Politeness Principle which is formulated in a general way from two aspects: 1) to minimize the expression of impolite beliefs;2) to maximize the expression of polite beliefs. And it’s so vital for our interpersonal communication that we can’t ignore it.II. Analysis on Politeness Principle2.1 The definition of politenessIt is known that being polite is a means to achieve good interpersonal relationships. In most general terms, people act politely in order to show the wish to start a friendly relation with someone,“or to maintain it if it is already existing, or to mend it if it is being threatened for some reason. Politeness can also be regarded as a restraint, some kind of social norm imposed by the conventions of the community of which we are members”(何兆熊,1995:2-3).Theorists have dug in every way to discover the ways to be polite. But there have always been exceptions in the standards put by them and cultural difference has been a main source of most of these exceptions. So the actual manifestations of politeness, the ways to express politeness, and the standards of judgment are different in different languages and different cultures.2.2 The maxims of the politeness principle2.2.1 The instruction of the maxims(1) Tact maxim (in directives/ impositives and commissves)A. minimize cost to otherB. maximize benefit to other(2) Generosity maxim (in directives and commissives)A. minimize benefit to selfB. maximize cost to self(3) Approbation maxim (in expressives and representatives/assertives)A. minimize dispraise of otherB. maximize praise of other(4) Modesty maxim (in expressives and representatives)A. minimize praise of selfB. maximize dispraise of self(5) Agreement maxim (in representatives)A. minimize disagreement between self and otherB. maximize agreement between self and other(6) Sympathy maxim (in representatives)A. minimize antipathy between self and otherB. maximize sympathy between self and other2.2.2 The relationship between the maximsIt is clear that each maxim is accompanied by a sub-maxim, which is of less importance. These support the idea that negative politeness (avoidance of discord) is more important than positive politeness (seeking concord). In fact, Tact maxim and Generosity form a pair, just like two sides of a coin. Tact maxim states how one treats others and Generosity maxim states how one treats himself. On one hand, sometimes the illocution is such that the Tact maxim alone is relevant. In yet other cases, the Generosity maxim appears to apply without the Tact maxim: for example, Could I have more X? (Leech,1983: 131-151).And he also thinks that the Generosity is less powerful than the Tact maxim, but more polite. Then he points out in Japanese society, and more particularly among Japanese women, the Modesty Maxim is more powerful than it is as a rule in English-speaking societies, where it would be customarily more polite to accept a compliment “gracious” (e.g. by thanking the speaker for it) rather than to go on denying it, but English-speakers would be inclined to find some compromise between violating the Modesty Maxim and violating the Agreement Maxim.Finally, he makes a conclusion that there is an obvious trade-off between different maxims of the Politeness Principle. In this way, a maxim of politeness may overdue the Maxim of Quality.2.3 CharacteristicsA. GradationsGradations of politeness can be demonstrated in various linguistic expressions. In fact, all the grades form a continuum. Generally, the grade of politeness is in direct proportion to the degree of the indirectness of such expressions. The grades of politeness are also manifested and measured by employing the cost and benefit scale (e.g. I was wondering if you could possibly be so kind as to lend me your dictionary for just a few minutes?).B. ConflictsSince there are so many maxims and sub-maxims that play roles in deciding the Politeness Principle, it is only natural to expect them to conflict one’s to follow the principle.C. AppropriatenessThe feature of appropriateness means that one should follow the Politeness Principle by using linguistic expressions according to the demands of context.2.4 ConversationThen here comes questions, how to open and close a conversation and how to turn taking. Well, Adrian argues that there are many ways of beginning a conversation or other talk-exchange. One is to start out with no preliminaries whatsoever: “Something’s wrong with the fax machine.” Another is to preface our remarks with an opening, like “Hey,” “Excuse me,”“Say,’…”“You know,”“Know what?”But probably the most common opening in casual conversation is the greeting. As for closing a conversation, the end of normal conversation consists of a pre-closing sequence, where the participants more or less to close, followed by a closing section, where they actually do close. For example, 1.Well, it’s been nice talking t you… 2.Say hello to Joan for me… (Pre-closing); 1.See you. 2. Goodbye. Bye-bye (Closing). And for turning taking, he says that the person who starts speaking after the greetings are over in fact initiates the substance of the conversation by taking the next turn. And one influential analysis has proposed that turn taking is controlled by three principles: 1) The speaker “selects”the next speaker. 2) The first to talk becomes the speaker. 3) The speaker continues his or her own remarks.Well, all the behaviors should obey the Politeness Principles, thus creating a friendly talking atmosphere.2.5 CommunicationJohn J.Gumperz points out that although not all communication is linguistic, language is by far the most powerful and versatile medium of communication; all known human groups possess language. Unlike other sign systems, the verbal system can be made to refer to a variety of objects and concepts. At the same time, verbal interaction is a social process in which utterances are selected in accordance with socially recognized norms and expectation.Then in Benjamin Bailey’s essay, he figures out that the communication of respect is a fundamental dimension of everyday, face-to-face interaction. Strategies for paying respect include acts of “involvement politeness”and acts of “restraint politeness”.Involvement politeness includes those behaviors which express approval of the self or “personality” of the other. It includes acts which express solidarity between integrators – e.g. compliments, friendly jokes, agreements, and demonstrations of personal interest, offers, and the use of in-group identity markers. Restraint politeness includes actions which mark the interactor’s unwillingness to impose on others, or which lessen potential imposition.And in my point of view, we can not only use a language as a communication tool, but we can also use gestures or body languages to communicate with others, especially when you are not fluent in the language or can’t speak it. We all know that body language is as equal important as spoken language.However, I can’t ignore the fact that there truly exist some differences between different cultures. For example, when someone thinks highly of your clothes, he says: “Your dress looks nice on you.”The Chinese people may say “Not at all”“Where? Where?” But it may sound strange to the native speakers, and the native speaker may respond like that “Thank you!” In terms of body languages, they are not exactly the same. For example, when people from the western countries greet each other by embracing and kissing on the face, but in China, people usually shake hands, and both the two motions are conveying friendliness.III. ConclusionAs we all know, being polite is so vital in our communication that we can’t ignore it. To conclude, politeness is a characteristic of culture to some extent. What one needs to do is to explore the specific values of the cultures concerned. That is to say, when we are communicating with people from different cultures, it is best to consult what is appropriate in their culture and act accordingly, so as to avoid misunderstandings and pragmatic failure.IV. Bibliography[1]Akmajian,Adrian&Demers,Richard & Farmer, Ann & Hanish, Robert. Linguistics: an Introduction to Language and Communication [M].Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press & the MIT Press, 2008.389-391[2] Bailey, Benjamin. Communication of Respect in Interethnic Service Encounters [A]. Linguistic Anthropology [C]. Ed. Alessandro Duranti. Wiley-Blackwell, Second Edition, 114-123[3]Gumperz, J John. The Speech Community [A].Linguistic Anthropology[C]. Ed. Alessandro Duranti. Wiley-Blackwell, Second Edition,63[4] Leech, G., in Principles of Pragmatics [M] London: Longman, 1983. 131-151[5]陈佑林，何举纯. 普通语言学概论[M].华中师范大学出版社,2010. 121-129[6]何兆熊.Study of Politeness in Chinese and English Cultures[J]. 上海外国语大学学报，1995，(5):2-3。
英语作文如何培养礼貌品质
英语作文如何培养礼貌品质Cultivating politeness in English writing is not only about mastering grammar and vocabulary but also about adopting a respectful tone and courteous demeanor. Here are some strategies to enhance politeness qualities in English composition:1. Use Polite Language: Incorporate polite expressions such as "please," "thank you," "excuse me," and "I'm sorry" appropriately in your writing. These phrases demonstrate respect and consideration for the reader.2. Addressing Others: Address individuals with appropriate titles and names, such as "Mr.," "Mrs.," or "Ms.," followed by their last name. Avoid using overly familiar terms unless you have a close relationship with the person.3. Avoiding Offensive Language: Refrain from using offensive or derogatory language that may offend ordisrespect others. Be mindful of cultural sensitivities and avoid stereotypes or discriminatory remarks.4. Be Considerate: Consider the feelings and perspectives of your audience when expressing opinions or discussing sensitive topics. Use language that is inclusive and respectful of diverse viewpoints.5. Responding Politely to Feedback: When receiving feedback or criticism, respond with gratitude and humility. Avoid becoming defensive or dismissive, and instead, acknowledge the input graciously.6. Maintain Professionalism: In formal writing contexts, maintain a professional tone and demeanor. Use appropriate salutations and closings in emails or letters, and adhereto formal writing conventions.7. Practice Active Listening: In collaborative writingor communication, actively listen to others' input and acknowledge their contributions. Show appreciation fortheir ideas and insights, even if you may disagree.8. Expressing Empathy: When discussing sensitive topics or addressing challenging situations, demonstrate empathy and understanding towards others' experiences and emotions. Use language that conveys sympathy and support.9. Resolving Conflicts Peacefully: In cases of disagreement or conflict, approach the situation with a diplomatic and conciliatory attitude. Seek common ground and strive for a resolution that respects all parties involved.10. Continual Improvement: Reflect on your writing regularly and identify areas where you can improve in terms of politeness and courtesy. Seek feedback from peers or mentors to help refine your communication skills.By incorporating these strategies into your English writing practice, you can cultivate a stronger sense of politeness and respectfulness in your interactions with others. Remember that effective communication is not just about conveying information but also about buildingpositive relationships through considerate and courteous language.。
礼貌的语用分析
海南师范大学外国语学院2012级《英语语言学概论》课程论文题目：礼貌的语用分析(Analysis on the politeness in Pragmatics)姓名：蒋小慧学号： 201203010409专业：英语年级： 2012级系别：英语系完成日期： 2014年12月指导教师：范会兵Analysis on the politeness in PragmaticsAuthor: Jiang Xiaohui Supervisor: Fang Huibing (Foreign Language college, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158)AbstractNowadays，the world gradually become a whole and people communicate with each others more frequently. However, verbal communication is n‟t an action about one person, it happens at least between two people to make our communication more harmony and successful. Therefore, people who apply language to communicate must obey some basic pragmatic principles. Politeness Principle is important for us to apply and obey when we want to talk with others in our daily life. In this passage, I will clarify the development of politeness principle, its main contents and evaluation.Key words: pragmatics, Politeness Principle, Cooperative Principle, face礼貌的语用分析作者：蒋小慧指导老师：范会兵（海南师范大学外国语学院，海口，571158）摘要：在当今社会，世界逐渐融为一体，人们的言语交流也越来越频繁。
积极,消极礼貌策略
第第湖北财经高等专科学校学报201022卷Vol.226期NO.6Journal of Hubei Financial and Economic College 年12月25日Dec.25，2010商务英语中的礼貌原则探析陈丽（福建师范大学外国语学院，福建福州350007）[摘要]本文以礼貌原则及其理论为基础，分析了积极礼貌策略及消极礼貌策略在商务英语中的具体应用，从而有助于促进国际商务交往活动的顺利进行。
[关键词]礼貌原则;积极礼貌策略;消极礼貌策略;商务英语[中图分类号]H31[文献标识码]A[文章编号]1009-170X(2010)06-0053-03[收稿日期]2010-10-20[作者简介]陈丽(1973-),女,福建福清人，福建师范大学外国语学院商务英语系助教、硕士。
礼貌是一种社会现象，是人类社会文明的标志之一，存在于各种不同的社会与文化中。
礼貌原则是进行有效商务沟通不可或缺的一种原则基调。
一、“礼貌原则”及其理论基础在西方“礼貌”理论研究体系中颇有影响的理论应该是Geoffrey Leech （1983）的“礼貌原则”以及Brown &Levinson （1978）的“面子论”。
Leech 在Grice (1975)的合作原则基础上，提出了礼貌原则(the Po-liteness Principle)，认为在语言交际中说话人和听话人表示礼貌的同时应尽量地减少不礼貌的表达方式。
Brown &Levinson 的礼貌理论以Goffman （1967）“面子”理论为基础，尝试对礼貌（politeness ）进行阐释说明。
人有两种不同面子：正面子（positive face ）以及负面子(negative politeness)。
前者是指在各种交际场合，人们都希望自己的思想，言论或行为得到别人的理解、认可、赞许或崇拜。
后者是指人们希望自己的行为不受到他人的阻碍或干预从而使得自己的面子不受到威胁或伤害。
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Positive Politeness Strategies in the Communication
Theory Introduction
In this paper, I would like to focus on the usage of the positive politeness strategies in oral communication. Then what is positive politeness strategies? To clear up the theory, we should take the terms, such as face, politeness theory into consideration.
Politeness theory, which is developed by Levinson and Brown, is based on the concept that people have a social self-image and meanwhile, people consciously project and try to protect it. This sense of self-image is referred to as “face.” And the theory holds that people use various politeness strategies to protect the face of others. Under politeness theory, there is a positive and a negative face. Positive face is the need to be concerned, reflecting the desire to have one’s self-image accepted by others. While negative face is the need to be independent, reflecting the desire not to be imposed on by others.
According to a person is dealing with another’s positive or negative face, the politeness strategies will differ, that is positive politeness strategies and negative politeness strategies. As to positive politeness strategies, it leads the requester to appeal to a common goal, and even friendship, by orienting to preserving the positive face of other people, briefly, it emphasizes the closeness between speaker and hearer in the communication.
Using Positive Politeness Strategies in Oral Communication
In order to make sense of what is said in communication, take my word for it, the positive politeness strategies should be given priority for its potential benefits.
On one hand, the usage of positive politeness strategies is a good way to avoid being refused. To a great extent, the positive politeness strategies orients to preserving the positive face of the listener in the communication. Since the self-image of listener is concerned, he is likely willing to cooperate with the speaker, thus making the communication continuous. For example:
A: You must be hungry, it is a long time since breakfast. How about some lunch ? B: Good idea.
In the conversion , it seems that A really cares about B, actually, A is using positive politeness strategies to make his invitation being accepted.
On the other hand, the usage of positive politeness strategies is a good way to reach a consensus in the communication. The positive politeness strategies emphasizes the closeness between speaker and listener. Linguistically, the strategies will include the usage of nicknames and shared dialect or slang, even the expressions of admiration. Since people get closer, a common goal can be easily achieved. For example:
A: What lovely roses! I wish ours looked like that. How do you do it?
B: Oh, you like it ? it is kind easy …
In the conversation, A is using the kind word to narrow the distance, at the same time, they reach a consensus that is they are both flower lovers.
From above, using the positive politeness strategies can easily make the request being accepted and reach a common goal, thus making the communication quite smooth going.
Now and then, the misunderstanding across cultures is so dramatic and at such an impolite level, that it is necessarily to choose the appropriate and suitable politeness strategies according to the different cultural contexts. Only in this way can we can avoid misunderstandings and make the communication more smoothly, thus promoting greater friendship in the days to come.。