大学英语修辞学课件2

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英语修辞及举例说明【优质PPT】

It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.
言语上的反语往往需要配合上下文来理解，它不尽然表达批评或讽刺，有些时候也能表达赞扬和幽默。
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My love is like a red, red rose2
Metaphor 暗喻
对两种具有共同特征的事物或现象进行对比；所不同的是在形式上，暗喻中本体和喻体之间多通过Be 动词来联系。省掉比喻词。
明喻：Life is like an unexplored river, full of twists and turns, great beauty and dangerous surprises .
提喻的本体与喻体之间的关系是局部—全体，具体—抽象之间的关系，而换喻的本体与喻体之间的关系更为复杂。
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类比 analogy
将两类本质上不同的事物之间的共同点加以比较，
在形式上很像比喻，也用比喻词。常用来阐释复杂的概念。
类比最常见的句型为 A is to B as C is to D
The friendly gardner had a lot of thyme(time) for the woman.
那位和善的园丁留了许多百里香（与“时间”谐音）给那个女人。
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矛盾修辞法 oxymoron
用两种不调和、甚至截然相反的特征来形容一项事物，在矛盾中寻求哲理，以达到修辞效果。它是反论的一种浓缩形式。
Can enemies become mortal friends ? 敌人能成为不共戴天的朋友吗？

大学英语修辞学第二章

The book Rhetoric falls in three parts treating respectively (1) the nature of rhetoric, (2) invention, and (3) arrangement and style. two categories of arguments based on the kinds of proof: artistic and inartistic. Inartistic proofs external evidence such as witnesses, contracts, evidence based on torture. Artistic proofs three means of persuasion:
about education: Education is the savior of the world. The teacher should explain principles and provide examples as models; The teacher should guide his students to the acquisition of practical wisdom. Contribution: His trained a large amount of political figures, and statesmen, promoted the practical use of rhetorical arts.
Pathos--emotional appeal The effects of emotional appeal include moral anger, ambition, excitement, fear, happiness, pity, jealousy, etc. Emotional appeal depends on the skillful and witty handling of language.

英语修辞学Ss' handouts2

English Rhetoric Chapter 2Reading 3I am more than angry. I did not give birth to my one and onlyson to have him snatched away from me 18 years later. My child has been loved and cared for and taught right from wrong and will not be fed into any egomaniac’s war machine.Our 18-to 25-year-olds have not brought this world to its present sorry state. Men over the age of 35, down through the centuries, have brought us here, and we women have been in silent accord.Well, this is one woman, one mother, who says No. I did not go through the magnificent agony of childbirth to have that glorious young life snuffed out.Until the presidents, premiers, supreme rulers, politburos, senators and congressmen of the world are ready to physically, as opposed to verbally, lead the world into combat, they can bloody well forget my child.Unite mothers！Don’t throw your sons and daughters away.Sometime, somewhere, women must say No.No. No. No. No. No. Never my child.(Louise M. Saylor, Washington Post, Jan.28, 1980)Reading 4In informal situations, we often overgeneralize from the facts: “She’s never on time”; “Advertising is only a pack of lies.”A little consideration shows us that in reality all-or-none, black-or-white situations are rare; reality is more accurately described in terms of finer shadings and degrees. Most readers are aware of this, and although they will accept and make statements like the above uncritically enough in conversations, they are suspicious of them in writing.Be especially cautious in using terms like “all”, “always”, “everybody”, “nobody”, “never”, “none”, “only”and “most”. Before making such all-inclusive statements, make sure that they are justified. If there are any exceptions to some assertion you make, modify your language to make it more accurate. Don’t say that all young people have such and such a disadvantage: “some” or “many” might be more accurate. Before you say that almost all the schools in that area have very poor educational facilities,ascertain from some reliable source whether more than 80 percent actually do;otherwise you are not really justified in saying it. Keep in mind that the English vocabulary provides you with a wealth of qualifying terms (some, few, often, to name only a few) and choose those that most accurately describe the number, extent, and frequency of the facts you are asserting.Exercise twoⅠ. Identify the reasoning pattern used in each of the following passages.1.There seems to be a general assumption that brilliant people cannotstand routine, and that they need a varied, exciting life in order to dotheir best. It is also assumed that dull people are particularly suited fordull work. We are told that the reason present-day young people protestso loudly against the dullness of factory jobs is that they are bettereducated and brighter than the youth of the past. (Eric Hoffer, “DullWork”)2.The cases of Adolf Beck, of Oscar, of the unhappy Brooklyn bank tellerwho vaguely resembled a forger and spent eight years in Sing Sing[State Prison in New Y ork] only to “emerge”a broken, friendless,useless, “compenstated” man—all these, if the dignity of the individualhas any meaning, had better have been dead before the prison door everopened for them. This is what counsel always says to the jury in thecourse of a murder trial and counsel is right: far better to hang this manthan “give him life.”(Jacques Barzun, “In Favor of Capital Punishment”)Ⅱ. Fill in each blank with an appropriate preposition.Emotional fallacies appeal directly (1)_______ the human frailties(2)_______ the audience: some (3)________their prejudices, some (4)________ their vanity, some (5)________their national pride, others(6)_______their desire to emulate people they admire. Because(7)______this, they exert great persuasive force. These fallacies should beavoided (8)______writing (9)______essentially the same reason that you shun slanting: they deceive your readers. Remember how often you have felt cheated because an advertiser convinced you to buy an expensive, ineffective product (10)______ playing (11)______your desire to be attractive (12)______the opposite sex. Using such tactics(13)_______argument can only have short-range effectiveness; yourcommitment should be to make a lasting impression (14)______your readers.(Michael E. Adelstein and Jean G..Pival: The Writing Commitment, 2nd ed. 1980, pp. 328-329)III. An elementary acquaintance with the general patterns of inference can help writers in two ways.,1.It can make them aware of the premises that underlie an argument.Analyze the following example and provide its major premise:“There is a school ahead. Here we come across a traffic sign onwhich there are school children.”2.It can also help a writer check the validity of his line of reasoning.Examine the following example, point out its fallacy and provide possible remedies:Some elected officials are bribe-takers.Smith is an elected official.Therefore, Smith is a bribe-taker.IV. Identify the fallacies of pathos in each of the following paragraphs as “Ad Hominen”, “Name calling”, or “Bandwagon Appeal”with the help of a dictionary.1.Many advertising slogans urge readers to buy something so that they becomeassociated with the majority of people or with a particular prestigious group: “Beer belongs,”“Camels aren’t for everybody (but then, they don’t try to be),”“John the Pepsi generation,”“The car for the people who think,”“长龙，只为少数派的宣言”.2.When challenged by an opponent to discuss military spending, a politicianaccuses the opponent of alcoholism.3.He (the male) is a half dead, unresponsive lump, incapable of giving orreceiving pleasure or happiness; consequently he is at best an utter bore, an inoffensive blob, since only those capable of absorption in others can be charming.。

英语主要修辞手法PPT课件

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Metonymy (转喻/借代）
e.g. The pen (words) is mightier than the sword (forces/war). Beware of bottle. (谨防喝醉酒) The red eyes walked into the classroom. He has a good ear for music. 他善于欣赏音乐。 He has a sharp tongue.他言语尖刻。
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Hyperbole: (夸张）
e.g. He almost died laughing. Hamlet: I love Ophelia: forty thousand brothers could not, with all their quantity of love, make up my sum. His eloquence would split rocks. My legs weigh three tons.
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Simile：(明喻）
It is an expressed likeness, which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic (特性)in common. To make the comparison, words like as, as...as, as if and like are used to transfer the quality we associate with one to the other.
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Synecdoche (提喻）

大学英语修辞学第二章培训课件

Aristotle's Modes of Persuasion
According to Aristotle, persuasion can be achieved through three modes: ethos (credibility), pathos (emotional appeal), and logos (logical reasoning). Each mode plays a vital role in effective communication.
Celebrity Endorsements
Utilizing the credibility and influence of famous personalities to promote products or causes.
Effective Call to Action
Encouraging immediate response or purchase by utilizing strong and compelling language.
Alliteration, assonance, and rhyme schemes that enhance the musicality and impact of the text.
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Narrative Techniques
Foreshadowing, irony, and suspense that engage readers and create memorable experiences.
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Expand Vocabulary
Increase your repertoire of words to effectively convey emotions, ideas, and arguments.

《英语修辞学》第二章

这幅巨型壁画把古希腊以来的50多个著名的哲学家和思想家聚于一堂包括柏拉图亚里士多德苏格拉底毕达哥拉斯等以此歌颂人类对智慧和真理的追求赞美人类的创造力
English Rhetoric
Chapter Two Brief History of Western Rhetoric
By Song Pingfeng
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/NewInfor/html/30370.htm • 拉斐尔最著名的壁画是为梵蒂冈宫绘制的《雅典学院》。这幅巨型壁画把古希腊以来
的５０多个著名的哲学家和思想家聚于一堂，包括柏拉图、亚里士多德、苏格拉底、毕达哥拉斯等，以此歌颂人类对智慧和真理的追求，赞美人类的创造力。
• 然而，柏拉图对修辞的看法并非一成不变。海德格尔在1924-1925年讲授《智者篇》时提出，柏拉图的修辞观念有一个演变的过程，其轨迹可以通过比较三篇对话勾勒出来（Brogan：3-15）。《高尔吉亚篇》代表了早期柏拉图全盘否定修辞的态度；海德格尔认为，在《智者篇》中，柏拉图的态度有了重大变化，转而相信修辞对“不在”（non-being）或者说“存在”之外的领域的关注应当在哲学中占据一席之地，辩证（dialectic）能够克服修辞的欺骗倾向，使之为哲学服务；《斐德若篇》(Phaedrus)则是发生这一转变的关键场所。在这篇对话中，柏拉图着重探讨了真理（ aletheia ）与语言（logos）的关系。
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1.4 Some Ancient Greek Rhetoricians and their theory
(1). Corax (科拉克斯)
Corax of Syracuse and his students Tisias(蒂西亚斯，有名的捉刀人，专门为诉讼者撰写诉状) were the first rhetoricians in history. His theory: the first is a theory of how arguments should be developed from probabilities; the second is their first concept of organization of a message. According to Corax, legal arguments should consist of four parts: introductory, explanation, argumentation and conclusion. (Corax 将法律演说分成四个部分：前言，解释，论辩和结论。)

英语修辞学(Rhetoric).ppt

Division of Rhetoric
Communicative Rhetoric 交际修辞 (Negative Rhetoric 消极修辞) -- To add to people’s knowledge; accurate, plain; Aesthetic Rhetoric 美学修辞 (Positive Rhetoric 积极修辞) -- To get people affected, or moved; vivid, brilliant, colorful.
The three uses of similes:
Descriptive描述型明喻; Illuminative启示型明喻 ; Illustrative说明型明喻;
;
Descriptive 描述型
Her lips were red, her locks 头发were yellow as gold. Pop looked so unhappy, almost like a child who’s lost his piece of candy. The big black flies hit us like bombs.
What is Rhetoric?
Why Do We Learn Rhetoric?
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
To understand the author’s intention better. To find out the common ways people know the world and ways people express themselves. To appreciate the beauty, explicit or not, of the language. To learn how to achieve an effective communication.

英语修辞手法PPT课件

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Metaphor
• A simile is different from an ordinary, literal comparison.
– Jim looks like his brother Billy. ×
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Metaphor
• It is like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.
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Simile
• The world is like a stage. • Jim was as cunning as a fox.
• Words in a dictionary are like objects in a museum; They are interesting but merely on display. When words are used in communication, they come to life and go to work for us.
sense because life does not have any
color.
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• There are syntactic devices, lexical devices, phonetic devices.
• 句法 • 词汇 • 音韵
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Rhetorical Devices
• There are quite a number of rhetorical devices. Each device has its own form and characteristics, and its own way of achieving effect. Sometimes two or more devices can be used together for greater impact.

大学英语写作讲座一：修辞PPT课件

大学英语写作讲座：修辞
1. Figures of Speech Semantically ( 语义修辞) 1. 1 明喻 (simile)：用like, as, as...as, as if(though) 或用其他词语
指出两个不同事物的相似之处
➢ That boy is as dumb as an oyster
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1.9 夸张（hyperbole）
运用丰富的想象，过激的言词，渲染和装饰客观事物，以达到强调的效果。
➢ My blood froze.
➢When I told our father about this, his heart burst.
➢My heart almost stopped beating when I heard my daughter’s voice on the phone.
➢ Intelligence is like a river. The deeper it is the less noise it makes.
➢ He jumped as if he had been stung.
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1. 2暗喻 (metaphor)：
用一个词来指代与该词所指事物有相似特点的另外一个事物 .
➢ Good technique in medicine and surgery means more quickly—cured patients, less pain, less discomfort, less death, less disease and less deformity.
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1.10 矛盾修饰 (oxymoron)

高级英语第二册修辞汇总PPT课件

within the circle of adults. Grandmother
Koshak 乞im求plored, "Children, let's sing!"
17. A second wall moved, wavered, Charlie
Hill tried to support it, but it toppled on him,
8. Richelieu Apartments were smashed apart
as if by a gigantic fist, and 26 people perished.（Para. 20）simile、personification
9. …and blown down power lines coiled like black spaghetti over the roads.(Para.28)
conspicuous.(P16)
•
—Synecdoche（提喻）
6、 As the storks flew northward the Negroes were marching southward—a long,dusty column,infantry,screw-gun batteries,adnthen more infantry,four or five thousand men in all,winding up the road with a clumping of boots and a clatter of iron wheels.(P18)
6. “We can batten down and ride it out,”
he said. 封舱
安然度过

英语修辞手法及练习ppt课件

→eg.My only worry was that January would find me hunting for a job
again.
病原体侵入机体，消弱机体防御机能，破坏机体内环境的相对稳定性，且在一定部位生长繁殖，引起不同程度的病理生理过程
Pun ＆ Parody ＆ Oxymoron
ironysy ＆ nesthesia ＆personification
• 7.讽刺（irony）:用含蓄的褒义词语来表示其反面的意义，从而达
到使本义更加幽默，更加讽刺的效果。
→eg .It would be a fine thing indeed not knowing what time it was in
→eg.Iam sorry, I am so sorry, I am so extremely sorry.
• 15、拟声（onomatopoeia）是摹仿自然界中非语言的声音，其发音和所描写
的事物的声音很相似，使语言显得生动，富有表现力。
→eg .She banged the door after her.
• 10.双关语（pun）是以一个词或词组，用巧妙的办法同时把互不关
联的两种含义结合起来，以取得一种诙谐有趣的效果。
→eg .Napoleon was astonished.”Either you are mad, or I am,”he
declared. “Both，sir!”cried the Swede proudly.
.
病原体侵入机体，消弱机体防御机能，破坏机体内环境的相对稳定性，且在一定部位生长繁殖，引起不同程度的病理生理过程
• 6.She may have tens of thousand of babies in one summer.(from“ Watching Ants”)。(persnification)

大学英语英语修辞简介2PPT课件

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6)Dead metaphor
Eg: 1. a “bottle neck”
2. When they reached the foot of the mountain, they found a running brook.
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3. Personification(拟人)
20213ຫໍສະໝຸດ 1. Simile(明喻)
Definition: A figure of speech in which one thing is likened to another, in such a way as to clarify and enhance an image.
(In dealing with simile, an additional point should be noted: the two things compared are in different kinds and are said to be similar in one respect only, and not in all ways.)
train service.
2. Her hostility melted.
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3)Adjectival metaphor
Eg: 1.There is no rosy prospect for him.
2. He has the microwave smile that warms another person without heat.
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1) like和as型
eg: 1.The cheque fluttered to the floor

《英语语法修辞》PPT课件

2.2.3 The Differences in Essence 明喻是“相类”的关系，隐喻是“相合”的关系。明喻的相
类，只是一种客观的比较，是人的一种认识。而隐喻的相合，则是一种主观上带有内涵意义的融合，是人的审美力与艺术想象力的体现。 Eg. “女人似花”，女人是女人，花是花，各有所指。这一句话只是表达了说话者对女人与花之间关系的一种认识。若说“女人是花”，就不一样了，女人与花不再分指，而是在“美丽”这一内涵上融合为一了。
4. Transferred Epithet
4.1 Definition Transferred Epithet is a figure of speech in which the
epithet is transferred from the appropriate noun to modify another to which it does not really belong. 4.2 The Structures 4.2.1在形式上修饰甲名词的修饰语，在语义上转移修饰乙名词。 4.2.2在形式上是某一名词的修饰语，在语义上却是另一动词（非谓语动词）的修饰语。其作用相当于一个状语。 4.2.3句中形式上修饰事物的修饰语，在语义上修饰人物，表示人的特征或状态等。 4.2.4有时修饰转移的来龙去脉不明显，这时要借助上下文对文章进行理解，进行联想和引申。
2.2 Comparison between “simile” and “metaphor” 2.2.1 The Similarities 隐喻与明喻在下列两点上是完全相同的：
2.2.1.1比喻要在两种不同的事物之间相比； 2.2.1.2两种不同的事物相比时只在一点上相似，不在多点上
相似。 2.2.2 The Differences in Forms 隐喻与明喻不同的地方从表现形式上来说也是两点：

大学英语专业修辞学讲义chapter2(2)

Brooks &Warren Modern Rhetoric • e.g. He saw a ship on the horizon. liner, schooner, tanker, junk
2.4.2.2 Referential- Connotative (Emotive)/LiteralFigurative / Conceptual-Reflected 所指-内涵(情感)/ 字面-比喻/ 概念-联想
• a rainy day→ a day when it rains a rainy day→ hard times • iron A man of iron: strong-willed, determined To iron … out: to settle a difficulty or problem • A avalanche of letters or requests a spate of inquires flooded with requests for help • The ties of friendship Common interests form a bond between them.
In objective, scientific or factual writing, words are mostly referential; in personal narration, subjective description or in poetry, more words are likely to be emotive/referential/reflected . Emotive words are often used to move the feelings, to impress or to persuade. It is important to know when to use referential words and when to use emotive words, especially the latter.

英语修辞学Teaching material 2 for Ss

Chapter 2 The Three Aesthetic Criteria in English RhetoricEnglish rhetoric has long-standing traditions tracing back to Aristotle (382-322BC) and even earlier. The three aesthetic criteria, logos, pathos and ethos, are its fundamental elements.The three aesthetic criteria discussed here are confined to their basic meanings and applications in writing and speaking, equivalent to Chinese―逻辑‖、―情感‖and ―人格‖respectively. Although they can be analyzed separately, these three appeals work together in combination toward persuasive ends.2.1 Logos2.1.1 Logos and logical thinking•Logos refers to the use of logical reasoning to persuade the audience or readers.Effective logical reasoning comes from sound logical thinking, expressed in relevant material, proper organization, coherent sentences, and words that appropriately convey one’s intended meanings. Examine the following example t aken from a student’s composition:To us Chinese, learning a foreign language is not an easy thing. After all, it is different from our mother tongue. Others can learn it well, why not we?Improved paragraph:Learning English is not an easy thing for a Chinese student like me, because English is quite different from my mother tongue in spelling, pronunciation and grammar. However, since many other Chinese students have learned English well, why can’t I?2.1.2 Formal logic and syllogism•Formal logicIn formal logic there are two basic approaches people often use for logical reasoning: deduction and induction.Deduction is the process of drawing a conclusion from propositions命题known to be true, or accepted as true, or assumed to be true. The typical expression of deductive inference is the syllogism 三段论(法).Induction is the opposite process of reasoning, the conscious mental process by which we pass from the perception of particular phenomena (things and events) to the knowledge of general truths. The sense perception is expressed logically in the singular or particular judgment.•SyllogismSyllogism represents deductive reasoning in a pattern consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. The essential feature of deduction is the necessary character of the connexion between the antecedent or premises and the consequent or conclusion. Granted the truth of the antecedent judgments, the consequent must follow; and the firmness of our assent to the latter is conditioned by that of our assent to the former.Common patterns of syllogism:1. The hypothetical syllogism:Major premise: If P, then Q If P, then QMinor premise: P Not QConclusion: Therefore Q Therefore not PExample:If the lines of a poem do not rhyme, the poem may be called blank verse; as this poem is rhymeless, you may call it blank verse.2. The either-or syllogism:Major premise: Either A or B (not both) Either A or BMinor premise: A Not AConclusion: Therefore not B Therefore BExample:We could have driven here or taken a taxi. Unfortunately our car broke that day, and so we went there by taxi.3. The categorical syllogism:Major premise: All M’s are P’sMinor premise: S is an MConclusion: Therefore S is a PExample:All men are mortal creatures. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is a mortal creature.2.2. Pathos2.2.1 Changes in the connotation of pathosOriginally, the term ―pathos‖ referred to the emotions in general which a speaker tried to arouse in the audience. In modern rhetoric, it ranges from the study of the psychology of the audience or readers to the application of technology to convince them by emotional appeals.The effects of emotional appeals include moral anger, ambition, excitement, fear, happiness, pity as well as various other feelings. By playing upon such feelings, the writer intends to change the beliefs and behavior of his or her readers.2.2.2 Pathos in use todayEffective appeals to the emotions depend upon the skillful — often witty handling of language, frequently accompanied by exposure and eloquence.•Exposure evokes moral indignation – sometimes humorously, sometimes angrily – by condemning the unjust reality or revealing the difference between how things should be and how they are.Please read a letter in your handout 1, Reading 3 that shows how an American mother resorts to this skill to move others to stand against the US unjust war in Vietnam.•Eloquence refers to language used powerfully and fluently to appeal to people’s nobler emotions--the sense of honor, love of one’s country and hometown, desire to reach toward virtue. Eloquence i s often used emotively, to express one’s emotions and evoke the sympathy of the audience on solemn occasions or issues of great significance. In this respect, the speech made by Martin Luther King, Jr., on August 28, 1963, at the March on Washington can be regarded as a fine sample of ―the emotional crescendo of an emotional day‖2.3 Ethos2.3.1 Multifaceted meanings of ethosThe three basic aspects:•It generally refers to character, sentiment, moral nature: The guiding beliefs, standards, or ideals that characterize or pervade a group, a community, a people, or an ideology; or the spirit that motivates the ideas, customs, or practices of a people, an epoch, or a region.•It refers to the complex fundamental values that underlie, permeate, or actuate major patterns of thought or behavior in any particular culture, society, or institution.•In Aristotelian philosophy, it refers to the character or personality of a human being, especially with respect to a balance between the passion and caution, or the con trast between one’s thought and action.2.3.2 Ethos in rhetoric•In modern rhetoric, ―ethos‖ demonsrates itself in the following ways:1. On serious occasion or disputes of principle, ethos takes as its basis a thorough going study of various schools of philosophical views on different values, different ways of living and different world outlooks.2. In ordinary speech or writing, ethos refers to the personal standing, academic authority, and moral qualities of the writer or speaker, used to guarantee or even raise the writer’s or speaker’s credibility and acceptability in the eyes of the readers or audience.2.4. Fallacies2.4.1 Fallacies in logical reasoningThe term ―fallacy‖ as used in logic refers to the following two cases:1. When a writer makes misleading statements by withholding facts, slanting evidence, drawing an unjustified inference, or arguing beside the point.2. When a writer’s (or speaker’s) attempt to reach a sound conclusion is thwarted because he does not know enough about a situation or because he makes a mistake in interpreting his information.•Some of the common errors in logical reasoning:Non sequitur不根据前提而下的论断:the phrase means ―it does not follow‖ and applies to errors of reasoning in which the conclusion does not follow from the evidence presented. Sometimes a step in reasoning has been omitted, and the fallacy can be corrected by supplying the missing link. But sometimes the conclusion is drawn from evidence that has no bearing on the issue.For example, once a Scot argued that Shakespeare must have been a Scot, and when asked for his evidence, he replied, ―The ability of the man warrants the assumption.‖ Reasoning of this kind is also called ―false assumption‖.Begging the question (故意回避论点时)以假定为论据的狡辩The phrase means to assume the truth of a point that needs to be proved.Examples:―This senseless language requirement should be dropped.‖―The foreign language requirement, because it is valuable, should be retained.‖These two views, contradicting each other, are both begging the question, i.e. they both assume what they should prove. There is an extended form of begging the question called ―circular reasoning‖ 循环论证.For example:―T.S. Eliot is the best 20th-century poet, because the best critics say so.‖Post hoc, ergo propter hoc:牵强附会The phrase in Latin refers to the generalization from insufficient evidence as ―based on this supposition, therefore, on account of it‖. For example:―Since they abolish ed capital punishment, the crime rate there has increased, which tells that capital punishment must be restored.‖This conclusion is not well grounded, for although the abolition can be a factor to the crime increase, other factors, such as economic depression and increase of unemployment, must also be observed.2.4.2 Fallacies related to pathos•Fallacious use of pathos arises chiefly from two types of relations:1. When one lacks evidence, and tries to please people’s ears by emotional appeal.2. When one is poor in logical reasoning, and resorts to sophistry or merely personal attack to divert the readers’ or audience’s attention from the grounds of the argument.•Two common errors in the use of pathos:1. Ignoring the question:This is a broad term for various irrelevant arguments. Some people merely resorts to using fine words or other emotional means to persuade the audience to arrive at a judgment without examining the evidence. What a governor said in defense of his administration can be taken as an example:My administration is not corrupt because the state budget is balanced, and my devotion and dedication to the fine people of this great state is therefore evident.2. Argument about a person:This fallacy is also called ―Personal attack‖ or ―Argument Ad Hominem‖, which resorts to abusing the character of an opponent rather than disputing his opinion.Example:The public should not take seriously Dr. Mason’s plan for upgrading county health service. He is a former alcoholic whose wife recently divorced him.2.4.3 Fallacious use of ethos•Blind worship of one’s own standard of ethos1. Since there are differences in ethos in different regions, different c ountries and different groups of people, the correct attitude is to respect each other, and seek the common ground while reserving differences, otherwise there will be disputes, quarrels, conflicts and wars.2. Certain people of power tend to compel other people and even other countries to accept their standard of ethos. For example, according to Hitler, his nationality and his ideology were superior to all others and had the right to lord it over them.•The practice of ―sham ethos‖ 虚假的1. Business advertisements are important means to promote sales, but there are people who resort to false propaganda in their ad campaigns. For example, some companies declare their products are a ―famous brand‖ or fabricate names which sound or appear similar to t hose of world fame. However, such dealing is dishonest and will definitely cause troubles.2. Name cards are useful in communication, but some people print a long list of titles and positions on a small card so as to raise their status. However, this may produce a negative effect, because some of the titles or positions are not so significant.Assignment: See your Handout 1: Exercise Two。