文体学 Varieties
英语文体学教案
英语文体学教案1.1 Definition of StylisticsStylistics has long been considered as a highly significant but very discussible branch of learning. It is concerned with various disciplines such as linguistics, semantics, pragmatics and literature. The word stylistics( ?styl‘ component relates stylistic to literary criticism, and the ?istics‘ component to linguistics). So stylistics is the bridge of linguistics and literature. Stylistics is the st udy of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation.‖ (文体学是从语言学的角度研究文学语篇)Stylistics is an interdisciplined branch of learning which studies various differences between formal and informal, between deviant and normal, between magnificent and plain, between professional and popular, between foreign and domestic, between this and that individual.1.2 The Development of StylisticsThe date when stylistics became a field of academic inquiry is difficult to determine. However stylistics is often considered as both an old and a young branch of learning. It is old, because it orig inated from the ancient ―rhetoric‖. The famous ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle all contributed a lot to this branch of learning. It is young ,because the word ―stylistics‖ first appeared only in 1882, and the first book on stylistics was written by a French scholar Charles Bally in 1902 and was published in 1909: Traite de Stylistique Francaise. This book is often considered as a landmark of modern stylistics. Consequently, a number of more coherent and systematic works of both a theoretical and a practical nature were published in the field.The subject of study in Bally’s time was oral discourse. Bally considered that apart from the denotative meaning expressed by the speaker4, there was usually an “overtone” which indicated different “feelings”, and the task of stylistics was to find out the linguistic devices indicating these feelings.Later , the German scholar L.Spitzer(1887-1960), began to analyze literary works from a stylistic point of view, and therefore, Spitzer if often consider4ed as the “father of literary stylistics”.From the beginning of the 1930s to the end of the 1950s stylistics was developing slowly and was only confined to the European continent. From the end of the 1950s to the present time, modern stylistics has reached its prosperity.1.3 Definitions of StyleSo style is an integral part of meaning. It gives us additional information about the speaker‘s/writer‘s regional and social origin, education, his relationship with the his/her reader, his feelings, emotions or attitudes. Without a sense of style we cannot arrive at a better understanding of an utterance 1）.Written---spoken in terms of channel2）The Differences between Formal and Informal Language 3）modern----archaic in terms of time4）normal----deviated in terms of degree of novelty5）. common---professional in terms of technique（专业）1.What‘s stylistics?2.What does stylistics study?3.Say something about the development of stylistics.4.Give examples to explain ―Proper words in proper places makes the true definition of a style.‖5.What does style study?6.Give example to illustrate the differences between spoken-- written,formal–informal, modern–archaic, norm—deviated, common---professional.第二章1. Definition of meanings of meaningAccording to Leech (1974 English linguists), meanings of meaning can be broken into seven kinds:1).Denotative meaningIt refers to literal meaning, refers to diction meaning.(super meaning) 词的概念意义。
文体学复习材料汇总
文体学复习材料汇总Part 1 Stylistics: Definitions―Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which applies the theory and methodology of modern linguistics to the study of Style.―Simply defined, Stylistics is a discipline that studies the ways in which language is used: it is a discipline that studies the styles of language in use.‖―The stylistics we are discussing here is Modern Stylistics, a discipline that applies concepts and techniques of modern linguistics to the study of styles of language use.‖General stylistics concentrates solely on the general features of various types of language use. It studies the stylistic features of the main varieties of language, covering the functional varieties from the dimension of fields of discourse (different social activities), formal vs informal varieties from the dimension of tenors of discourse (different addresser-addressee relationships), and the spoken vs written varieties from the dimension of modes of discourse (different mediums). ?Meanwhile, general stylistics covers the various genres of literature (fiction, drama, poetry) in its study. But it focuses on the interpretation of the overall characteristics of respective genres, with selected extracts of literary texts as samples. Literary stylistics: concentrates solely on unique and overall linguistic features of the various genres of literature. （考点）Part 2: Views on Language/doc/7411926710.html,nguage as a social activity. Language is also a social phenomenon, or institution, whereby people communicate and interact with each other.2.The philosophical view of Language or A language is related to the actual occurrence of language in society –what are called language activities. All utterances (whether a word, a sentence, or several sentences) can be thought of as goal-directed actions. (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969) Such actions as carried out through language are Speech Acts. Social activities in which language (either spoken or written) plays an important role such as conversation, discussion, lecture, etc., are Speech Events.‖/doc/7411926710.html,nguage is often compared to a Code, a system of signals or symbols used for sending a Message, a piece of information. In any act of verbal communication (both spoken and written, primarily spoken), language has been regarded as a system for translating meanings in the Addresser‘s (the speaker‘s / writer‘s) mind into sounds / letters, i.e., Encoding (meaning-to-sound/letter), or conversely, for translating sounds/letters into meanings in the Addressee‘s (the hear‘s / reader‘s mind, ie Decoding.(sound / letter-to-meaning), with lexis and grammar as the formal code mediating between meanin g and sound / letter.‖―But we must keep in mind that, unlike other signaling codes, language code does not operate in a fixed way – it is open-ended in that it permits generation of new meanings and new forms (such as metaphorical meanings, and neologisms); ie it is in a way creatively extendibl e.‖―Text, then, is verbal communication (either spoken or written) seen as a message coded in a linear pattern of sound waves, or in a linear sequence of visible marks on paper.‖Part 3: Text―A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length,that forms a unified whole. It may be the product of a single speaker/writer (e.g. a sign, a letter, a news report, a statute, a novel), or that of several speakers (e.g. a piece of conversation, a debate).‖A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not. The connection among parts of a text is achieved by various cohesive devices, and by semantic and pragmatic implication.‖材料Examine the following conversation, find out whether linguistic units in it are overtly cohesive or not.A: See who that is. B: I‘m in pyjamas. A: OK.Linguistic units in the conversation are not overtly cohesive. In this text, the relevance of B‘s remar k to A‘s first remark is conveyed by pragmatic implication. ―I‘m in pyjamas‖ implies an excuse for not complying with A‘s command (= ―No, I can‘t, because I‘m in pyjamas.‖) A‘s second remark implies that he accepts B‘s excuse and undertakes to do himself w hat he originally asked B to do (= OK. I‘ll go myself and see.‖ Texts are therefore recognized as appropriately coherent in actual use. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.Part 4: Aspects of the Speech Event―Language is transmitted, patterned, and embedded in the human social experience. So it is both possible and useful to discern three crucial aspects of a speech event: the substantial, the formal, and the situational.‖Contextual factors that are socially, regionally or situa-tionally relevant to the production and interpretation of texts fall into the two following categories:1) Characteristics of the User of language: a. Age; b. Sex; c.Socio-regional or ethnic background; d. Education2) Characteristics of the Use of language in situation: a. Medium of communication –speech or writing; b. Setting –private or public; c. Role-relationship between addresser and addressee – the degree of intimacy; the degree of social distance;d. Purpose for which language is used,e.g. to inform, to command, to express feelings, to establish social relations, etc.; e. Subject matter (of limited stylistic significance.Practice 4. Analyze the following conversation(Jenny comes to Alan‘s house. She is conducting a survey for the government.)Alan: Won‘t you come in, Miss-er-.Jenny: Cartwright, Jenny Cartwright.Alan: I‘m Alan Marlow. (Alan shows Jenny into the living room.)Alan: Oh won‘t you make yourself comfortable, Jenny?(After some minutes of talk, which is omitted here)Jenny: Mr. Marlow … Alan: Call me Alan. (The Marlows, Episode 11)The context shows clearly that Alan and Jenny are total strangers. The conven-tional address form between strangers is Title + Sur-name (Mr./Miss So-and-so). But Alan addresses the girl by her first name and later asks her to do the same. His adoption of first-naming is an example of the manipulation of language. It is a move towards a friendlier relationship, indicating that Alan does not want their encounter to be formal and distant, as it is customary between strangers. In contrast, Jenny chooses to remain formal and distant by addressing Alan as ―Mr. Marlow‖.Part 5: Language varieties and function1.影响文体变化的因素多种多样，主要可以归为三个方面：第一方面是讲话内容(field of discourse)，第二是讲话方式(mode of discourse), 第三是讲话人和听话人的地位关系(tenor of discourse)2.The Ideational / Referential function serves for expressing the speaker‘s/writer‘s experience of thereal world, including the inner world of his/her own consciousness.The Interpersonal or Expressive/Social function serves to establish and maintain social relations, for the expression of social roles, and also for getting things done by means of interaction between one person and another.The Textual function provides means for making links within the text itself and with features of its immediate situation.Part 6: StyleDefinition:*Style may refer to a person‘s distinctive language habits, or the set of individual characteristics of language use.*Style may refer to a set of collective characteristics of language use.To be exact, we shall regard Style as the language habits of a person or group of persons in a given situation.Part 8: The Concern of Stylistic StudyStylistics: It is a discipline that studies the sum of stylistic features characteristic of the different varieties of language.Stylistic study concerns itself with the situational features that influence variations in language use, the criterion for the classification of language variety, and the description and interpretation of the linguistic features and functions of the main varieties (both literary and non-literary) of a language – here, of the Modern English language.*The Need for Stylistic Study1) Style is an integral part of meaning.Practice 5. Analyze the following text.Policeman: What‘s your name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Dr. Poussiant. I‘m a physician.Poli ceman: What‘s your first name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Alvin.The word ?boy‘ may be used to address a male inferior. In above conversation, the form is used to address a physician, who is usually accorded high respect in the US and is addressed as ?Dr. So-and-so‘ (Title + Surname). Insistently using the form ?boy‘, the white policeman shows his racist contempt of and prejudice against the black people.2) Stylistics may help us to acquire a ?sense of style‘.3) Stylistics prepares the way to the intrinsic study of literature.Session 5 Varieties of Language5.1 Two kinds of varieties: Dialectal varieties, Diatypic varieties (语言变体或语域) DIALECTAL VARIETIES, commonly called DIALECTs, are language varieties that areassociated with different users of the language. As users in a society can be defined in terms of their individual, temporal, regional, and social affiliations, and their range of intelligibility, there are individual, temporal, regional, social and standard varieties respectively. These are relatively permanent features of the language user in a speech event.DIATYPIC VARIETIES, commonly called REGISTERs, are language variations that are associated with the different use to which they are put. Such varieties do not depend on the people who use the language, but on the occasion when it is used.Different types of language are selected as appropriate to different types of occasion. The choice is determined by the convention that a certain kind of language is appropriate to a certain use. The occasions can be classified along three dimensions, each presenting an aspect of the situation and the part played by the language in them. In this way, registers may be distinguished according to field of discourse, mode of discourse and tenor of discourse.Temporal Dialect: A variety which correlates with the various periods of the development of language.Social Dialect: A variety associated with certain social group.1) Socioeconomic status varieties 2) Ethnic varieties3) Gender varieties 4) Age varieties 5) Standard Dialect5.3 Registers语域1) Field of Discourse语场is the linguistic reflection of the purposive role of the language user, --the type of social activity the language user is engaged in doing in the situation in which the text has occurred.a. Some roles are non-specialist in nature and relate to non-specialist fields such as 'establishing personal contact' or 'phatic communion'. They are likely to have related topics: weather, health, news, etc.b. Field of discourse can be more or less restricted in language.c. The language of legal documents and the language of religious observance are also highly situation-tied.d. Technical fields have their own special vocabulary and favorite grammatical patterns.e. More radical grammatical differences are found in thelanguage of legal documents.2) Mode of Discourse 语式is the linguistic reflection of the relationship that the language user has to the medium of communication.3) Tenor of Discourse 语旨is the linguistic reflection of the personal relationships between speaker/writer and hearer/reader—called personal tenor, and of what the user is trying to do with language for/to his or her addressee (s) -- called functional tenor.*Personal tenor is concerned with the degrees of formality of the language used.*Functional tenor is concerned with the intention of the user in using the language.4) The Notion of RegisterThe concurrence of instances of contextual categories: field, mode, tenors of discourse-produces text varieties called registers, which can be defined in terms of phonological, lexical, and grammatical features.Registers are distinctive varieties of language used in different types of situation.5.5 The Social Meaning of Language Varietiesl) the period of development of the language in which the speaker/ writer spoke or wrote it (temporal dialect);2) the geographical area he or she is from (regional dialect);3) the social group he or she belongs to (social dialect);4) the range of intelligibility of his or her language (standard or non-standard dialect);5) the activity he or she is engaged in (field);6) the medium he or she is using (mode);7) the social relationship existing between him or her and hisor her addressee (s) (personal tenor);8) the intention in his or her mind in conveying the message (functional tenor);9) the distinctive language habits he or she has shown (idiolect).Session 6 Linguistic Description* The level of lexis and grammar1) Morphology and syntaxGrammar studies the sentence structures in a language, and the way they function in sequences. Traditionally, grammar consists of two parts: morphology (the internal structure of words and word-formation rules) and syntax (external relationships of words in a sentence).2) Lexicology studies the choice of specific lexical items in a text, their distribution in relation to one another, and their meanings.* The levels of semanticsSemantics (here) studies the overall meaning of a text, the meaning derived not from the formal properties of words and structures but from the way sentences / utterances are used and the way they are related to the context in which they are used / uttered.6.4 Procedure of linguistic description1) Work systematically through the text and note down points we feel of some stylistic significance respectively under the various headings.2) Quantify the frequency of a linguistic feature.3) Assess the importance of stylistic features.4) Make statements about the overall linguistic picture of the text in question, bringing together diverse features to show howthey form a coherent, integrated pattern, and making judgments about or interpreting the significance of such patterns in relation to the context of the text as a whole.Session 9 Formal vs Informal Language9.3 Functional tenor and degrees of formality1.Functional tenor tells us the addresser‘s intention of using the langua ge.2.Certain functional tenors can hit any point on the personal tenor formality continuum.*an expository speech: formal, with many passive constructions and a technical vocabulary; or, informal, in an ad-lib manner, with personal anecdotes, reference to the audience.*an insult: formal (formal structure and vocabulary, calm or deliberate delivery) or informal. 9.4 Martin Joos‘ classi fication (Martin Joos, 1967) The range of formality:frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.The frozen level: In Joos' analysis, the frozen level is used for written legal documents or highly solemn speech which consists of memorized sentences that must be repeated verbatim. These might include quotations from proverbs or ritual expressions which are part of a formal ceremony.The formal level is used for public addresses such as lectures or speeches where the audience is not known to the speaker personally or where personal acquaintance is not acknowledged. This level requires much attention to form (with well-planned thematic structure and phonological, lexical and syntactical coherence), and allows little or no interaction. It is typically marked with the use of may place of might , can (in 'May I present Mr Smith ?'). The speaker is usually considered to be an authority and, therefore, has higher status than the hearers for thatparticular event.The consultative level is used at less formal gatherings such as committee meetings where status is still fairly clearly designated, but where participants interact. There is still considerable attention to form (with rather clear pronunciation, accurate wording and complete sentences), andparticipants may not know each other well. It may be necessary for speakers to elaborate and givea significant amount of background material.In contrast, the casual level is used among friends, or peers who know each other well enough that little elaboration is necessary. Participants pay very little attention to form (shown by the use of slang and ellipsis as in 'Been a good thing if...') and concentrate totally on content and relationship. One of the markers of this level is the use of 'Come on' with the implication 'Consider yourself among friends'.The final level identified by Joos is 'intimate', language used between people who see each other daily (family members for instance) and share the majority of their daily life experiences. As a result, language is unelaborated and conversation may be meaningless to outsiders because of its telegraphic quality. No attention is paid to form.e.g.1) My beloved parent has just passed to his heavenly reward.2) My dear father has just expired.3) My father has just passed away.4) My dad has died.5) My old man just kicked the bucket. --- by Martin JoosJoos' categories present an efficient way of looking at degrees of formality. It is fairly easy to distinguish the frozen styleof (written) legal documents with their Latinate diction and impersonal syntax, from the intimate style of (spoken) interchanges between close friends, with their slang and elliptical syntax. But it is not easy to categorize the intervening degrees, or relate them to linguistic features. So most linguists agree that the situation is more complex than Joos imagined and see the range as a continuum from the most formal to the most Situation and Formality informal/intimate, with an infinite number of stopping places in between.Session 10 Spoken vs Written Language10.1 Striking differences1) Hearer/Reader involvement.*Generally most speeches assume the presence of the hearer *Non-verbal signals like facial expressions of incomprehension or boredom, feedback in the way of laughter, applause and even booing (feedback from audience attening a lecture and the like).* A written text normally presumes the absence of the reader, and direct feedback from the reader is not possible.2) Linguistic explicitness*In speech, the participants rely heavily on their common background knowledge and the immediate context for much of their information.*The immediate context can eliminate the ambiguity or dark information carried by implicit linguistic structures, bring some words with concrete referents, and recrysta-lize the denotations of some otherwise abstract words.*Writing, generally, does not rely on the immediate context for understanding. Nor can the writer normally hope that his /her readers share with him/her much of the personal backgroundknowledge needed for the understanding of the written text. On the contrary he/she must give great explicitness to whatever he/she is trying to say on paper.3) Preparedness*Writing is on the whole more ?careful‘ than speaking.*Permanent record, a clear idea about the subject matter and logical arrangement of thought, compact and self-contained.*Speech, esp. conversation, is often spontaneous. Random shift of topic, a general lack of conscious planning, features of hesitation, slips of the tongue, overlapping or simultaneous speech.10.2 Stylistic differencesSpoken texts contrast with written texts in terms of grammatical, lexical and phonological/ graphological features.Gregory(19107):1) Distinctions amongst speechSpeech can be spontaneous (such as casual conversation) or non-spontaneous (as what actors and teachers are doing).*Within spontaneous speech, there is conversing (with the participation of others) versus monologuing (with no interruption from others). The latter kind of sustained spontaneous speech is found in classroom teaching, TV interviewing, radio commenting, and the talking between scholars.*Non-spontaneous speech can be sub-categorized as reciting (such as story telling, poem recitation and singing) and as the speaking of what is written. In literate cultures, most non-spontaneous speech is the speaking of what has been written.2) Distinctions amongst writingThe text that has been written may be written to be spokenas if not written, or written to be spoken, or even written not necessarily to be spoken.a) Texts written to be spoken as if not written such as the lines in a drama, sound like real speech. But they are speeches that have been planned and prepared, whereas ordinary speech is spontaneous; and their situations are more compact and self-contained than those of conversing and monologuing.b) Texts written to be spoken with no effort to conceal their written origin such as scripts for sermons, speeches, lectures, news bulletins and commentaries, can be really the reading of an article or essay but the hearer is not in the same situation as the reader where he/she can turn back a page to check his/her understanding. Hence their repeating of the main points in a slightly different way and their manipulation of prosodic and paralinguistic features for the spoken mode.c) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken with no relation to the spoken mode such as a telephone book or a dictionary may be described as written to be read.d) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken but with a relationship with the spoken mode such as dialogue in a novel, may be categorized as written to be read as speech (as if heard); and the interior monologue related to such texts may be categorized as written to be read as if thought (as if overheard).10.5 Mode, field, and tenors●The mode of discourse is primarily related to the textual function of language. Yet it has some relations with the ideational function of language by way of field of discourse: some fields such as legal statutes and dictionaries tend to occur in the written mode; some fields such as telephone conversation and spontaneous speech tend to occur in the spoken mode.●Mode also has relations with the interpersonal function of language by way of personal and functional tenors of discourse: the written texts tend to be formal and the spoken tend to be informal; the phatic function is common in the spoken as is the descriptive function in the written.。
文体学论文——精选推荐
Stylistic Analysis of a Conversation系名称：外语系年级：12 级班级：二班*名：***学号：**********Stylistic Analysis of a Conversation IntroductionConversation is without doubt the most commonly used kind of language, and therefore, it is a variety familiar to the majority of English-speaking people. This variety is used in everyone’s daily life. And it has its own distinct stylistic features. So it is necessary for us to analyze it from the perspective of general stylistics.The material for analysis is a conversation between two housewives who are in the same age rank <mid-thirties> and have known each other for some time. The occasion is that B is invited to A' house for an evening chat over coffee.The conversation focused on the lives of two housewives. Therefore such conversation regularly lacks an overall theme. So the participants may chat about some irrelevant and random things. Changes of subjects can be often found. Stylistic Analysis1. At the Phonological LevelPhonology refers to speech sounds in a language. Here, the main focus is on stress, elision, pause, para-linguistic devices and overlapping of words.Conversation can be divided into two major kinds: spontaneous conversation and non-spontaneous conversation. This conversation belongs to the former one. Words to be spoken sound very natural and spontaneous(a general lack of planning).1.1 StressStress refers to the prominence of sounds. It is a very important way of expressing different feelings or implying different meanings in oral communication. It has the following functions in this conversation:a) To show emphasis:I'll be all right in a MINUTE.It implies“It is in a minute(not too long)I'll be all right.”STUpid I had er about five thousand BOOKS to take back to senate HOUSE YESterday.It emphasizes how stupid I was,what,where,and when.b) To show surprise,anger, doubt, horror or excitement:You got a COLDIn this sentence, “cold”is stressed, which indicates A's doubt as if saying “Did you get a cold? ”.1.2 ElisionElision is one of the distinct phonological style makers in conversation, which is frequently used by the speakers involved. In the conversation, the most frequent elisions are I'm ,I've, I'll, it's, I'd, hasn’t, you're, and that's. These elisions can perfectly indicate the informality of the conversation as well as intimate relationship between two neighbors.1.3 PausePause can be seen as a signal of ending a thought unit. In English,there are voiced pauses (um, er,ah) , and silent pauses-silent breaks between words, such as the pause at the end of a sentence, the pause between a dependent clause and its main clause, and the pause between words or phrases. In this conversation, both kinds of pauses can be frequently found./= short pause //=long pauseIn this conversation, the usually overuse of pauses may reflect certain feeling or attitude of speaker, such as nervousness, hesitation, confusion, or uncertainty.1.4 Para-linguistic devicesA andB in the conversation often resort some para-linguistic devices, such as laughters (laughs for/laughs quietly for-)and monitoring signals(such as you know, well, I thought, what have you got ) to help convey the meanings and feelings.For example, "no, I thought you sounded as if you were"1.5 Overlapping of words or phrasesOverlapping of words or phrases of A and B is also very common in this conversation.*=overlapping of words of two participantsWhen one person comes up with a new idea, he may not always wait for his turn till the other person finishes his sentence. Instead, he utters his words in a high pitch and a quick tempo till the other person stops.1.6 Normal non-fluencyNormal non-fluency is very common in this , which is resulted from overlapping of words and other factors such as sudden change of subject matter, hesitation, nervousness, and a lack of planning of the conversation. For example:No, just a bit sniffy cos I'm-I am cold2. At the Lexical LevelLexis refers to the choice of words and expressions and here, we will focus our attention on the use of colloquial words and general words.2.1 Use of colloquial wordsIt is normal and natural to see so many colloquial words in this conversation, such as yeah, got, just, well, cos(because), etc. These words can express the speaker's attitude or surprise, disgust, or some feelings. Colloquial words are also the signal of informality.2.2 General wordsGeneral words are also used very frequently in this conversation, such as do, clour, go, and, nice, etc. These general words may not convey specific meanings, but there is no need to be so specific in daily conversation. And probably general meaning is what the participants require.3. At the Syntactic/Grammatical LevelSyntax refers to the rules for ordering words into sentence. In this part, we mostly concentrate on sentence types and voice.It is found that sentences (as far as length and structures are concerned) in the conversation are not complicated to understand. More minor sentences and short sentences are used, which are style makers of informality.3.1 Preference for interrogative sentencesInterrogative sentences appear frequently in this short conversation. Conversation is the communication between at least two people. It mainly takes the form of asking and answering. In this way the oral communication between people can proceed. Thus, apart from declarative sentences, which are used most frequently in all varieties. Interrogative sentences are frequently used here. There are 7 interrogative sentences in all 30 sentences, occupying 23 percent of the total number of sentences, which is much higher compared with other varieties.3.2 Use of active voiceIn conversations, speakers usually are the major active characters. Their words mainly express their own feelings or narrate an event. In this way, active voice will be the most suitable voice to achieve such effects. In this conversation, most of sentence are in active voice. And most of them have such beginning “I + verb ”. For example, you got, I thought, you want, I got, it is, I get, and so forth. According to this, we can assume in the process of conversation the speaker is usually the most important factor, who will conduct or lead the proceeding of conversation.3.3 Frequent use of elliptical sentencesDaily conversation is not as formal as the written variety. Elliptical sentences are used frequently. Elliptical sentences sometimes may cause inexplicitness of the language. However due to their intimate relationships, and para-linguistic means, such as gestures,laughters, or facial expressions, the characters can understand each other well. It is unnecessary to use complete sentences.4. At the Semantic LevelSemantics refers to the meaning of words or expression, and by what means the meaning is conveyed from the addresser to addressee. Here, we will touch upon some figures of the conversation.In this conversation, there are not very distinct semantic style makers.But we should not deny there are some semantic features in conversation. In fact, the occasional use figures can be found here./ No / just a / bit sniffy / cos I’m——I AM COLD /Repetition is used here. The clause of “I’m ”appeared two times, which can imply B’s doubt and nervousness./ That’s not a tinny GARment. /Understatement is reflected here. B wanted to express that this is a big garment.in the days when I was a human BEing. //*Satire can be found here.5. Contextual Factors AnalysisFirstly, the conversation all happened in informal place-A' house. Dialogues in private place must be casual and informal. Secondly, the intimate relationship among two housewives decides what they will talk about. They talked about their life trivial matters. Moreover, sometimes words may reveal the speaker's status, job, education and so on. For example,A: It /GROWS quickly//B: / YEAH/ I get very fed UP//It implies A is pregnant.Furthermore, another feature should be pointed out here. Conversation is characterized by randomness of subject matter, a general lacking of planning. The subjects, ranging from health to work, come back to garment.ConclusionWe have made a very rough stylistic analysis of the conversation, mainly concentrating on the phonological, lexical, syntactic/grammatical and semantic level and finally some contextual factors are touched upon. Taking these analyses into consideration, the conversation belongs to the informality. In this conversation, there are still some perspectives untouched upon, such as textual analysis, graphological style makers.etc. Taking these factors into consideration, it still needs our further researches.。
文体学Varieties of language部分
Individual dialect --- Idiolect
A specific person will display his or her own features of speech or writing habits.
The traits of speech or writing often point to a person’s individuality which leads to a person’s style.
VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE
语言变体
Outline
Two kinds of varieties Dialects Registers The mutual dependence between register
and dialect The social meaning of language varieties
The choice is determined by the convention that a certain kind of language is appropriate to a certain use.
The occasion can be classified along three dimensions, each presenting an aspect of the situation and the part played by the language in them.
and they yield two main kinds of situational varieties: dialectal and diatypic.
DIALECTAL VARIETIES commonly called DIALECTs are language variations that are
文体学变异举例分析
NAME: Duan Siyuan CLASS: English 3 NUMBER: 24Language Deviation1.Phonological deviation:a)杜甫《秋兴八首（二）》《秋兴》八首之二是写诗人身在孤城夔州，从落日的黄昏坐到深宵，翘首北望，长夜不寐，心总是牵挂着长安，从而抒写怀念故国的情怀。
全诗如下：夔府孤城落日斜，每依南斗望京华。
听猿实下三声泪，奉使虚随八月槎。
画省香炉违伏枕，山城粉堞隐悲笳。
请看石上藤罗月，已映洲前芦荻花。
分析：此处“落日斜”的“斜”字本应该念“xié”，但是在此处却应该念“xiá”，因为念“xiá”可以和下一句的“望京华”的“华”字押“a”韵，使得诗歌更加富有韵律感，念起来朗朗上口。
b)'Cause if love was money, you'd be yelling cha-ching. ------You’re MyZingAnalysis: Here, the word cause should have been the word because, but itdrops the initial part of the word to make the lyric of the song shorter andeasier to sing.2.Graphological deviation:a)《走不出逝去的心境》------尹才干香烟缭绕香烟缭绕古刹依旧罄声依旧冥想中的那条小径依旧蜿蜒在清寂的禅意里钟声落响在光秃秃的石板上轮回在来去匆匆的季节里弯弯曲曲的几条小径足够尼姑们走完一生但永远也走不出她们逝去的心境分析：●诗人尹才干截取寺庙中尼姑的日常生活为创作背景，从中获取进入心灵奥秘的隐秘话语，尼姑在古刹中每天从早到晚敲罄打钟、参禅打坐、念佛诵经，陪伴香烟缭绕到老。
●这首诗的外形显然就是寺庙中烧香的香灰炉，而最上面的弯弯曲曲的‚香烟缭绕‛八个字就是寺庙中烧香炉跑出的烟，如此文本与情境、意境和谐交融，形象生动，正是在这种烟雾沉沉中，往事才重上心头，人的心境也就异常孤独而又敏感。
英语文体学 1
English Stylistics英语文体学Course IntroductionCourse title: English StylisticsCourse hours: 2 per week, 34 in totalAssessment:1. Attendance2. After-class preparation for related topics3. In-class performance and involvement4. Quiz5. Final examTeaching Objectives:Have a systematic knowledge of the features of different varieties of languageMake appropriate use of language in our communicationFamiliarize ourselves with the stylistic features of the different genres of literatureDeepen our understanding and appreciation of literary worksOffer useful ideas on translation and language teachingTextbook: English Stylistics(英语文体学)Other reference books:Introduction to English Stylistics《英语文体学引论》（丁往道王佐良）Essentials of English Stylistics 《英语文体学要略》（王守元）Practical English Rhetoric《实用英语修辞》（吕煦）English Stylistics: A New Course book 《新编英语文体学教程》（董启明）Course content:本课程从英语学习的实际要求出发介绍有关英语文体和语体的基础知识，属于普通文体学的范畴。
文体学复习问题
Questions for English Stylistics1.What does general stylistics study?2.Why should we learn stylistics?3.What are the three steps of stylistic analysis?4.What are the functions of stress? Give examples.5.In what varieties of English the exclamation mark is most or least frequent?Why?6.Explain the functions of long and short paragraphs, and indicate in what varietiesof English short/long paragraphs are most frequently found.7.Give examples to illustrate the differences in pronunciation between standardBritish and American English.8.Give examples to illustrate the spelling differences between British and AmericanEnglish.9.Which of the two terms, American English and the American language, is moreappropriate, and why?10.What are the main differences between spoken English and written English?11.What is the danger if you use too much formal language in your dailyconversation?12.Can you use some colloquial words in writing? If so, what kind of writing shouldit be?13.What factors affect the degrees of formality?14.What is the effect of impersonal language?bel the following sentences according to the five degrees of formality:Would you be so good?Your silence is requested.Do shut up!Quiet, please.Put a sock in it!16.Are you speaking differently from or the same from your parents? Give examplesto illustrate your points.17.How did African American English come into being?18.Give examples of taboo and euphemisms.19.What are the basic stylistic features of conversation at the lexical level?20.What are the basic stylistic features of conversation at the semantic level?21.What are the most noticeable features of the vocabulary of casual conversation?22.How many types of public speeches are there?23.How do you make an effective public speech?24.What are the general stylistic features of public speeches?25.What are the general stylistic features of news reports?26.What are the general stylistic features and function of newspaper headlines?27.What types of variety may possibly co-occur with journalistic language? Why?28.What is the function of advertising language?29.How many parts does an advertisement usually consist of? And what are thefunctions of each part?30.Find some interesting advertisements from the Internet and present them to theclass with you own explanations.31.What is generally required of EST? Why?32.Tell how and why EST prefers impersonal sentence patterns?33.Why are the present tense and passive voice often used in EST?34.Why do we say that legal English appears extremely conservative and even oddin form? What archaic words are often found in legal documents?35.What punctuation marks occur the least frequently in legal documents?36.What is your favorite type of novel? Why?37.What are the general stylistic features of the language of a novel?38.What is the difference between poetry and prose?39.What are the commonly found stanzas in English?40.How does a poem appeal aesthetically to the reader?41.What is the function of lexical repetition? And what is the function of syntacticalrepetition?42.What effects are achieved through the manipulation of sounds?43.EST and Legal English are two widely different varieties, but there seem to existsome common features in style. Point them out.ment on how the author’s selection of details of description and choice ofwords contributed to the atmosphere of the novel.“The Bottoms” succeeded to “Hell Row.” Hell Row was a block of thatched, bulging cottages that stood by the brookside on Greenhill lane.There lived the colliers who worked in the little gin-pits two fields away. The brook ran under the alder trees, scarcely soiled by these small mines, whose coal was drawn to the surface by donkeys that plodded wearily in a circle round a gin, and all over the countryside were these same pits, some of which had been worked in the time of Charles II, the few colliers and the donkeys burrowing down like ants into the earth, making queer mounds and little black places among the corn-fields and the meadow. And the cottages of these coalminers, in blocks and pairs here and there, together with odd farms and homes of the stockingers, straying over the parish, formed the village of Bestwood.Then, some sixty years ago, a sudden change took place. The gin-pits were elbowed aside by the large mines of the financiers. The coal and iron field of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire was discovered. Carston, Waite and Co. appeared. Amid excitement, Lord Palmerston formally opened the company’s first mine at Spinney Park, on the edge of Sherwood Forest.D. H. Lawrence: Sons and Lovers45.Analyze the metrics of the following poem by W. B Yeats:When you are old and gray and full of sleep, And nodding by the fires, take down this book, And slowly read, and dream of the soft look Your eyes had once, and of their shadows deep; How many loved your moments of glad grace, And loved your beauty with love false and true, But one man loved the pilgrim soul in you, And loved the sorrows of your changing face;。
文体学五种文体
Consultative style
Definition:Consultative style is used for conducting most business matters,such as talking with strangers,buying things in a shop ,asking the way in the sreet. Features: A.This vatiety reflects the most basic and common features among 5 varieties. B.Sentences are not too long,words are plain and are often arranged in normal order. C.Some grammatical phenomena not preferred like participles used as adverbials. D.No variation in diction. E.Sentences often begin with:well,but,so...
第5讲_英语文体学
Session 5 Varieties of Language
黄新祥, 湖北经济学院外国语学院 , 2010年春季学期
Lectures on Stylistics
Contents 5.1 Two kinds of Varieties 5.2 Dialects 5.3 Registers 5.4 The Mutual Dependence Between Register
We have pointed out that when language is used, it is always used in a context. What gets said and how it gets said is always dictated by a variety of situations. Some situations seem to depend generally and fairly consistently on some regular sets of language features, so that distinctive varieties of language occur. These sets of features are historically formed and are changing overtime; but they remain relatively stable at a certain period of history governing people's language activity. As a study of the linguistic features that characterize the main varieties of a language, stylistics needs to define its variety categories. Since the 196o's, hopefully, studies in this area have made considerable progress. Modern linguistics has worked out a system of variety categories to help isolate these consistent relationships between particular features
英语文体学-Chapter-3-Varieties-of-LanguagePPT课件
Modern Eng. (1500~now)— W. Shakespeare; Samuel Johnson
.
7
3.2 Dialects
3.2.3 Regional dialect
Different speech patterns in different places
Accent (伦敦小伙儿模仿全球24种英语口音) English— British Eng.
American Eng. Differences: phonology, graphology,
vocabulary, grammar (p.27-28)
.
8
3.2 Dialects
3.2.4 Social dialect
and dialect
5
Social meaning of language
varieties
.
2
3.1 Two kinds of varieties
Language is used in a context
Language in use is determined by a variety of situations
discourse
.
5
3.2 Dialects
3.2.1 Individual dialect — Idiolect
One’s own features of speech/writing habits Voice quality Pitch & stress patterns Lexical items Grammatical structures ---- xx’s language/style
英语文体学3,4
Chapter 3 Varieties of Language语言变体(varieties of language)可分为两类：一类是方言变体(dialectal varieties), 俗称方言；另一类是话语类变体(diatypic varieties), 亦称语域（register）。
方言是以语言的使用者（users）为基准而区分的语言变体；语域则是按照语言使用者对语言的使用（uses）而区分的语言变体。
因此，方言多与交际者的社会阶层、社会地位、地域、年龄、性别及所处的时代等因素有关，比较稳定；语域则多与交际者所从事的社会活动密切相关。
方言(Dialect):1) 语言使用者的个人特征（individuality）--Idiolect(语言的流利度、清晰度、表达能力大小等。
例：Mr X’s English, Mr Y’s English。
)2) 时代特征（temporal features）--Temporal Dialect3) 地域特征（geographical feature）--Regional Dialect4) 社会特征（social features）--Social DialectSocioeconomic status varieties 社会经济变体Ethnic varieties 种族变体Gender varieties 性别变体Age varieties 年龄变体5) 可理解的程度和范围—Standard Dialect方言(Dialects)具有社会指示功能，方言不仅能体现人物的地域特征，而且能反映出人物的社会地位、文化程度乃至个人性格，这一点在文学作品中最为明显语域(Register)1) Field of Discourse(话语范围/语场)Non-technical fields of discourseTechnical fields of discourse2) Mode of Discourse(话语方式/语式)Speech: conversing, monologuingWriting: texts written to be spoken as if not written/ written to be read3) Tenor of Discourse(话语基调/语基)Personal Tenor(个人基调)Functional Tenor(功能基调)1) Field of Discourse(话语范围/语场)话语范围指的是言语交际过程中发生的事情，进行的活动，论及的事情或表达的经验等，它能体现语言使用者在特定情境语境中所要实现的交际目的和作用。
文体学复习资料
文体学复习资料！1.EST: The English of science and technology.2.Pitch: Some sounds or groups of sounds in one's speech to be relatively higher orlower than others. This relative height of speech sounds as perceived by a listener is called "pitch".3.Euphemism: substituting an inoffensive or pleasant word or expression for a moreoffensive one.4.Point of view: the position of the author in relation to his subject.5.Tempo: the speed of speaking.6.Tenor of discours e: the participants, their education, social status, the role-relationship between the addresser and the addressee, the degree of intimacy, the degree of social distance.7.RP: Received Pronunciation8.Stress: the prominence of sounds9.Graphology: the writing forms, and the signs used in a text10.Associative meaning: the meanings that a word has beyond or in addition to itsconceptual meaning.11.Inverted pyramid method: the lead offers the most essential elements, telling who,what, when, where, and why (how) of the story; the second paragraph has less important information; the latter paragraphs contain still less important information. 1.What does general stylistics study?Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies style in a scientific and systematic way concerning the manners/linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels.2.What is a text? Explain the aspects of textual analysis.A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a unifiedwhole. A text is then a semantic unit, a unit not only of form, but also of meaning.Textual analysis includes the following aspects: text layout, reference, substitution, ellipsis, logical connectors, collocation, inter-sentence relationship.3.What is the difference in the effect between the use of Latinate words and that ofnative words?Latinate words often help to create the effect of coolness, dignity, formality and intellectual distance. Anglo-Saxon words are close to their hearts and emotionally charged and quite common informal.4. Say something about the differences in pronunciation between standard Britishand American English.RP differs from GA in many ways. For example, where the phoneme/ɔ/ is used in RP, it would be /ɑ:/in GA, as in hot /hɑ:t/. In RP, there is no /r/ sound before a consonant, while in GA, we usually find it as in farm /fɑːrm/, lark /[lɑːrk]/, etc.Most Americans pronounce either and neither with the vowel of teeth or beneath, while in Britain an alternate pronunciation has developed since the American colonies were established and the more usual pronunciation is now with an initial diphthong [ai].5. What are the main stylistic features of E-English?Lexically it is characterized by the economy of language which are reflected in the use of abbreviations, clippings, blendings, numbers, emoticons, smileysSyntactically it tends to be simple and direct, which is reflected in its tendency ofusing short sentences, simple sentences, minor sentences, elliptical sentences, active voice, present and present continuous tenses6. Make some sentences of your own indicating the five degrees of formality.The frozen style (有点长P64 大家有好的例子请提供！)The formal style: Your silence is requested.The consultative style: Would you be so good?The casual style: Quiet, please!The intimate style: Do shut up!7. What are the basic stylistic features of conversation at the lexical level?PPT版：The use of informal, monosyllabic, Anglo-Saxon words;Frequent use of phrasal verbs;Use of slang and jargon words among close friends, family members or people with shared knowledge;Use of slang words among people with shared knowledge;General and vague words are frequently used;Pronouns, esp. first and second person pronouns, often occur in conversation.②The use of informal, monosyllabic, Anglo-Saxon words;The use of colloquial words;The use of slang and jargon words in casual conversation;The use of general words;The use of pronouns, especially first and second person pronouns8. Say something about the types of public speeches.The informative speech, the persuasive speech, the entertaining speech, the stimulating speech9. What are the general stylistic features of newspaper headlines？The main features of headlines are as follows:（a）The omission of articles and the link verb（b）Frequent use of abbreviations（c）Present tense is often used（d）short, powerful words are often employed（e）The use of pre-modification（f）Frequent use of figures of speech10. How many parts does an advertisement usually consist of？A complete advertisement usually consists of the headline, the illustrations, the body copy, the slogan（or tag-line）, the trade-mark, and the standing details（supplementary items）.11.Why the present tense and passive voice are often used in EST?简化版：The present tense is often used to show a general truth.The passive voice is often used because it is more concise and more objective in tone.课本版：The present tense reason: because scientific writings often contain information about scientific knowledge with no specific time reference. Since the simple present tense is often used to show a genera truth, or to indicate a state, or regular action or process.The passive voice reasons: a) Scientists are more interested in the action or facts rather than the doers. b) passive sentences are usually shorter and more concise than active ones c) passive sentences sound more objective in tone.。
文体学 Varieties.ppt
as significant for people in deciding whether they
and others belong to a particular class.
b) Ethnic Varieties
Hispanic English
Affected by first language
the language of Shakespeare)
Authoritarian English (1650-1800)
Mature Modern English (1800-1920)
Late Modern English (1920-present)
3) Regional Dialect BrE / AmE (PP. 27-28) AmE
Differences between male and female
speech (Ten features of women's
language use)(Lakoff,1975):
1. hedge (sort of, kind of);
2. use (super) polite forms, indirect (would you please?
6. use hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation (including ungrammatical forms, like between you and I [standard syntax = between you and me]);
7. are poor at recounting jokes ;
Also
General American (Standard American)
文体学复习(一)
文体学复习1、Style: Manners indicating prominent linguistic features, devices or patterns, most(or least) frequently occur in a particular text of a particular variety of language.(有许多种，此为in this book, general, linguistic-oriented), P52、Stylistics:is a branch of linguistics which studies in a scientific and systematicway concerning the manners/linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels.•Literary stylistics: concentrates solely on unique and overall linguistic features of the various genres of literature. （考点）★★The development of stylisticsThe scope of studyThree crucial aspects of speech:①Substances [sounds and symbols]; ②Form; ③Situation3、Stylistic analysis: is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text (what ispeculiar to the use of language in a given text for delivering the message). This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse. Stylisticians may also wish to characterize the style of a given text by systematically comparing the language uses in that text with those in another. Thus, we may conclude that stylistic analysis is an activity which is highly comparative in nature.Practice 5. Analyze the following text.Policeman: What’s your name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Dr. Poussiant. I’m a physician.Policeman: What’s your first name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Alvin.•The word ‘boy’ may be used to address a male inferior. In above conversation, the form is used to address a physician, who is usually accorded high respect in the US and is addressed as ‘Dr. So-and-so’ (Title + Surname). Insistently using the form ‘boy’, the white policeman shows his racist contempt of and prejudice against the black people.4、Linguistic description:refers to the exploration and classification of linguisticfeatures of a given text.★每个category下面的各个分类(1) The Phonology Category:Phonology here is used to refer to the system of speech sounds in a language.(2) The Lexical Category:Lexis is used here to refer to the choice of words.(3) The Syntactic/Grammatical /Category:Syntax is used here to refer to rules for ordering and connecting words into sentences.(4) Semantic Category:Semantics is used here to refer to the meaning of words, expressions, etc. and by what means the meaning is conveyed from the addresser to the addressee.Procedure of linguistic description1) Work systematically through the text and note down points we feel of some stylistic significance respectively under the various headings.2) Quantify the frequency of a linguistic feature.3) Assess the importance of stylistic features.4) Make statements about the overall linguistic picture of the text in question, bringing together diverse features to show how they form a coherent, integrated pattern, and making judgments about or interpreting the significance of such patterns in relation to the context of the text as a whole.5、（1）Text: A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a unified whole. A text is then a semantic unit, a unit not only of form, but also of meaning.A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not. Cohesive devices:Implicit connectivityExplicit connectivity1) Transitional words/phrases2) Grammatical device①Ellipsis ②Substitution ③Coreference3) Lexical reiteration材料Examine the following conversation, find out whether linguistic units in it are overtly cohesive or not.A: See who that is.B: I’m in pyjamas.A: OK.•Linguistic units in the conversation are not overtly cohesive. In this text, the relevance of B’s remark to A’s first remark is conveyed by pragmatic implication. “I’m in pyjamas” implies an excuse for not complying with A’s command (= “No, I can’t, because I’m in pyjamas.”) A’s second remark implies that he accepts B’s excuse and undertakes to do himself what he originally asked B to do (= OK. I’ll go myself and see.” Texts are therefore recognized as appropriately coherent in actual use. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.（2）Context:Context refers to all elements of a communicative situation. (One is “linguistic context”, referring to the linguistic units preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text. The other is “extra-linguistic context” or “context of situation”, referring to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning. )Contextual factors:★①Field of discourse(语场)：the institutional setting, private or public, in which a piece of language occurs, embracing not only the subject matter in hand(正在进行中的主要的事情), but the whole activity of the speaker or participant in a setting, which corresponds to Halliday’s “ideational function” of language.②Tenor(语旨)：The participants, their education, social status, the role-relationshipbetween the addresser and the addressee; the degree of intimacy; the degree of social distance. (I t’s concerned with who is taking part in the exchange of meaning ----the relationship between the speaker and the listener, their relative status, their attitude, and their role relations.)③Mode(语式)：the medium of communication——the graphic signs [visual] or sound waves [auditory] by means of which a message is conveyed from one person to anther; Channel; channel limitation; other detailed choices, the functions of language in the particular situation.•Practice 4. Analyze the following conversation(Jenny comes to Alan’s house. She is conducting a survey for the government.)Alan: Won’t you come in, Miss-er-.Jenny: Cartwright, Jenny Cartwright.Alan: I’m Alan Marlow. (Alan shows Jenny into the living room.)(After some minutes of talk, which is omitted here)The context shows clearly that Alan and Jenny are total strangers. The conven-tional address form between strangers is Title + Sur-name (Mr./Miss So-and-so). But Alan addresses the girl by her first name and later asks her to do the same. His adoption of first-naming is an example of the manipulation of language. It is a move towards a friendlier relationship, indicating that Alan does not want their encounter to be formal and distant, as it is customary between strangers. In contrast, Jenny chooses to remain formal and distant by addressing Alan as “Mr. Marlow”.Linguistic Items6、Speech sounds:★(1) Stress:Stress refers to the prominence of sounds. It is the result of extra force used in pronouncing a particular word or syllable. a) To show emphasis; b) To show surprise, anger, doubt, horror or excitement; c) To distinguish meaning of identical words or phrases. P23(2) Pause: Pause refers to the brief interruption of the articulatory process between consecutive linguistic units such as sounds, syllables, words, phrases and sentences.a) voiced pause or filled pause; b) silent pauseFunction: P23(3) Pitch:This relative height of speech sounds as perceived by a listener is called “pitch”and to indicate different feelings or attitudes, such as agreement, doubt, surprise, delight, scorn, abhorrence, or hatred. a) The falling pitch; b) The rising pitch; c) The fall-rise pitch; d) The rise-fall pitch; e) The level pitch; f) The fall-plus-rise pitch. (各用在什么情境下，有什么作用P24~25)(4) Tempo:Tempo refers to the speed of speaking. Tempo reflected in monosyllables:a) quick and clipped syllables; b) loose and drawled syllables; c) slow and held syllables. Tempo reflected in sentences:a) the quick “allegro”; b) the slow “lendo”; c) the increasing “accelerando”; d) the decreasing “rallentando”.Function:Generally speaking, a quick tempo indicates excitement, surprise, agreement, happiness, indignation, whereas a slow tempo usually indicates confusion, emphasis,disagreement, hesitation, sadness, tiredness, low spirit or disappointment, etc.7、Graphological Items ——the study of writing system of a language Graphological level——the expression or realization of language in its writing system(1)Punctuation( the dash破折号, the colon冒号, the exclamation mark感叹号)；各自用处效果(2)Capitalization(3)Italics 斜体(4)Paragraphing（分段）：Paragraphing refers to the way in which a text isdivided into paragraphs. It is a device to reveal the relational structure in a text, the organization of the content.各自用处效果8、Lexical Items(1) General or Specific(2) Anglo-Saxon or Latinate(3) Other Lexical Items9、Syntactic/Grammatical Items(1) Clause TypesClause:A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence. It is a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contains a subject and a finite verb, often functioning as a noun, adjective or adverb.1) In terms of the clause constituents, there are 5 basic types:2) In terms of the structure of the verb phrases (if any) in a clause:①Finite clauses are clauses in which the first or the only verb phrase is a finite form.E.g. He finished his work before leaving the classroom.②Nonfinite clauses（非限定从句）are clauses whose verb phrase is non-finite,e.g. an –ing participle. He finished his work before leaving the classroom.③Verbless clauses（无动词分句）are clauses which contain no verb element, e.g.: Hundreds of people were killed in the fire, many of them children.3) In terms of functions in a sentence:①Independent clause, not subordinate to another clause.E.g. I am a teacher.②Subordinate clause is a clause which forms part of another clause as its element, or as constituent of a phrase within a clause.a)nominal clause（名词性从句）e.g. What he said is true.b)relative clause（关系从句）functioning as post modifiers of a noun phrase. E.g. People who smoke annoy me.c)comparative clause,than, asd)adverbial clauses denoting time, place, reason, etc.(2) Sentence TypesSentence:A sentence is, grammatically, the largest unit of grammatical organizationwithin which parts of speech and grammatical classes are to function.1)In terms of complexity or the number of constituent clauses:①Simple sentence consists of a single independent clause.②Multiple sentence consists of more than one clause.a) Compound sentence（复合句）consists of two or more independent clauses with no dependent clauses.E.g.: The storm is over, but the ground is still wet.b) Complex sentence（复杂句）consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clause,e.g.: Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet.c) Compound-complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses, one being compound, and at least one complex dependent clause, e.g.:Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet, and we cannot go out for a walk.2)In terms of grammaticality:①Major sentence is a sentence (simple or multiple) which conforms to the regular patterns of clause structures. (formal in style)②Minor sentence does not conform to the regular clause patterns,e.g.: Oh, if I were you!All aboard!3)In terms of function:①Declarative sentence（陈述句）②Interrogative sentence（疑问句）a)General questionb)Special questionc)Alternative questiond)Disjunctive question（反义疑问句）③Imperative sentence（命令、祈使、要求）④Exclamatory sentence（感叹句）4)In terms of sentence length:①Short sentence（casual, easy, informal, emphatic, eye-catching, to the point, effective, express a concept）②long sentence5)In terms of the beauty of structure or emphasis:①Periodic sentence（圆周句）is a sentence which suspends the completion of themain thought until(near) the end,e.g.:Every time a Cooper person is in peril, and absolute silence is worth four dollars a minute, he is sure to step on a dry twig.②Loose sentence（松散句）in contrast completes the main thought well before the end.③Balanced sentence contains two distinct halves or parts, each of about thesame length and importance,e.g.:In Plato’s opinion man was made for philosophy; in Bacon’s opinion philosophy wasmade for man.(beautiful in form, impressive in meaning; formal writings, expository and argumentative prose, public speech)10、British/American EnglishBritish English范围：EFL（mother tongue）: Britain; The Irish Republic；Australia；New Zealand；South Africa；The West Indian IslandESL：Singapore；MalaysiaThree periods: Old English, Middle English, Modern EnglishAmerican English范围：EFL：（mother tongue）The United States of America; CanadaESL：Mexico；The Philippines; Samoa（萨摩亚）History of AmE:Differences between BrE & AmE: 每项具体例子要看(1)In Vocabulary(2)In Grammar①The use of present perfect (BrE) or past tense (AmE)②The use of “have” or “have got” to indicate possession③The use of “got” (BrE) or “gotten” (AmE)④The use of different prepositions⑤The use of different expressions(3)In Spelling(4)In Pronunciation(RP=Received Pronunciation GA=General American)11、Spoken English & Written English（口头语和书面语）（1）Medium:Medium refers to graphic signs (visual medium) or sound waves (auditory medium) by means of which a message is conveyed from one person (addresser) to another (addressee).Martin Joos’ classification（2）区别：①At the lexical level②At the syntactical/grammatical level③At the phonological/graphological level④Semantically补充：Striking differences1) Hearer/Reader involvement.*Generally most speeches assume the presence of the hearer*Non-verbal signals like facial expressions of incomprehension or boredom, feedback in the way of laughter, applause and even booing (feedback from audience attening a lecture and the like).* A written text normally presumes the absence of the reader, and direct feedback from the reader is not possible.2) Linguistic explicitness*In speech, the participants rely heavily on their common background knowledge and the immediate context for much of their information.*The immediate context can eliminate the ambiguity or dark information carried by implicit linguistic structures, bring some words with concrete referents, and recrysta-lize the denotations of some otherwise abstract words.*Writing, generally, does not rely on the immediate context for understanding. Nor can the writer normally hope that his /her readers share with him/her much of the personal background knowledge needed for the understanding of the written text. On the contrary he/she must give great explicitness to whatever he/she is trying to say on paper.3) Preparedness*Writing is on the whole more ‘careful’ than speaking.*Permanent record, a clear idea about the subject matter and logical arrangement of thought, compact and self-contained.*Speech, esp. conversation, is often spontaneous. Random shift of topic, a general lack of conscious planning, features of hesitation, slips of the tongue, overlapping or simultaneous speech.Stylistic differencesSpoken texts contrast with written texts in terms of grammatical, lexical and phonological/ graphological features.Gregory(19107):1) Distinctions amongst speechSpeech can be spontaneous (such as casual conversation) or non-spontaneous (as what actors and teachers are doing).*Within spontaneous speech, there is conversing (with the participation of others) versus monologuing (with no interruption from others). The latter kind of sustained spontaneous speech is found in classroom teaching, TV interviewing, radio commenting, and the talking between scholars.*Non-spontaneous speech can be sub-categorized as reciting (such as story telling, poem recitation and singing) and as the speaking of what is written. In literate cultures, most non-spontaneous speech is the speaking of what has been written.2) Distinctions amongst writingThe text that has been written may be written to be spoken as if not written, or written to be spoken, or even written not necessarily to be spoken.a) Texts written to be spoken as if not written such as the lines in a drama, sound like real speech. But they are speeches that have been planned and prepared, whereas ordinary speech is spontaneous; and their situations are more compact and self-contained than those of conversing and monologuing.b) Texts written to be spoken with no effort to conceal their written origin such as scripts for sermons, speeches, lectures, news bulletins and commentaries, can be really the reading of an article or essay but the hearer is not in the same situation as the reader where he/she can turn back a page to check his/her understanding. Hence their repeating of the main points in a slightly different way and their manipulation ofprosodic and paralinguistic features for the spoken mode.c) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken with no relation to the spoken mode such as a telephone book or a dictionary may be described as written to be read.d) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken but with a relationship with the spoken mode such as dialogue in a novel, may be categorized as written to be read as speech (as if heard); and the interior monologue related to such texts may be categorized as written to be read as if thought (as if overheard).（3）①Electronic English (E-Discourse):Electronic English is a general term, and it is used to here to refer to the computer-mediated English, which can also be labeled by other names through slight differences exist.②Nature of Electronic English:E-English is interactive, electronic, communicative in nature, with the text presented on the screen.③Stylistic features:a) Lexicallyb) Syntactically12、Formal & Informal（会辨别formality）★(1) Formality:Formality refers to the way in which the style or tone of language will vary in appropriateness according to the social context: the occasion, the number of hearers, and the role-relationship——the relationship between the roles adopted by the addresser and the addressee in a given situation.Formal——Common core——Formal补充：Session 9 Formal vs Informal Language9.3 Functional tenor and degrees of formality1.Functional tenor tells us the addresser’s intention of using the language.2.Certain functional tenors can hit any point on the personal tenor formality continuum. *an expository speech: formal, with many passive constructions and a technical vocabulary; or, informal, in an ad-lib manner, with personal anecdotes, reference to the audience.*an insult: formal (formal structure and vocabulary, calm or deliberate delivery) or informal.9.4 Martin Joos’ classification(Martin Joos, 1967) The range of formality:5 levels: frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.⏹The frozen level: In Joos' analysis, the frozen level is used for written legal documents or highly solemn speech which consists of memorized sentences that must be repeated verbatim. These might include quotations from proverbs or ritual expressions which are part of a formal ceremony.⏹The formal level is used for public addresses such as lectures or speeches where the audience is not known to the speaker personally or where personal acquaintance is not acknowledged. This level requires much attention to form (with well-planned thematic structure and phonological, lexical and syntactical coherence), and allows little or no interaction. It is typically marked with the use of may place of might , can (in 'May Ipresent Mr Smith ?'). The speaker is usually considered to be an authority and, therefore, has higher status than the hearers for that particular event.⏹The consultative level is used at less formal gatherings such as committee meetings where status is still fairly clearly designated, but where participants interact. There is still considerable attention to form (with rather clear pronunciation, accurate wording and complete sentences), and participants may not know each other well. It may be necessary for speakers to elaborate and give a significant amount of background material.⏹In contrast, the casual level is used among friends, or peers who know each other well enough that little elaboration is necessary. Participants pay very little attention to form (shown by the use of slang and ellipsis as in 'Been a good thing if...') and concentrate totally on content and relationship. One of the markers of this level is the use of 'Come on' with the implication 'Consider yourself among friends'.⏹The final level identified by Joos is 'intimate', language used between people who see each other daily (family members for instance) and share the majority of their daily life experiences. As a result, language is unelaborated and conversation may be meaningless to outsiders because of its telegraphic quality. No attention is paid to form.⏹第六种：The Gobbledygook 冗长的废话，官话e.g.1) My beloved parent has just passed to his heavenly reward.2) My dear father has just expired.3) My father has just passed away.4) My dad has died.5) My old man just kicked the bucket. --- by Martin JoosJoos' categories present an efficient way of looking at degrees of formality. It is fairly easy to distinguish the frozen style of (written) legal documents with their Latinate diction and impersonal syntax, from the intimate style of (spoken) interchanges between close friends, with their slang and elliptical syntax. But it is not easy to categorize the intervening degrees, or relate them to linguistic features. So most linguists agree that the situation is more complex than Joos imagined and see the range as a continuum from the most formal to the most Situation and Formality informal/intimate, with an infinite number of stopping places in between.(2) PolitenessPoliteness refers to a) how languages express the social distance between speakers and their different role-relationships; b) how face-work, that is, the attempt to establish, maintain, and save face during conversation, is carried out in a speech community. (3) Impersonality（非人格性，非人称性）Impersonality: Any discourse that is described as impersonal is marked by a distinct lack of the personal and informal mode.Language markers indicating degrees of impersonality include:①the generic pronoun one;②the third person nouns instead of personal pronouns;③the passive voice;④the introductory it as a sentence beginner;⑤abstract nouns or nominal groups.(5)Accessibility（可读性）Accessibility,synonymous with acceptability, or readability, refers to whether a piece of language is easy to understand by the addressee.Fog index（Robert Gunning）符合指数，可读性程度★Fog Index=0.4（L+H）L=the average sentence length in a passageH=the percentage of hard (inaccessible) words in the passageWhat should be known:①the total number of words;②the total number of sentences;③the total number of hard words( at least 3 syllables, not counting inflection orcompounding).Smaller=easierAn easily accessible text: about 10 or fewerAn casual conversation: about 5A legal document: more than 20Practice: 书P6913、Women & Men / Black English / Taboo & EuphemismTaboo:Taboo is often used to refer to a word or expression which is avoided by some people for religious, political, social, sexual, or other reasons and is usually replaced by a corresponding euphemism.Euphemism:A euphemism is often defined as substituting an inoffensive or pleasantword or expression for a more offensive one. Euphemism can even make the harsh reality appear neutral, which is why they are often employed by politicians in order to take the people in and endear themselves to the public.14、Conversation（定义，特征，各level 特征分析）Conversation refers to the act or an instance of talking together, for example, a familiar talk between friends; a verbal exchange of ideas, etc.Common features:①informality②inexplicitness③normal non-fluency④lexical banality⑤syntactic looseness⑥randomness of subject matter15、Public speaking（定义，特征，构成要素）(1) Public speeches are speeches delivered in public for a special purpose, such as open-class lectures or seminars in a university, religious preaches in the church, speeches delivered at a meeting or conference, the inaugural address of the president elect, etc.(2) General features:formal in style, clear and vivid in tone, persuasive in purpose(3) Types①The informative②The persuasive③The entertaining④The stimulating(4) Ways of delivery（效果，分别的优缺点）①Reading from a manuscript②Reciting from memory③Impromptu speaking④Extemporaneous speaking（outline）三四两种的区别16、News Reporting★(1) News reporting is the reporting of anything timely which has importance, use or interest to a considerable number of persons in a publication audience.(2) Classification①Place：National & Provincial②Contents: Quality Papers（严肃性）& Popular Papers（大众性）③Time: Morning, noon, evening, Sunday④Nature: Hard news（纯新闻），Soft news(3) Field:politics, economy, military, culture, technology, etc.Tenor:the journalists and masses different purposesMode:radio, broadcast, TV broadcast, newspaper, and magazine.(4) Definition of news(5) News value:timeliness, freshness（时新性）；importance, prominence（显著性）；locality, proximity（接近性）；oddity, weirdness, novelty（新奇性）；interest(6) The Make-up of News Report★书上例子及课后习题一定要看3 parts: the headline, the lead, the body1> The Headline①Definition:the text in large bold type at the top of the newspaper article, indicating the nature of the article below it.②Function:a)to advertise or sell the newsb)to summarize the storyc)to beautify the page④Main features:a)The omission of articles and the link verbb)Frequent use of abbreviationsc)Present tense is often usedd)Short powerful words are often employede)The use of pre-modificationf)Frequent use of figures of speech⑤Lexical features:a) a cronym and shortened words（缩略词和截短词）b)colloquial and conversational words（口语化词）c)midget words（小词）d)the use of pre-modification⑥Formats of Headlinesa)The banner/streamer 通栏标题b)The flush left head 左对齐式（垂直式）标题c)The dropped line/indented headd)The centered heade)The cross-line/key line head单行标题f)The step head 齐头标题g)The pyramid headh)The inverted pyramid headi)The jump head2> The Lead导语①Definition:The lead is the first or the first few paragraphs of the newsreport, consisting of the newest, most important, or the most attractive facts.②Who, what, when, where, ,why③Features:succinct, informative and intriguing④Forms:a)The contrast lead对比式导语b)The question lead提问式导语c)The quotation lead引语式导语d)The blind lead 盲式导语e)The descriptive lead描写性导语f)The main fact lead 主要事实导语g)The anecdotal lead 轶事导语h)The personal lead3> The body①The body is the main part of the news report.②Writing method:a)The inverted pyramid methodb)The chronological methodc)The highlight method(7) Stylistic features17、Advertising书上例子要看①Advertising is the non-personal communication of information, usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about the products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through various media.②Function:a)Information giving functionb)Demand-creating functionc)Distribution stimulating functiond)New customer introducing functione)Get-action functionf)Good-will establishing function③Classification:a)By medium,newspaper ads, magazine ads, TV ads, radio ads, direct mail ads,outdoor ads, human body ads, Internet ads, etc.b)By audience,consumer ads, business ads(commercial ads); service ads, specifiedads, charity ads, etc.c)By writing methods, hard-sell ads(intellect, fact, reason, telling advantages, serious,factual, accurate, objective) and soft-sell ads(emotion, figures of speech)⑤Elements of adsHeadline, the illustrations, the body copy, the slogan, the trade-mark, and the standing details (supplementary items).⑥Writing methods of the body-copya)The straight-line copy(objective, industrial products, cars, camera, withcomplicated structures)b)The narrative copy(story-telling)c)The testimonial copy( use some VIPs or people in real life to introduce theproduct)⑦Stylistic features如有侵权请联系告知删除，感谢你们的配合！。
文体学3
语言变体
按照社会语言学的观点，语言变体是指由 具备相同特征的人在相同的社会环境中 所普遍使用的某种语言表现形式。在文 体学上，根据语言表现形式自身的特点， 语言变体又可分为方言变体（dialectical varieties或dialects）和语域变体 （diatypic varieties或 registers）。
phonology
1) phonology; eg
Ask
Laugh
Tube
Either When
BrE [ɑ:sk] [lɑ:f] [tju:b] [ai δ ə] [wen]
AmE [æsk] [læf] [tu:b] [i: δ ə] [hwen]
graphology
2) graphology
Social Dialect
A variety associated with certain social group is referred to as SOCIAL DIALECT. The social groups may identify themselves as separate socioeconomic classes or as ethnic groups. And cutting across these social boundaries are
grammer
4) Grammer BrE AmE Have you eaten yet? Did you eat yet? He has just gonr back. He just went home.
Regional Dialect
So far as the English world is concerned,
文体学中的变异（DOC）
文体学中的变异（DOC）变异说：Style is deviation from the norm.实现层（语音层）——语音变异（书写层）——书写变异形式层（词汇层）——词汇变异，方言变异，语域变异，历史时代变异（语法层）——语法变异，语域变异，语义层——语义变异，语用变异，语篇变异1、Phonological deviation诗歌语言中的非重读音节的省略（elision 元音省略，aphesis 首字母省略，apocope 尾音消失）或者添加的现象（expansion）.And heavily from woe to woe tell o?er _Shakespeare elisionBut came the waves and washed it away _Spenser expansion Ba?luster, ba s?tard, …July. 词的重音位置转移，属于语音变异Omission 1) Aphesis the omission of an initial part of a word2)Syncope the omission of a medial part of a word3)mispronunciation and sub-standard pronunciation special pronunciation: rhyming词的读音为了押韵发生变化wind读成动词的读音waind2、Graphological deviation一种是指发音的变异在书写上的体现，另一种是指在排版、斜体、粗体、大写、标点及打印等方面的变异。
误拼词We know eggsactly how to sell eggs. Easier Dusting by a stre-e-tch.Seeker of truthFollow no pathAll path lead whereTruth is here没有标点如逗号和大小写，并且在排列上最后一句与前面有一空行。
文体学Varieties of language部分
A variety which correlates with the various periods of the development of language is called TEMPORAL DIALECT.
Regional dialect
Language varies from region to region. Owing to the physical boundaries of oceans and mountains, people who live in different places tend to develop different speech patterns.
So there are individual, temporal, regional, social and standard varieties respectively.
DIATYPIC VARIETIES
commonly called REGISTERs
are language variations that are associated with the different use to which they are put.
Ethnic varieties
Ethnic groups tend to develop and maintain distinctive speech ways of their own. Hence the rise of ethnic varieties.
英语文体学3,4
英语文体学3,4Chapter 3 Varieties of Language语言变体(varieties of language)可分为两类：一类是方言变体(dialectal varieties), 俗称方言；另一类是话语类变体(diatypic varieties), 亦称语域（register）。
方言是以语言的使用者（users）为基准而区分的语言变体；语域则是按照语言使用者对语言的使用（uses）而区分的语言变体。
因此，方言多与交际者的社会阶层、社会地位、地域、年龄、性别及所处的时代等因素有关，比较稳定；语域则多与交际者所从事的社会活动密切相关。
方言(Dialect):1) 语言使用者的个人特征（individuality）--Idiolect(语言的流利度、清晰度、表达能力大小等。
例：Mr X’s English, Mr Y’s English。
)2) 时代特征（temporal features）--Temporal Dialect3) 地域特征（geographical feature）--Regional Dialect4) 社会特征（social features）--Social DialectSocioeconomic status varieties 社会经济变体Ethnic varieties 种族变体Gender varieties 性别变体Age varieties 年龄变体5) 可理解的程度和范围—Standard Dialect方言(Dialects)具有社会指示功能，方言不仅能体现人物的地域特征，而且能反映出人物的社会地位、文化程度乃至个人性格，这一点在文学作品中最为明显语域(Register)1) Field of Discourse(话语范围/语场)Non-technical fields of discourseTechnical fields of discourse2) Mode of Discourse(话语方式/语式)Speech: conversing, monologuingWriting: texts written to be spoken as if not written/ written to be read3) Tenor of Discourse(话语基调/语基)Personal Tenor(个人基调)Functional Tenor(功能基调)1) Field of Discourse(话语范围/语场)话语范围指的是言语交际过程中发生的事情，进行的活动，论及的事情或表达的经验等，它能体现语言使用者在特定情境语境中所要实现的交际目的和作用。
文体学的教案,
■Course: English Stylistics■Time: Sep.6-30■Course material: English Stylistics: A New Course Book《新编英语文体学教程》董启明编著外语教学与研究出版社■Teaching procedure: Part One Theoretical Preliminaries(理论预备) and Major Varieties（主要变体）of EnglishChapter 1 Style and Stylistics1.1 Introduction1. What is Language? And in which aspects of language doesstylistics focus on?A. Language is the primary object of the study of linguistics, and linguists construct theories of language in general or of particular languages from differing points of view. The discussion of the concepts of style should focus on some essential aspects of language on which most linguists agree.B. Language is viewed as a system of different types of linguistic organization such as phonology, syntax and lexicon. The English language consists of its pattern of sounds, sets of grammatical rules and a large body of vocabulary.C. Language is also a social phenomenon, or institution, whereby people communicate and interact with each other. A language of a particular society is part of the society’s culture. Languageactivities operate within social activities. The language of a participant in a social activity reflects his social characteristics (such as his status, ethnic group, age and sex). It also reflects his awareness of the various factors of a social situation in which he finds himself. He should adjust his language in accordance with the medium of communication (speech or writing), the setting (private or public), the relationship with the addressee (in terms of the degree of intimacy or social distance), and the purpose (to inform, to persuade, etc.).2. Varieties 变体 of Language(variety=style)A. Varieties in relation to regions---- British/American EnglishB. Varieties in relation to media----Spoken English/Written EnglishC. Varieties in relation to attitude----degrees offormality/politeness/ impersonality/accessibilityD. Varieties in relation to social factors----Women’sEnglish/Black English/Taboo and EuphemismE. Varieties in relation to social Genre----The English of Conversation / Public speaking / News reporting/Advertising/Literary English (The Novel/Poetry)/ Science and Technology/Legal Documents3. Varieties analysis theory----Stylistics (文体学)★Essence of stylistics : Appropriate use of language is considered the key to effective communication.e.g. How to suck an egg? (Example and Analysis: Page 3)★Analysis : The difference lies in the fact that the young student used some big and formal words, such as perforation(齿孔,hole) ,apex (顶点，最高点 top), aperture(小孔，缝隙，opening), inhaling（吸气）discharged（流出）, which made her utterance difficult to understand, especially by an old woman without much education, while the old woman used informal words, such as gal, hole, end and suck. As a result, her utterance is easy to understand.★Note: Different styles should be used on different occasions, and the key to the effective use of language is “appropriateness”, and the key to effective communication is the ability to use language appropriately, otherwise we cannot achieve our purpose of communication.1.2 Definitions of Style/Stylistics/Text1. TextDefinition: A TEXT is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a unified whole. It may be the product of a single speaker/writer (e.g. a sign, a letter, a news report, a statue, a novel), or that of several speakers (e.g. a piece of conversation, a debate).For example,Two boys stood near a jeweller’s shop. They saw a man break the shop window and steal all the watches. They ran after him, because they took him for a thief.Analysis:A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether theyare sentences or not. The connection among parts of a text is achievedby various cohesive devices, and by semantic and pragmatic implication. In the text you may notice the following modifications, which serve as 1) grammatical cohesive devices:(a) the use of the definite article on second mention, e.g.a shop---- the shop a man---- the man(b) the substitution of pronouns for nouns. e.g.two boys---- they(c) the use of conjunction. e.g.They ran after him, because…2) the lexical cohesion in the text is realized by the collocationof the words that are in some way or other typically associated with one another, e.g. steal all the watches; took him for a thief2. StyleDefinition—Manners indicating prominent linguistic features, devices or patterns, most (at least) frequently occur in a particulartext of a particular variety of language.Analysis:①Manners (appropriaten ess) [Study Aims]indicating prominent②a) linguistic features (phonological /lexical /syntactic /grammatical/semantic features),b) devices (device markers) orc) Patterns(文体/语体常规“型式”) [Study Scope]。
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Lead in
Policeman: What’s your name, boy? Black psychiatrist: Dr Poussaint. I am a
two varieties 4. The Social meaning of Language
varieties 5. Summary
1. Different views on Varieties
Classification according to user, use and social relations—
Sociolinguist Joshua Fishaman suggested that we consider “who speaks (or writes) what language (or what language variety) to whom and when and to what end.”(1972: 46)
Classification 2 (张德禄) Personal letters, tourist guide, foreign trade
writing, news reporting, comments, advertising, scientific writing, official document, biography, practical speeches, legal documents, religious writings
Quirk et al (Grammar of Contemporary English, 1972: 14): The fact that…the “Common Core” dominates all the varieties means that, however esoteric or remote a variety may be, it has running through it a set of grammatical and other characteristics that are present in all others. It is presumably this fact that justifies the application of the name “English”.
Also
General American (Standard American)
Pacific NW, Pacific SW, Central, North Central
Eastern American
New England, New York City, Mid-Atlantic, Western Pennsylvania
Pacific northwest (Oregon, Montana…) Pacific southwest (California, Nevada…) Central plains (Nebraska, Kansas…) North central (Minnesota, Dakotas…) South central (Kentucky, Tennessee…) Southern (Louisiana, Alabama…) New England (Maine, New Hampshire…) New York City Mid-Atlantic (New Jersey, Delaware…) Western Pennsylvania Appalachian (Virgina, North Carolina…)
Southern American
South Central, Southern, Appalachian
Chinese：
Cantonese 方言
4) Social Dialect
a) Socialeconomic Status Varieties; b) Ethnic Varieties; c) Gender Varieties; d) Age Varieties
Classification 1
User: historical varieties, regional dialect, social dialect
Use: legal, journalistic, business, scientific, literary
Social relations: medium—oral/ written and status/ attitude
Classification 3(侯维瑞) *情景变体：语域 *地方变体：地域方言 *社会变体：社会方言—社会阶层、民族、性别、年龄、
行业团体、俚语（社会变体与情景变体的混合） *功能变体：功能文体—文学、广告、新闻、科技、法律 *时间变体：历代文体
5.美国语言学家Martin Joos根据语体的正式程度把语 言分为五类
Asian English
Affected by first language
African-American Dialect
Black English (P. 30)
c) Gender Varieties
P. 31
Language may have a direct relationship with gender, but language forms generally have a range of associations (for instance with status and power) which may in turn be related to gender.
Varieties; Enthic Varieties; Gender Varieties;Age Varieties Range of intelligibility(可理解性的范围） standard；non-satandard
1) Individual Dialects---Idiolect P. 26
3.Varieties of Language
Questions
1.In what way can stylistic study help us Cultivate a Sense of Appropriateness
2.In what way can stylistic study help us sharpen the understanding and appreciation of literary works ?
2.2 Diatypic Varieties: Registers (P25)
2.1. Dialects
Individual Dialects---Idiolect Temporal Dialect： Old English/ Middle
English/ Modern English Regional Dialect Social Dialect--- Social Economic Status
Consultative:
Goodbye. Have a good weekend.
Casual:
Bye now – take care.
Intimate:
later, darlin’.
2.Two kinds of Varieties
2.1 Dialectal Varieties: Dialects
I'd really appreciate...);
3. use tag questions (...aren’t you?...isn't it?);
4. speak in italics (emphatic so and very, intonational emphasis);
5. use redundant adjectives (terrific, charming, divine, sweet, adorable );
2) Temporal Dialect：
Old English (450 - 1150)
Middle English (1150 - 1450) (G. Chaucer)
Modern English (1450 - present)
Early Modern English (1450-1650
Differences between male and female
speech (Ten features of women's
language use)(Lakoff,1975):
1. hedge (sort of, kind of);
2. use (super) polite forms, indirect (would you please?
the language of Shakespeare)
Authoritarian English (1650-1800)
Mature Modern English (1800-1920)
Late Modern English (1920-present)
3) Regional Dialect BrE / AmE (PP. 27-28) AmE
8. use direct quotation;
9. use specific lexical terms (e.g. of colour);
10. use intonation for questions in declarative contexts.