Chapter 3 Conceptual metaphors and metonymies
认知语言学第三章隐喻与转喻
突显原则（principle of prominence）
人们的注意力更容易观察和记忆事物比较突显的方面。
相似原则&顺接原则是隐喻的认知原则。 接近原则&凸显原则是转喻的认知原则。
好的语言是一种圆满的实现，能表达人的感知本 身所不能表现的事情。——查理
语言学上，把由于两个事物的特征上所存在的某 一类似之处，而用指一个事物的词来指代另一个 事物的演变方式叫做隐喻（Metaphor）。
IDEAS (or MEANINGS) ARE OBJECTS LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAINERS COMMUNICATION IS SENDING It’s hard to get that idea across to him. It’s difficult to put my ideas into words. ARGUMENT IS WAR He attacked every week point in my argument.
常规隐喻（conventional or dead metaphors）
“……通过长期建立的常规关系而无意识进入语 言的隐喻才是最重要的。”（Ungerer & Schmid 1996: 117）
莱考夫（1980）把隐喻看做是人们思维、行为和 表达思想的一种系统的方式，即隐喻概念 （metaphorical concept or conceptual metaphor）。
Metonymy has primarily a referential function, that is, it allows us to use one entity to stand for another. […] It also serves the function of providing understanding.
metaphor暗喻的英文例子
Metaphor: Examples of Figurative LanguageIntroductionMetaphor is a type of figurative language that adds depth and creativity to communication. It involves using a word or phrase to describe an object or action, by comparing it to something else unrelated. Metaphors are widely used in literature, poetry, speeches, and everyday conversations to convey abstract ideas and enhance understanding. Inthis article, we will explore various examples of metaphors and their significance.What is a Metaphor?A metaphor is a figure of speech that goes beyond literal meanings to make a comparison between two unrelated things. It establishes a resemblance or association, often based on shared qualities or characteristics. Unlike similes, which use “like” or “as” to make comparisons, metaphors create a direct identification between the subject and object.Examples of Metaphors:1.“Life is a journey.”2.“Time is money.”3.“He is a shining star.”4.“The world is a stage.”5.“Love is a battlefield.”Common Types of MetaphorsMetaphors can be categorized into different types based on their characteristics and usage. Each type offers a unique way to understand and express complex ideas. Let’s explore some common types of metaphors:1. Conceptual MetaphorConceptual metaphors are widely used to understand abstract concepts by relating them to concrete or familiar experiences. They form the basis of our understanding by mapping one domain of knowledge onto another. Some examples include: - “Love is a journey.” - “Ideas are food for thought.” - “Time is a valuable resource.”2. Dead MetaphorDead metaphors are common expressions that were once metaphors but have lost their figurative meaning through repeated use. These metaphors become so ingrained in everyday language that they are now perceived as literal. Examples of dead metaphors include: - “The foot of the mountain” - “The heart of the matter” - “The head of the class”3. Extended MetaphorExtended metaphors are sustained throughout a piece of writing, often through an entire poem or story. These metaphors create a deeper meaning by developin g and expanding the comparison over time. Here’s an example of an extended metaphor from Shakespeare’s play “As You Like It”: “All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances…”4. Implied or Implicit MetaphorImplied metaphors do not directly state that one thing is another; instead, they imply the comparison through indirect or figurative language. These metaphors encourage readers to apply their own interpretations and engage with the text more actively. For example: - “She drowned in a sea of grief.” - “The politician danced around the issue.”The Significance of MetaphorsMetaphors play a crucial role in enhancing communication and understanding. They provide a fresh perspective, evoke emotions, and simplify complex ideas. Here’s why metaphors are significant:1. Creativity and ExpressionMetaphors allow individuals to express themselves in unique and imaginative ways. By using metaphors, we can convey our thoughts and feelings more effectively, making the communication process more engaging and memorable.2. Simplification of Complex IdeasMetaphors help simplify complex concepts by relating them to something familiar. They make abstract ideas more tangible and accessible, allowing the audience to grasp difficult concepts easily.3. Arousal of emotionsMetaphors have the power to evoke emotions and create a strong emotional connection with the audience. By using vivid and evocative metaphors, speakers and writers can tap into the audience’s emotions and inspire them.4. Memorable and EngagingMetaphors make the text or speech more captivating and memorable. They add richness and depth to the message, making it more likely to be retained in the audience’s memory.ConclusionMetaphors are powerful tools of expression that add depth, creativity, and clarity to communication. They allow us to think beyond the literal meanings of words and make connections between unrelated ideas. Metaphors enrich our understanding of abstract concepts and evoke emotions, making them an essential part of human communication. So next time you encounter a metaphor, take a moment to appreciate the hidden meaning and the beauty it brings to language.。
Conceptual-metaphors-and-metonymies幻灯片课件
3.1.2 Conventionalized metaphors
head
face eye
mouth lips nose neck shoulder arm
hands
of department, of state, of government, of a page, of a queue, of a flower, of a beer, of stairs, of a bed, of a tape recorder, of a syntactic construction of a mountain, of a building, of a watch of a potato, of a needle, of a hurricane, of a butterfly, in a flower, hooks and eyes of a hole, of a tunnel, of a cave, of a river of a cup, of a jug, of a crater, of a plate of an aircraft, of a tool, of a gun of land, of the woods, of a shirt, bottle-neck of a hill or mountain, of a bottle, of a road, of a jacket of a chair, of the sea, of a tree, of a coat or jacket, of a record player of a watch, of an altimeter/ speedometer
(Conventionalized metaphors of body-parts)
隐喻与转喻
e.g. He is a tiger.
Source domain 源(认知)域
the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain. (tiger)
(7)The PLACE for the EVENT
It is said that the present Iraq would be the second Vietnam. (the Vietnam War in the 1950’s and 1960’s) (8)The CNTROLLED for the CONTROLLER The car stopped in time and avoided a traffic accident. (the car driver, not the car itself) (9)The CONTROLLER for the CNTROLLED
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
(4)The MATERIAL for the OBJECT
I have bought some plates and three glasses. (drinking vessels made of glass)
(5)The PRODUCER for PRODUCTION
Tom recently bought a new Ford. (a car produced by Ford company) (6)The PLACE for the INSTITUTION So far, the White House did not say anything about it. (the US presidency or the US government)
Chapter 3 Conceptual metaphors and metonymies12
New insights into emotion: five points at P142.
Metaphors as a way of thinking: examples from science and politics
1. Metaphors and the description of linguistic phenomena. Two metaphors: Language form is building block; Language is scaffolding. Langacker criticizes the former and consents the latter. P144-145.
Structural mapping between journey and life.
See figure 3.4.
In the mapping from source domain to target domain, the former is more concrete, while the latter is more abstract.
Similarities and distinctions of metaphor and metonymy
See P128.
Combination of metaphors and metonymies
Combination of metaphors and metonymies is possible. Example and analysis, see P129.
Chapter 3 Conceptual metaphors and metonymies
Defining metaphor
conceptual metaphor
Metaphor & Everyday Language
• CMT motivated by metaphors like TIME IS MONEY • Use of MONEY verbiage to refer to TIME is pervasive and systematic • Metaphor Clusters explained by cross-domain mapping between time and money • Metaphoric language reflects connections between concepts
Contemporary, Expanded View of Metaphor
• Friedrich Nietzsche – metaphor is a process whereby we encounter our world. • Kenneth Burke – metaphor plays an important role in the discovery and description of our world. • Max Black – metaphor is a screen for structuring and organizing our view of the world.
Two classical treatments of metaphor
• as extraordinary language • as decorative
Aristotle
“the application to one thing of the name belonging to another” - Aristotle (metaphor as insightful manner of speech) The most ingenious of Aristotle’s conclusions is that metaphor is above all a tool of cognition. - Umberto Eco, on Aristotle By far the greatest thing is to be a master of metaphor. It is the one thing that cannot be learned from others. It is a sign of genius, for a good metaphor implies intuitive perception of similarity among dissimilars - Aristotle
metaphor and metonymy
A Cognitive Comparison of Metaphor and MetonymyAllan FangContentsu introductionu the nature of metaphor and metonymy u metaphor and metonymy under Grice's theoryu interaction of metaphor and metonymy u conclusionChapter 1: Introduction1.1 Traditional view of metaphor and metonymy•From traditional perspective, metaphor and metonymy have been regarded as figures of speech.•People speak and write metaphorically or metonymically in order to achieve some artistic and rhetorical effects.•In a word, they each belong to a matter of language.1.1.1 traditional view of metaphor•There are three major views of metaphor in terms of traditional linguistic approach: The Comparison view, the Substitution view and the Interaction View.•The Comparison View:dating back to Aristotle.•Aristotle regarded metaphors as implicit comparison between a metaphorical expression and a literal paraphrase based on underlying analogy or similarity. However, he insisted that metaphor should be restricted to poetry only. He gave rise to the distinction between poetic diction and everyday language.1.1.1 traditional view of metaphor•The substitution view holds that a metaphor is where a metaphorical expression is used in place of some equivalent literal expression. For example, "John is a fox." "fox" is substituting for "sly".•The metaphor-as-interaction view derives from LA.Richards. Richards believed "when we use a metaphor, we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or a phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction".1.1.2 traditional view of metonymy•Aristotle subsumed metonymy and synecdoche under metaphor( Panther&Radden, 1999:1).•The first real definition of metonymy was found in the Rhetorica ad Herennium. In this book, metonymy was seen as a figure of speech which involved change of a word to a closely related or neighbouring one. •Many standard definitions are in accordance with the one given in Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (1977:724) which describes metonymy as "a figure of speech consisting of the use of the name of one thing for that of another of which it is associated."1.2 cognitive view of metaphor and metonymy •After the publication of Metaphors We Live By in 1980,a cognitive view of metaphor and metonymy wasproposed as the result of the development of cognitive science and linguistics.•In the boo k Metaphors We Live By, Lakoff pointed out metaphor and metonymy have deep connections with the shaping of human cognitive system. "Humanconceptual systems are pervasively structured bymetaphor, metonymy and other kinds of imaginativestructure" (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:158).1.2.1 cognitive view of metaphor•From the cognitive perspective, metaphor is not only a figure of speech or a rhetoric device or a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive process.•Metaphor is the cognitive mechanism whereby one experiential domain is partially "mapped".•That is to say, because of limitation of thinking capacity and lack of ready words or expressions, human beings have to talk of one thing in terms of another, which results in metaphor.• E.g. Her heart swelled with pride.• E.g. His good performance filled him with pride.1.2.1 cognitive view of metaphor•Through metaphor, "We can conceptualize the lessclearly delineated in terms of the more clearlydelineated"(Lakoff& Johnson 1980:59) so that we get an insight into the nature of the concepts that structure oureveryday activities.•Metaphor provides a way of expressing ideas that would be difficult to convey by using literal language.•From above, we can see the focus of metaphor is not inlanguage at all, but in the way we conceptualize one mental domain in terms of another. Linguistic metaphor is theresult of and the tool for human metaphoric cognition.1.2.2 cognitive view of metonymy•The cognitive comprehension of metonymy is different from the traditional views, which has strongly beeninfluenced by centuries of rhetorical and literary studies. •Lakoff and Johnson (1980:39) first described metonymy in cognitive terms as a process which allows us toconceptualize one thing by means of its relation tosomething else.•In a more refined account, Lakoff and Turner(1989)describes metonymy as a conceptual mapping within a single domain which involves a "stand for" relationship and has mainly a referential function.Chapter 2: the nature of metaphor and metonymy2.1 conceptual nature of metaphor and metonymy2.1.1 conceptual metaphor•In recent years, important pioneering works by cognitivelinguists such as Lakoff&Johnson (1980), have demonstrated that metaphor is, in fact, a fundamental property of theeveryday use of language.•Lakoff and Johnson found out there were metaphoricalconcepts lying beneath metaphors used every day, such as "ARGUMENT IS WAR", "TIME IS MONEY", which are components of the whole cognitive system of people in acommunity.2.1.1 conceptual metaphor•Let us take ARGUMENT IS WAR for example: Your claims are indefensible.He attacked every weak point in my argument. His criticisms were right on target.I demolished his argument.I've never won an argument with him.You disagree? Okay, shoot!If you use that strategy, he'll wipe you out.He shot down all of my arguments.2.1.1 conceptual metaphor•From above, we can see the essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.•Arguments and wars are different kinds of things---verbal discourse and armed conflict---and the actions performed are different kinds of actions. But ARGUMENT is partially structured, understood, performed, and talked about in terms of WAR. The concept is metaphorically structured, the activity is metaphorically structured, and, consequently, the language is metaphorically structured.2.1.2 conceptual metonymy•In cognitive linguistics, metonymy is claimed to be not just a matter of names of things, but essentially a conceptual phenomenon.•Metonymy is a case that we use one entity to refer to another that is related to it.E.g.He likes to read Earnest Hemingway. (= the writings of this author)The Times hasn't arrived at the press conference yet.(= the reporter from the Times)2.1.2 conceptual metonymy•Here is a special case of metonymy, where the part stands for the whole, as in the following:E.g. We need a couple of strong bodies for our team.(= strong people)"There are a lot of good heads in the university.(= intelligent people)We need some new blood in the organization.(= new people)2.2 classification of metaphor and metonymy 2.2.1 classification of metaphor•Lakoff and Johnson have distinguished ontological(本体隐喻), orientational（空间隐喻）, and structural metaphors（结构隐喻）.•Ontological metaphors, like people are animals, highlight a quintessential feature of the source domain that is then attributed to the target. For example, in the metaphorical utterance Achilles is a lion we take a culturally attributed quintessential feature of lions (their courage)and ascribe this feature to Achilles.2.2.1 classification of metaphor•Orientational metaphors have to do with spatial orientations like up-down, in-out, central-peripheral, etc. and are grounded in our physical and cultural front-back, on-off, experience.•Thus, the fact that humans and many animals sleep lying down and stand up when they awaken provides the experiential grounding for the metaphors CONCIOUS IS UP, UNCONCIOUS IS DOWN .•Structural metaphors refer to metaphors in which one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. For example, LIFE IS JOURNEY,TIME IS MONEY.2.2.2 classification of metonymy•According to Panther and Thornburg，there are three groups of metonymy: referential, predicative and illocutionary.•In referential metonymies, a single concept stands for another. For example, "The piano is in bad mood ". In this sentence, "piano" stands for "the piano player".•In predicative metonymies, a statement is used to refer to a different statement. For example, "I'll be brief" stands for "I'll speak briefly”.•In illocutionary metonymies, one illocutionary type stands for another. For example, the assertion“I don't know the bus stop is" stands for the question "where is the bus stop?"Chapter 3: metaphor and metonymy under Grice's theory•3.1 Grice's theory reviewed•Grice holds that communication is more than the encoding and the decoding of linguistic signals. Recognizing thatlanguage is heavily influenced by contextual factors, Grice (1975) proposes his conversational implicature theory. He is the first to systematically study cases in which speakermeaning differs from sentence meaning.•Grice proposes four basic maxims of conversationunderlying the efficient co-operative use of language,which is called the Cooperative Principle.3.1 Grice's theory reviewed•They are(i) the maxim of quality (ii) the maxim of quantity (iii) the maxim of relevance (iv) the maxim of manner.•When a maxim is flouted, Grice shows us that this normally is taken to mean that the speaker might have something more in mind that meets the conversational demand than simply what was said.•Suppose that A and B are talking about a mutual friend C, who is now working in a bank. A asks B how C is getting on in his job, and B replies, "Oh quite well, I think; he likes his colleagues, and he hasn't been to prison yet.”3.1 Grice's theory reviewed•Grice notes that B's answer might be understood to mean something different from, or in addition to, what B actually, literally, said. He believes that this answer might imply that C is the kind of person who could be tempted by the idea of stealing money from the bank, or is prone to get into trouble.•This inference is based on the presupposition that both interlocutors abide by Cooperative Principle. A is asking B about C's level of success with his job, it is expected that B's answer will be related to that topic and based on conventional standards of assessment.•In that case, since the fact of not being in prison is normally not considered to be an acceptable reason for being called successful, this might mean that C is actually not a "normal person" and that his success is relative.3.2 Illustration of metaphor and metonymy under Grice's theory•Grice says that metaphor and metonymy can be partially explained by the Cooperative Principle since metaphor and metonymy are often literally and patently false.•He claims that metaphor and metonymy result from the deliberate violation of the maxim of quality: "Do not say what you believe to be false."• E.g. John is a pig. (metaphor)• E.g. The ham sandwich is waiting for his check. (metonymy)3.2 Illustration of metaphor and metonymy under Grice's theory•Grice's account of metaphor and metonymy may be seen as attempting to offer a more satisfactory explanation developed within a pragmatic framework.•However, it over-simplifies the problem of interpreting metaphor and metonymy, and does not discover the nature of metaphor and metonymy at all.•There is a problem how the hearer derives the implicated proposition by the metonymy and metaphor.•Grice just offers some account of how a metaphoric or metonymic interpretation is triggered but it contributes little to understanding how metaphors and metonymies are interpreted or why they are used.Chapter 4: Interaction of Metaphor and Metonymy•It must be emphasized that the main similarities betweenmetonymy and metaphor investigated by cognitive linguists should not be overlooked.•Both are seen as being conceptual in nature.•Both can be conventionalized.•Both can be used by speakers and understood by hearersautomatically, unconsciously, effortlessly.•Both are means of extending the resources of a language.•Both can be explained mapping processes. However, there are some confusing phenomena in the description of therelationship between metaphor and metonymy.4.1 Conceptual Interaction•According to Barcelona, there are two main subtypes of metaphor-metonymy interaction at this level: The metonymic conceptual motivation of metaphor and the metaphorical conceptual motivation of metonymy.•It has long been noticed that a great many metaphors are motivated conceptually by a metonymy, which is closer to their experiential basis. The metaphor ANGER IS THE HEAT OF A FLUID is conceptually motivated by the metonymy.• E.g. I had reached boiling point.E.g. She got all steamed up.E.g.When I told him, he just exploded.4.2 Contextual Interaction•The second general type of interaction is the purely textual co-instantiation of a metaphor and a metonymy by the same linguistic expression.•See the following sentence:• E.g. The ham sandwich started snarling.•The metaphor in this example is a special version of the people are animals metaphor.The special version is angry behaviour is aggressive animal behaviour.This sentence would refer, in a restaurant situation, to the angry behaviour of the customer who bought the ham sandwich. The metonymy is,consumed goods for customer.4.2 Contextual Interaction•The metaphor and metonymy in the sentence are compatible with each other because both have people as target. But they are conceptually independent from each other.•It is easy to see this fact, as the metonymy can occur without the metaphor.•As for metaphor, it is enough to replace the subject to realize that the metaphor does not depend conceptually on this metonymy for we can say John started snarling.Chapter 5: Conclusion•In cognitive linguistics Although metaphor and metonymyare different cognitive processes, they have much in common.They each have a conceptual basis and function as acognitive process.•Metaphor is the cognitive mechanism whereby oneexperiential domain is partially mapped or projected onto a different experiential domain, so that the second domain ispartially understood in terms of the first one.•Metonymy is a conceptual projection whereby onedomain(the target) is partially understood in terms ofanother experiential domain (the source) included in the same common experiential domain.Chapter 5: Conclusion•In cognitive pragmatics, metaphor and metonymy areseen as results from the deliberate violation of the maxim of quality: "Do not say what you believe to be false." Insuch a framework, metaphor and metonymy involve adeliberate violation of the maxim of truthfulness, because the proposition expressed by the utterance is not identical to the belief of the speaker and the comprehension ofmetaphorical or metonymical utterance depends on thehearer finding the utterance to be false.•All in all, metaphor and metonymy have much incommon although they are different cognitive processes.Thank You!!。
4.隐喻概念(Teacher 用)
Because of Lakoff‘s aim to uncover deeply embodied conceptual relations in the mind, for him the ideal metaphorical expressions to analyze are not the widely discussed type of examples in (5), but rather those in (6).
什么是隐喻？认知隐喻是研究新隐喻还是 常规隐喻？ 如何理解两域之间的映射？它们之间的映 射是对称的吗？ 如何理解“隐喻是一种概念现象”？概念 系统的基础是什么？ 什么是意象图式？ 隐喻的工作机制是什么？
为什么说隐喻不仅是一种语言现象，而且是一种 认知手段？ 如何评价下面两句话？ “Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action‖ (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) ―The metaphor is not just a matter of language, but of thought and reason.‖ (Lakoff, 1993: 208)
An essential property of a metaphorical expression is deviance. Anomalousness is a necessary feature of a metaphorical expression. If a literal interpretation of an utterance is anomalous, that is normally a signal that we need to apply a different interpretive strategy. (Croft & Cruse, 2004: 206)
ConceptualMetaphor概念隐喻
— Metaphor is not simply a stylistic feature of language, but that thoal in nature. What makes it a metaphor is the conventional association of one domain with another. What makes it conceptual (rather than purely linguistic) is the idea that the motivation for the metaphor resides at the level of conceptual domains.(Lakoff& Johnson)
Metaphor
What is metaphor?
Comparison theory
— Metaphor is a figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another by saying that one is the other.(Kovecses,2002:vii)
of the source and the target domain.
The unidirectionality of metaphor
• An important observation made by conceptual metaphor theorists is that conceptual metaphors are unidirectional. This means that metaphors map structure from a source domain to a target domain but not vice versa. For example:
认知语言学第五章总结
Chapter 3 summary应用语言学王婷婷13502008Traditionally, metaphors and metonymies have been regarded as figures of speech, however, the two phenomena are powerful cognitive tools for our conceptualization of the world.First, It is common knowledge that words are often used in figurative senses.Even very young children are adept at using figurative language. Nevertheless, the study of this linguistic phenomenon was for a long time the exclusive domain of literary scholars and the odd linguist who was interested in rhetoric or stylistics.They consider that metonymy involves a relation of contiguity between what is denoted by the literal meaning of a word and its figurative counterpart and that one constituent of the metonymic link stands for the other. In contrast, metaphor has traditionally been based on the notions similarity or comparison between the literal and the figurative meaning of an expression.They also take some examples to show that metaphor and metonymy are not just figures of speech in literature but also pervasive in everyday language. Next, in tracing the development from the traditional to a cognitive conception of metaphor and metonymy, we have already recognized by Black in a precognitive context, metaphors act as cognitive instruments.This means that metaphors are not just a stylistically attractive way of expressing ideas by means of language, but a way of thinking about things. In addition, metonymies are also more straightforwards than metaphors: their major goal is to refer to an entity, prototypically a person, denoted by the target concept by means of the source concept.Second, in the cognitive linguist’s views, the structure of emotion concepts are reflected in metonymic and metaphorical expressions. They find that the link between emotions and physiological symptoms reminds us of certain metonymic mappings,especially the cause-effect relationship observed in metonymies. They also single out three aspects that between them illustrate both the potential and the limitations of physiologicalmetonymies. There are indeed bodily symptoms which seem to be helpful for a description of the conceptual structure of emotions because they are peculiar to one particular emotion. They find that our preference depends on the situation, perhaps on the individual person, or it could also be a matter of sequence, perhaps on the individual person, or it could also be a matter of sequence, with a state of paralysis functioning as a preface to flight. At last, problems is that may metonymies apply not just to one or a few closely related emotions, but to a range of quite different emotions.Third, When metaphors as a way of thinking, they can be used to structure concepts underlying certain abstract words, and it should not show up in the way we approach the complex scientific, political and social issues of our world. Langacker realizes that metaphor is a powerful explanatory tool which cannot be defeated by only offering an abstract alternative explanation in terms of compositionality and analyzability, such as we use +SCAFFOLDING+ metaphor to explain newspaper, which means you can take out the attributes of news, just use paper, just like the function of scaffolding. In science, for example, we can use solar system to explain atom, which could be understood more clearly. In politics, the natural force concepts like WIND can be reflected in the abundant ‘wind-of-change’speeches. Popular political thinking largely depends on constitutive metaphors, which are often consciously created and fostered by politicians and propagandists.Fourth, just like metaphors, metonymies can be understood as a way of thinking and metonymy is considered a cognitive process underlying linguistic phenomena and motivating them. Possessive compounds, noun-verb conversations and even conventionalized speech acts were shown to be at least describable in terms of metonymic mappings, but the success of any metonymy depends on the availability of a cognitive model or some other kind of conceptual background serving as a mapping scope accessible to the language user.。
通感的认知究
内容提要本文研究了通感隐喻这一现象。
文章首先简要的概括了对强通感与弱通感（即通感隐喻）的多学科研究，讨论了强弱两种通感之间的关系，得出：通感隐喻（弱通感）具有～定的神经和心理基础。
接着，文章运用莱考夫与约翰逊的体验哲学理论、格莱迪的基本隐喻理论和弗科尼亚与特纳的概念整合理论，探究通感隐喻的内在本质。
文章揭示出：（１）通感隐喻是基于体验的，包括神经的与基本经验的体验性；（２）它们属于基本隐喻范畴：（３）其意义建构过程是动态的概念整合过程。
关键词：通感；通感隐喻；认知语言学：体验哲学理论；基本隐喻理论；概念整合理论ＡｂｓｔｒａｃｔＴｈｅ廿］【ｅｓｉｓｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｔ１１ｅｐｈｅｎｏｍｅｎｏｎＯｆｓｙＩｍｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｍｃｔａｐｈｏｒｓｗｈｉｃｈｅｎｔａｉｌ洳ｍ３ｔｅＸ鑫ｍ．ｍｅｓＭ以ｙ也ｅｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒｓｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｐｅ托ｅ弘工ａｉｄｏｍｇｂ．，ｒｈｅｍｕｌｔｉｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎａｒｙｓｔｕｄｙｏｎｓｔｒｏｎｇｓｙｎａｅｓｔｈｅｓｉａ（ｒｅｆｂｒｒｉｎｇｔｏ吐ｌｅｒｅａｌｃｏ－ｓｅｎｓａｔｉｏｎ）ａｎｄｗｃａｌ（ｓ”ａｅ蚰ｅｓｉａ（ｒｅｆ毫ｒｒｉｎｇｔｏｔｈｅｉｍｅｒｓｅｎｓｏｒｙａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｉｏｎｓ），ａｔｌｄｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｓ也ｅｉｒｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐｓ．Ｆｒｏｍ也ｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎ，ｉｔｉｓｃｏｎｃｌｕｄｅｄｔｈａｔｓｙｎａｅｓ也ｅｔｉｃｍｅｔ８ｐｈｏｒｓ（ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓａｎｏｔｈｅｒｎ锄ｅｆｏｒｗｅａｋｓｙｎａｅｓｍｅｓｉａ）ｍａｙｈａｖｅｓｏｍｅｎｅｌｌｒａｌａｎｄｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｕｎｄｅｒｐｉｒｕｌｉｎｇｓ．Ｔｈｅｎ，ｄｒａｗｉｎｇｏｎｔｈｒｅｅｍ∞ｒｉｅｓｉ１１ｃｏｇｌｌｉｔｉＶｅｌｉ力ｇＩｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｎ锄ｅｌｙＬａｋｏｆｒａｎｄＪｏｈｎｓｏｎ’ｓＥｍｂｏｄｉｅｄ蹦ｌｏｓｏｐｈ孔‰ｄｙ’ｓＰｒｉｆ啮ｒｙＭｅｔａｐｈｏｒｎｅｏ吼觚ｄＦａｕｃｏｎｎｉｅｒａｎｄｎ哪ｅｒ’ｓＢｌｅｎｄｉｎｇＴｈｅｏ观ｔｈｃａｕｔｈｏｒｅｎｑｕｉ坤ｓｉｎｔｏ也ｅｎａｔｕｒｅｏｆｓｙｎａｅｓｍｅｌｊｃｍｅｔａｐｈｏｒｓ柚ｄｃｏｍｅｓｔｏｔｈＩ∞ｉｍｐｏｎａｎｔｃｏＩｔｃｌｕｓｉｏｎｓａｓｆｏｌｌｏｗｓ．（１）ｓｙｎａｅｓｔｈｅ＆ｍｅ乜ｐｈｏｒｓａｒｅｎ黜ａ｝姆斑ｐｈｅｎｏｍ嘲Ｉｏｇｉｃａｌｌｙ姗ｂｏｄｉｅｄ．（２）ＴｈｅｙａｒｅＰｒｉｍａｒｙＭ曲巾ｈｏｒｓ．（３）Ｔｈｅｉｆｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｅｓｏｆｍｅａｎｉｎｇｃｏｎｓｔｎ】ｃｔ至ｏｎａｒｅｄｙｎ啪ｉｃｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｅｓｏｆｃＯｎｃｅｐｔｕａｌｉｎｔｅ掣ａｔｉｏｎ．Ｋｅ）ｗｏｒｄｓ：Ｓｙｎａｅｓｍｅｓｉａ，ｓｙｔｌａｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｍ啦ｐｈｏｒｓ，ｃｏｇＩＩｉｔｉｗｌｉｎ刚ｓｔｉｃＳ，ｔｈｅＥｍｂｏｄｉｅｄＰｈｉＩｏｓｏｐｈｙ，龇ＭｍａｒｙＭｅ协ｐｈｏｒ１１１ｅ０Ⅸ恤ＢｌｅｎｄｉｎｇＴｈｅｏｒｙＡｃｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅｍｅｎｔｓＩｎｍｅｃｏ、ｌｒｓｅｏｆｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ也ｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓ，ＩｈａｖｅｒｅｃｅｉＶｅｄａｔＴｅｍｅｎｄｏｕｓａｍｏｕｎｔｏｆｈｅｌｐａｎｄｓｕｐｐｏｒｔ，ａｎｄ１ｗｏｕｌｄｌｉｋｅｔｏｔａｌ【ｅⅡｌｅｏｐｐｏｎｕｎｉｔｙｔｏｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｍｙｄｅｅｐｅＳｔ伊ａｔｉｔｕｄｅｔｏａ１１ｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｈａｖｅｈｅｌｐｅｄｍｅ．ＦｉｒｓｔｏｆａＩＩ，Ｉａｍｇｒｃ砒ＩｙｉｎｄｅｂｔｅｄｔｏＰｍｆｅｓｓｏｒＳｕｘｉａｏｊｕｌｌ，ｍｙｓｕｐｅｒｖｉｓｏＬｗｈｏｈａｓｇｉｖｅｎｍｅａ１０ｔｏｆｅｎｌｉｇｈｔｅｎｉｎｇｉｎｓｔｍｃｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｍｙ血ｒｅｅ—ｙｅａｒｓｔｕｄｙａｎｄｈａｓｈｅｌｐｅｄ衄ｏｕ曲Ⅱ１ｅｖａｒｉｏｕｓｓｔａｇｅｓｏｆｔｈｅｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔａｒＩｄｒｅＶｉｓｉｏｎｏｆｍｅｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ｗｉｔｌｌｏｕｔｈｉｓｃｎｃｏｕｒａｇｅｍｅｎｔａｎｄｓｕｐｐ。
隐喻-映射
a. We have arrived at the crucial point in the argument. b. Where are you in the discussion?
The examples show that the places the traveller passes on the journey to the destination correspond to ‘points’ in a rational argument.
c. The metaphorical nature of an expression can fade over time and with repeated use. For highly conventionalized expressions, it is implausible to maintain that the entity designated by the expression is being conceptualized in terms of metaphorical mapping.
d. There are certain metaphorical expressions which appear problematic for the domain mapping theory. For example: That surgeon is a butcher. Source domain Target domain
is familiar with one between a schema and its instance.
A conceptual metaphor is schematic for the metaphorical expressions which instantiate it.
metaphor
在认知语言学中，隐喻的本质是概念性的，以某一领 域的经验来说明另一种领域的经验，是人们对抽象范 畴进行概念化的一种认知工具.
• Definition
• Understanding one conceptual domain(域) or cognitive domain in terms of another conceptual domain.
• 以涨价经验为例，这种经验可以通过名词“通货膨胀”隐 喻为实体。 • Inflation is lowering our standard of living. • We need to combat inflation. • 例子中，通货膨胀被认为是为可以是人们对它进行谈论、 量化和识别的实体。
MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN • The number of books printed each year keeps going up. • If you are too hot, turn the heat down. • HIGH STATUS IS UP; LOW STATUS IS DOWN
• Examples
He is a tiger. Time is money. 独生子是小皇帝。
• Source domain 始发域 • the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain. (tiger)
2) Structural metaphors 结构隐喻
• 以一种概念的结构来构造另一种概念，是两种概 念叠加，将谈论一种概念的各方面的词语用于谈 论另一概念。
【VIP专享】Chapter 3 Conceptual metaphors and metonymies
Basic emotion words
Two blocks at P137. Basic emotion words serve as reference points to describe nonbasic emotion words.
Linguistic reflection of basic vs. non-basic in terms of emotion
New insights into emotion: five points at P142.
Metaphors as a way of thinking: examples from science and politics
1. Metaphors and the description of linguistic phenomena. Two metaphors: Language form is building block; Language is scaffolding. Langacker criticizes the former and consents the latter. P144-145.
E.g. see Figure 3.2 at P117.
Four types of the most frequent conventionalized metaphors.
隐喻资料
以下资料可能对你有帮助Conceptual metaphors 概念隐喻在”Metaphors We Live by”一书中，隐喻大致可以分成三大类：⏹结构隐喻(structural metaphor)、方位隐喻(orientational metaphor)和实体隐喻(ontological metaphor)。
⏹隐喻是一种以抽象的意象图式为基础的映射(mapping)，即从一个比较熟悉的、具体的、易于理解的始源域(source domain即喻体)，映射到一个不太熟悉的、抽象的、较难理解的目标域(target domain即本体)。
通过跨域映射，人们用自己熟悉的认知域来认识不熟悉的认知域，以达到对客观世界的认识。
⏹“茶壶嘴”、“山脚”、“山腰”、“没面子”、“首领”、“桌子腿”、“火山口”，“脚注”等。
英语里有：“eye of a needle”, “mouth of a volcano”, “bottle-neck”, “head of department”, “arm of a chair”, “footnote”等等。
这些语言形式也已经被人们接受，成为了普普通通的语言。
可见，隐喻式的思维方式已经成为了人们认识世界的基本方式。
1. 结构隐喻(structural metaphor)⏹结构隐喻是概念隐喻的一种，是指以一种概念的结构构造另一种概念，使两种概念相叠加，用较为熟知的、具体的概念词语谈论不熟悉的概念。
2个概念的认知域虽然不同，但它们的结构保持不变，即各自的构成成分存在着有规律的对应关系。
E.g. The Internet is a highway.2. 方位隐喻(orientational metaphor)⏹Lakoff在提到的用方位词语 (up, down) 描述人的社会地位、身体状况、情绪等抽象概念时所给的例子happy /good is up; sad/bad is down.low/high spiritFall into depression3. 实体隐喻(ontological metaphor英语中有许多用土豆来指人或事的用法。
俄语时间概念隐喻研究
摘要本论文以概念隐喻理论为基础，研究时间概念隐喻及其在俄语中的体现。
时间作为物质存在的基本方式，一直是自然科学和人文社科研究的重要课题。
由于其本身的高度抽象性，在语言中时间有自己独特的表达方式——隐喻。
认知语言学认为，隐喻不仅仅是一种语言现象、修辞手段，还是认知世界的主要方式。
语言中的时间隐喻是系统的、概念化的，与个人的认知经验、思维模式乃至整个民族文化、民族心智紧密相关。
任何一种文化都有着自己独特的、素有的或外来的时间概念体系，它在文化内部语境和跨文化交流中起着重要作用。
透过俄语中的时间概念隐喻，可以看到俄罗斯人民对时间的认知途径以及对世界的理解方式。
本文依据由理论到实践的路线，采取从意义到形式的方法，结合大量例句对俄语的时间概念隐喻进行深入研究，由浅入深、层层递进地提出了俄语中时间的八大概念类型，三大隐喻维度和两种认知模型。
并且针对不同的隐喻类型提出了不同的翻译策略建议。
本文对时间概念隐喻的研究揭示了研究对象的基本特征和语言背后隐藏的认知规律，它可以解释语言背后的心智活动，帮助我们理解俄语中时间隐喻的深刻内涵，在跨文化交际中消除文化壁垒，做出正确的判断和预测，进行有效沟通。
因此该项研究具有重要的理论意义和实践价值。
本文主要由绪论、三章正文及结论三部分构成。
绪论部分主要为隐喻理论的研究历史与现状的文献综述，并阐述了本文的研究意义、主要内容、重点难点和基本框架。
第一章阐释了隐喻理论概论，其中包括隐喻理论研究的基本问题和研究内容，以及概念隐喻理论的学科背景、基本特征和基本类型。
第二章论述了俄语中的时间概念隐喻现象。
第一部分将俄语中的时间概念划分为参数、年龄、时空、货币、道德、价值、末世和事件八大概念类型；第二部分阐述了时间的方位隐喻、本体隐喻和结构隐喻。
第三部分从静态和动态两大模型分析人与时间的关系，及其在语言中的体现。
第三章探讨了俄语时间概念隐喻在翻译实践中的应用。
通过实例论证了影响I隐喻转换的三大因素，并分别解释了直译和意译两种翻译策略的选择情境。
(2024年高考真题)2024年北京市普通高中学业水平等级性考试英语试卷(含答案)
2024年普通高等学校招生全国统一考试北京卷英语试卷养成良好的答题习惯，是决定成败的决定性因素之一。
做题前，要认真阅读题目要求、题干和选项，并对答案内容作出合理预测;答题时，切忌跟着感觉走，最好按照题目序号来做，不会的或存在疑问的，要做好标记，要善于发现，找到题目的题眼所在，规范答题，书写工整;答题完毕时，要认真检查，查漏补缺，纠正错误。
第一部分知识运用(共两节，30分)第一节(共10小题;每小题 1. 5分，共15分)阅读下面短文，掌握其大意，从每题所给的A、B、C、D 四个选项中，选出最佳选项。
I’d just arrived at school, ready for another school day. I was reading a book in the classroom when there was an 1 . “Today at 1: 10 there will be auditions (面试) for a musical.” My friends all jumped up in excitement and asked me, “Will you be going, Amy?” “Sure,” I said. I had no 2 in drama, but I’d try out because my friends were doing it.At 1:10, there was a 3 outside the drama room. Everyone looked energetic. I hadn’t expected I’d be standing there that morning. But now that I was doing it, I 4 felt nervous. What if I wasn’t any good?I entered the room and the teachers made me say some lines from the musical. They then 5 my singing skills and asked what role I wanted to play. The teachers were smiling and praising me. I felt like I had a 6 , so I said, “A big role.” They said they’d look into it. I started getting really nervous. What if I didn’t get a main role?Soon, the cast list was 7 . My friends checked and came back shouting, “Amy, you got the main role! ” Sure enough, my name was at the top. I just stared at it and started to 8 . I was so happy.After two months we were all prepared and ready to go on stage. It was fun. And when people started 9 , that gave me a boost of confidence. It stayed with me and made me feel 10 . I realised that by trying something new, I can have fun — even if it means stepping out of my comfort zone.1．A．assignment B．initiative C．announcement D．interview2．A．hesitancy B．interest C．worry D．regret3．A．game B．show C．play D．line4．A．suddenly B．continuously C．originally D．generally5．A．advertised B．tested C．challenged D．polished6．A．demand B．credit C．dream D．chance7．A．traded B．posted C．questioned D．claimed8．A．well up B．roll in C．stand out D．go off9．A．whispering B．arguing C．clapping D．stretching10．A．funnier B．fairer C．cleverer D．braver第二节(共10小题;每小题1. 5分，共15分)A阅读下列短文，根据短文内容填空。
英汉语中颜色动物的比喻
4. Simile and Metaphor about animals
1. Lead-in
“你这个胆小鬼！”他轻蔑地看着汤姆道. ≠ 你这只鸡. The stork visited the Howard Johnson yesterday． 霍华德· 约翰斯顿家昨天添了一个孩子. 你真熊！
≠
“You chicken！” he cried, looking at Tom with contempt．
e.g.
白菜
白蚁
Chinese cabbage termite
白费事
白送 白开水 白皙 白肉
all in vain, a waste of time and energy
give away, free of charge, for nothing plain boiled water light complexioned, blond plain boiled pork
坦白
白痴 苍白 白话
to confess, to make a clean breast of sth.
idiot pale/ be white with sth. vernacular Chinese/ empty talk
Some phrases with „white‟: be white with sth. 因情绪变化或生病而脸色苍白的
有鹳鸟做客
You are so stupid!
He is as slippery as an eel !
那个家伙简直象条泥瞅！ He is very cunning !
From the above examples we can see people often connect some characters with some objects and animals Looking at these objects and animals, people may often think of some association. The association may differ from cultures. That’s simile, metaphor and their association.
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Tenor and Vehicle
A metaphor consists of two main parts: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor is the subject to which the metaphor is applied. The vehicle is the metaphorical term through which the tenor is applied. These two parts come together to reach a point of similarity known as a ground. For Example: Life is a yo-yo. It's a series of youps and downs. Here, life is the tenor and yo-yo is the yovehicle. The fact that both life and a yo-yo yohave ups and downs is the ground. ground.
Emotion scenarios can well account for negative emotions such as ANGER, but functions poorly for positive emotions such as JOY and LOVE. See the middle of p142.
Basic emotion words
Two blocks at P137. Basic emotion words serve as reference points to describe nonnonbasic emotion words.
Linguistic reflection of basic vs. nonnon-basic in terms of emotion words
By Richards and Max Black. The essence of metaphor. See the middle lines of P116.
Conventionalized metaphors
Alternative term: dead metaphor, usages that have been demetaphorized. E.g. see Figure 3.2 at P117.
Examples to show the structuring power of metaphors
1. An argument is a journey/battle/container/building. P122ff. 2.The mind/idea is…. P125ff. is…
Experiential view of conceptual metaphors
See P128.
Combination of metaphors and metonymies
Combination of metaphors and metonymies is possible. Example and analysis, see P129.
A general metonymic principle Y Kovecses and Lakoff
2. Metaphors in science: explanatory or constitutive? Mainly explanatory, for examples see computer metaphors. P147. There are also constitutive metaphors according Kuhn(1993). For example, THE ATOM IS A SOLAR SYSTEM, the computer virus metaphor. P148. In popular scientific theories, both types exist. P149.
3.Conceptual metaphors in politics. The explanatory potential of metaphors is often less important than their emotional impact. P149. Metaphors are taken advantage of by politicians and military commanders. P151.
The middle of P126. For our conceptualizing of abstract categories we rely on basic experiences in three ways. P127.
Similarities and distinctions of metaphor and metonymy
A comparison of metonymy and metaphor
The last two paragraphs at P115. Types of contiguity-relations in contiguitymetonymieeory of metaphor
The physiological effects of an emotion stand for the emotion. P131 the middle.
Three features of metonymy as revealed by figure 3.7
For figure see P132. Three features of metonymy: P131-132; P131-
Metonymies of emotion and metaphors of emotion are based on body heat. P133. See Figure 3.8. at P134. Metaphors of emotion abound. But metonymies of emotion are few. In the case of ANGER the contributions of metaphors on the one hand and metonymies on the other are quite balanced. See P134. Lopsided for the case of JOY and LOVE. See P135.
Chapter 3 Conceptual metaphors and metonymies
Defining metaphor
At its most basic, metaphor is a rhetorical trope or a figure of speech, where a comparison is made between two seemingly unrelated objects without using "like" or "as". It is a transference of one object's characteristics onto another. However, it is not to be confused with simile, metonymy, personification and so on so forth.
Structural mapping between journey and life.
See figure 3.4. In the mapping from source domain to target domain, the former is more concrete, while the latter is more abstract. E.g. see Figure 3.5. at P121.
Metaphor is a cognitive instrument, according to Black (1962). Illustration see the middle of P118.
Reddy(1993)’s conduit metaphor and illustrations
Reddy(1993)’ Reddy(1993)’s conduit metaphor: Nine examples are used to illustrate how the imparting of knowledge is conceptualized as how manageable objected are packed, transported, and unpacked. P119.
P138.
Major metonymy and metaphors supporting the category EMOTION, see Figure 3.10. at P140.
Emotion scenario and prototypicality
The bottom of P140 and Figure 3.11 at P141.
Summary of the main points of this chapter. Five points at P152.
New insights into emotion: five points at P142.
Metaphors as a way of thinking: examples from science and politics
1. Metaphors and the description of linguistic phenomena. Two metaphors: Language form is building block; Language is scaffolding. Langacker criticizes the former and consents the latter. P144-145. P144-