杨忠---语言学概论中文版学习指导东北师范大学
杨忠语言学笔记
LinguisticsChapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics●What is language?⏹Different definitions of language◆Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in theirsynchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)◆[Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in lengthand constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)◆Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarilyproduced symbols.⏹Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence oflanguage, but all of them have left out something. We must see themulti-faceted nature of language.⏹As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as asystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.●Features of human language⏹Creativity◆Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have neverbeen sent before and for understanding brand new messages.◆The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences areinfinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.⏹Duality◆Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings.◆Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.◆Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequencesof speech sounds.⏹Arbitrariness◆The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.◆There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.⏹Displacement◆There is no limit in time or space for language.◆Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present orfuture.⏹Cultural transmission◆Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.◆Language is a way of transmitting culture.⏹Interchangeability◆All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.⏹Reflexivity◆Human languages can be used to describe themselves.◆The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.●Functions of language – three meta-functions⏹The ideational function◆To identify things, to think, or to record information.⏹The interpersonal function◆To get along in a community.⏹The textual function◆To form a text.●Types of language⏹Genetic classification⏹Typological classification◆Analytic language –no inflections or formal changes, grammaticalrelationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese andVietnamese◆Synthetic language –grammatical relationships are expressed bychanging the internal structure of the words, typically by changing theinflectional endings, such as English and German◆Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units,with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such asJapanese and Turkish●The myth of language – language origin⏹The Biblical account◆Language was God’s gift to human beings.⏹The bow-wow theory◆Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries ofanimals, like quack, cuckoo.⏹The pooh-pooh theory◆Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain orjoy.⏹The yo-he-ho theory◆Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged injoint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.⏹The evolution theory◆Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call ofsocial need.●What is linguistics?⏹Linguistics is the scientific study of language.◆Observing & questioning◆Formulating hypotheses◆Verifying the hypotheses◆Proposing a theory⏹Branches of linguistics◆Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions●Phonetics●Phonology●Morphology●Syntax●Semantics◆External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions●Pragmatics●Psycholinguistics●Sociolinguistics●Applied linguistics●Computational linguistics●Neurolinguistics⏹Features of linguistics◆Descriptive◆Dealing with spoken language◆SynchronicChapter 2 Phonetics●What is phonetics?⏹Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.⏹Sub-branches of phonetics◆Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech sounds◆Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech sounds◆Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds●The speech organs⏹Where does the air stream come from?◆From the lung⏹What is the function of vocal cords?◆Controlling the air stream⏹What are the cavities?◆Oral cavity◆Pharyngeal cavity◆Nasal cavity●Transcription of speech sounds⏹Units of representation◆Segments (the individual sounds)⏹Phonetic symbols◆The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds isthe International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).◆The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a singlesymbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguishphonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.◆In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may betranscribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to markthe finer distinctions.●Description of speech sounds⏹Description of English consonants◆General feature: obstruction◆Criteria of consonant description●Places of articulation●Manners of articulation●V oicing of articulation◆Places of articulation●This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified toproduce a sound.⏹Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]⏹Labiodental: [f] [v]⏹Interdental: [ ] [❆]⏹Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]⏹Palatal: [☞] [✞] [t☞] [d✞] [j]⏹Velar: [k] [g] [☠]⏹Glottal: [h]◆Manners of articulation●This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it iscompletely blocked or partially obstructed.⏹Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]⏹Fricatives: [s] [z] [☞] [✞] [f] [v] [ ] [❆] [h]⏹Affricates: [t☞] [d✞]⏹Liquids: [l] [r]⏹Glides: [w] [j]⏹Nasals: [m] [n] [☠]◆V oicing of articulation●This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds areproduced.⏹V oiced sounds⏹V oiceless sounds⏹Description of English vowels◆General feature: without obstruction◆Criteria of vowel description●Part of the tongue that is raised⏹Front⏹Central⏹Back●Extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate⏹High⏹Mid⏹Low●Kind of opening made at the lips●Position of the soft palate◆Single vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs●Phonetic features and natural classes⏹Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.⏹Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowelboundary.⏹Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations ofsounds can be analyzed.Chapter 3 Phonology●What is phonology?⏹Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.⏹Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which areconcerned with the study of speech sounds.⏹Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.◆What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning ina particular language?◆What sounds vary in what ways in what context?◆What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?●Phonemes and allophones⏹ A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.⏹The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.⏹We use allophones to realize phonemes.●Discovering phonemes⏹Contrastive distribution – phonemes◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be incontrastive distribution.◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs andminimal sets.● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one soundin the same position.●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by onesegment in the same position.◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels representedby the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features.Therefore, they are separate phonemes.⏹Complementary distribution – allophones◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be incomplementary distribution.◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number offeatures, they are allophones of the same phoneme.⏹Free variation◆If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution doesnot result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.●Distinctive and non-distinctive features⏹Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and featuresdo not, non-distinctive features.⏹Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.●Phonological rules⏹Phonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones arethe actual pronunciations in speech.⏹What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context isanother major question in phonology.⏹The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context aregeneralized and stated in phonology as rules.⏹There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones asexamples.●[+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_●[-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_●Syllable structure⏹ A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.⏹Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.⏹The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onsetand followed by one or more consonants called the coda.●Sequence of phonemes⏹Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be puttogether.⏹Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences arecalled systematic gaps.⏹Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.⏹When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but theywill never fill systematic gaps.●Suprasegmental features⏹Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or moresegments are called suprasegmental features.⏹These features are distinctive features.⏹Stress◆Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements overothers in a word.◆Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or moresyllables have stress.◆If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and asecondary stress.◆In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. InEnglish, word stress is unpredictable.⏹Intonation◆When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.◆Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.◆The same sentence uttered with different intonation may expressdifferent attitude of the speaker.◆In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.⏹Tone◆Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.◆The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered withdifferent tones.◆Chinese is a typical tone language.Chapter 4 Morphology●What is morphology?⏹The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.⏹Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds withmeaning.⏹Morphology is defined as t he study of the internal structure and theformation of words.●Morphemes and allomorphs⏹The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.⏹ A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.⏹“zero” form of a morpheme and suppletives◆Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly,some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In thesetwo cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among whichther e is one “zero form” of a morpheme.◆Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In thiscase, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not relatedin form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are calledsuppletives.●Free and bound morphemes⏹Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes arecalled free morphemes.⏹Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. Theyare always attached to free morphemes to form new words. Thesemorphemes are called bound morphemes.⏹The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme iswhether it can be used independently in speech or writing.⏹Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are theaffixes (prefixes and suffixes).●Inflexional and derivational morphemes⏹Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number ofnouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.⏹Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms toconstruct new words.◆English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.◆Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted intoother morphemes.◆The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words iscalled derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes◆Bound morphemes●Inflexional●Derivational: affixes⏹Prefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -s⏹Suffixes●Formation of new words⏹Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create aderived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes tothe word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness,unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.◆Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a differentlanguage origin.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.⏹Compounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is thecombination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words fromthe three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the threeclasses.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech ofthe word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of thecomponents.⏹Conversion◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class intoanother class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.⏹Clipping◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting oneor more syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informaloccasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even informal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian),gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax (facsimile)are rarelyused in their complete form.⏹Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog(smoke +frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfastand lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word inthe textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind ofmachine that is like both a plane and a bike).⏹Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a realor supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed fromtelevision. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefixtele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix–sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in theword television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.⏹Acronyms and abbreviations◆Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initialletters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer thanabbreviations, which are read letter by letter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations andscientific terminology.⏹Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals orplaces. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originatingfrom the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slicesof bread so that he could eat while gambling.⏹Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existingmorphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases whereindustry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak andCoca-cola.Chapter 5 Syntax●What is syntax?⏹The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literallymeans “arrangement” or “setting out together”.⏹Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways inwhich words, with or without appropriate inflexions, are arranged to showconnexions of meaning within the sentence.⏹Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentences.●What is a sentence?⏹Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence ofwords arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules.⏹ A sequence can be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of alanguage know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and whatare ungrammatical.●Knowledge of sentence structure⏹Structural ambiguity◆Structural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have morethan one meaning. For example, the sentence Tom said he would comeyesterday can be interpreted in different ways.⏹Word order◆Different arrangements of the same words have different meanings. Forexample, with the words Tom, love and Mary, we may say Tom lovesMary or Mary loves Tom.⏹Grammatical relations◆Native speakers know what element relates to what other elementdirectly or indirectly. For example, in The boats are not big enough andWe don’t have enough boats, the word enough is related to differentwords in the two sentences.⏹Recursion◆The same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. Forexample, I know that you are happy. He knows that I know that you arehappy. She knows that he knows that I know that you are happy.⏹Sentence relatedness◆Sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.⏹Syntactic categories◆ A syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute forone another without loss of grammaticality. For example, consider thefollowing sentences:●The child found the knife.● A policeman found the knife.●The man who just left here found the knife.●He found the knife.◆All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called nounphrase (NP). The noun phrases in these sentences function as subject.The knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.●Traditional grammar⏹In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words whichare classified into parts of speech.⏹Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects,objects, verbs (predicates), predicatives, …⏹Compulsory elements of a sentence: subject, verb, object, complement,adverbial…⏹Nou ns: number, case, gender…⏹Verbs: tense, aspect, voice…⏹Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative degrees⏹Agreement in number/person/gender⏹Parsing: trying to make detailed analysis in structure●Structural grammar⏹Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditionalgrammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units.In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independentgrammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.⏹Form class◆Form class is a wider concept than part of speech in traditional grammar.◆Linguistic units which can appear in the same slot are said to be in thesame form class. For example, a(n), the, my, that, every,etc. can beplaced before nouns in English sentences. These words fall into oneform class.◆These linguistic units are observed to have the same distribution.⏹Immediate constituent (IC) analysis◆Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.◆ A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of thesentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Eachsection is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cutinto constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituentanalysis.◆Examples:●Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women●The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.◆In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but alsovertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity andthe hierarchy of sentence structure.●I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology|||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.◆Two advantages of IC analysis:●It can analyze some ambiguities.●It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.●Transformational-generative (TG) grammar⏹Background and the goal of TG grammar◆Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.●Adequacy of observation●Adequacy of description●Adequacy of explanation◆Writing a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules –phrasestructure rules and transformation rules –which are followed byspeakers of the language.◆TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.⏹Syntactic categories◆Noun Phrase (NP)◆Verb Phrase (VP)◆Sentence (S)◆Determiner (Det)◆Adjective (Adj)◆Pronoun (Pro)◆Verb (V)◆Auxiliary Verb (Aux)◆Prepositional Phrase (PP)◆Adverb (Adv)⏹Phrase structure (PS) rules◆S → NP VP(Det) (Adj) N◆NP →{Pro◆VP → (Aux) V (NP) (PP)◆PP → P NP⏹Tree diagrams (omit)⏹Recursion and the infinitude of language◆S contains NP and VP and that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NPand PP can be mutually inclusive. If phrasal categories appear on bothsides of the arrow in phrase structure rules, the rules are recursive.Recursive rules can be applied again and again, and the phrase structurecan grow endlessly.⏹Sub-categorization of the lexicon.◆The process of putting words of the same lexical category into smallerclasses according to their syntactic characteristics is calledsub-categorization.⏹Transformational rules (T-rules)◆Particle movement T-rule●John turned the machine off. John turned off the machine.◆Replacement T-rule●John beat Tom. He beat Tom.●The house needs repairing (to be repaired).◆Insertion T-rule● A fish is swimming in the pond. There is a fish swimming in thepond.◆Deletion T-rule●They came in and (they) sat down.◆Copying T-rule●He is coming, isn’t he?●He has finished his homework, hasn’t he?◆Reflexivization T-rule●I wash me (myself).⏹TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.●Systematic-functional grammar⏹Background and the goal of systemic-functional grammar◆M. A. K. Halliday●Language is a system of meaning potential and a network ofmeaning as choices.●Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realizedthrough forms.●The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function andmeaning are realized through forms.●The three meta-functions of language⏹Ideational function⏹Interpersonal function⏹Textual function⏹The transitivity system of language◆Elements●Process●Participants●Circumstances◆Categorization of reality●Doing – material process⏹Processes involving physical actions: walking, running,throwing, kicking, wrapping, etc.⏹Actor, goal and circumstance●Being – relational process⏹Processes representing a relation being set up between twoseparate entities.⏹Be (identifying), have (attributive)⏹Carrier/possessor and attribute/possessed●Sensing – mental process⏹Processes of sensing, including feeling, thinking, perceiving,imagining, wanting, liking, etc.⏹Senser and phenomenon●Less central types of linguistic process⏹Verbal processes – saying something◆Sayer and receiver⏹Behavioural processes – active conscious processes◆Behaver and range⏹Existential processes – existence of an entity◆Existent⏹Mood and modality◆Mood expresses the speaker’s attitude and serves for interpersonalfunction. It is a syntactic constituent made up of the subject and thefinite.◆Modality is the degree of certainty or frequency expressed by thegrammatical forms of finite. It can be categorized by modalization andmodulation.⏹Theme and rheme◆Theme is the given information, while rheme is the new information.◆Examples:●John | is my friend.●He | should have replied to my letter.Chapter 6 Semantics●What is semantics?⏹Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the onlylinguistic discipline that studies meaning.⏹Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In otherwords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences outof context.●Reference and sense⏹Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. There are two aspectsof meaning.⏹Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity inthe world. But the referential theory fails to account for certain kinds oflinguistic expression.◆Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entities in the realworld, such as the words dragon, phoenix, unicorn, and mermaid.◆It is not possible for some words to find referent in the world, such asthe words but, and, of, however, the, etc.◆Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round trianglealthough there is no such graph.⏹Sense is the relation by which words stand in human mind. It is mentalre presentation, the association with something in the speaker’s or hearer’smind. The study of meaning from the perspective of sense is called therepresentational approach.●Classification of lexical meanings⏹Referential meaning (denotative meaning) – central meaning of words, stable,universal⏹Associative meaning –meaning that hinges on referential meaning, lessstable, more culture-specific◆Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has byvirtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent,。
杨忠--语言学概论 课后综合测试题及中文版答案
综合测试题（一）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points)( ) 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. ( ) 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology. ( ) 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children”is structurally ambiguous.( ) 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.( ) 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.( ) 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.( ) 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.( ) 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.( ) 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research.( )10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. displacementD. interchangeability2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A. analyticB. isolatingC. syntheticD. agglutinating3. The general roles language plays are termed .A. metalanguagesB. metafunctionsC. metadiscoursesD. metagrammar4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A. BlendingB. EponymsC. BackformationD. Clipping5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A. suffixB. prefixC. morphemeD. morph6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A. EnvironmentalistB. functionalistC. nativistD. both a and b7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.A. person deixisB. time deixisC. place deixisD. discourse deixis8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleusB. onsetD. code D. rhyme9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A. linguisticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongueof a speech community.A. pidginB. creoleC. EsperantoD. natural languageIII. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets: (10 points)A B( ) 1. Socialinguistics a. the analysis of sentence structure( ) 2. Applied Linguistics b. the analysis of meaning in context( ) 3. Morphology C. the analysis of meaning( ) 4.d Phonetics d. the study of sound systems and patterns( ) 5.Linguistics e. the application of linguistic theories to other spheres ( ) 6. Syntax f. the study of speech sounds( ) 7. Psycholinguistics g. the study of the relationship between language and society ( ) 8. Pragmatics h. the study of word structure( ) 9. Phonology i. the scientific study of language( ) 10 Semantics j. the study of the relationship between language and mindIV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s) they all share: (10 points)1.[t∫][dз]2.[m] [n] [ɡ]3.[f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h]4.[d] [n] [z] [l] [r]5.[i:] [i] [u:] [u]V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)VI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)1.The duck is too hot to eat.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________2.Visiting friends can be boring.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. derivation2.learner factorsVIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the difference between “a red and a redcoat” ?2.What are the features of modern linguistics?3. According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?综合测试题（二）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logicalmetafunction.( ) 2. Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human language. ( ) 3. Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation according to Halliday.( ) 4. Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.( ) 5. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning. ( ) 6. Second language acquisition is a complex process which involves social factors and learner factors.( ) 7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialets, sociodialects and registers.( ) 8. Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. ( ) 9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.( ) 10. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The language used to talk about language is called __________.A. languageB. metalanguageC. natural languageD. artificial language2. [+continuant] specifies ________________.A. all the fricativesB. all the fricatives and glidesC. all the fricatives and liquidsD. all the fricatives, liquids and glides3. _________ is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words.A. CoinageB. BlendingC. AcronmymsD. Clipping4. A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.A. morphemeB. wordC. phonemeD. allophones5.The word “multinationality has ___________ morphemes.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 56._________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varietiesaccording to use”, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are “varieties according to user”.A. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register7.__________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A. back-channel signalsB. adjacency pairsC. pre-sequencesD. insertion sequences8.The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalizedby Grice (1975) as ____________.A. the principle of relevanceB. cooperative principleC. the politeness principleD. the theory of prototypes9.Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they differ in__________.A. affective meaningB. styleC. collocationD. register10.“John explained the theory”is a ___________ process according toHalliday.A. materialB. mentalC. verbalD. behavioralIII. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points)1.Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative principlegeneralized by Grice.2.M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and languageteachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.3. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing ameaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act. The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act.The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.4.The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain isreferred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________ .5.C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deletingone or more syllables.6. A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a___________,7.The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of children’language development.8. A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from otherregional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.IV. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)( ) 1. This vet is very famous in the town. a. Conversion ( ) 2. This classroom is large and bright.. b. Derivation ( ) 3. He is watering flowers. C. Blending ( ) 4. Orlon is a kind of cloth material. d. Backformation( ) 5. Watt is the measurement unit of electricity. e. Acronym( ) 6. EEC is an important organization in the world. f. Compounding ( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage( ) 8. The road was enlarged last year. h. Eponym( ) 9. Some young people have brunch quite often. i. ClippingV. Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the sounds according to the natural class of sounds. And then name the feature(s) that define the one picked out and the group of sounds: (10 points)For example: [z] voiced/voiceless [f] [θ] [z] [s]1. [ ] ____________ ____ [m] [ŋ] [l] [n]2. [ ] ____________ ____ [p] [b] [m] [v] [w]3. [ ] ____________ ____ [s] [z] [∫] [dз] [з]4. [ ] ____________ ___________ [i:] [i] [æ] [u] [e]5. [ ] __________________________ [i:] [ə:] [e] [æ]VI. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “He found his book on Wall Street”: (10 points)VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)nguage and linguistics2.semantics and pragmaticsVII. Answer the following questions:(40%)1.How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human language?2.What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship betweenthem?3.What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?综合测试题（三）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets. (10 points)( ) 1. A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.( ) 2. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage. ( ) 3. The word “went” contains two morphemes.( ) 4. The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is called componential analysis (CA).( ) 5. Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or association with particular objects, action, or persons.( ) 6. The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.( ) 7. In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in Korean, they are allophones.( ) 8. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.( ) 9. Compounding is one type of word formation by combining both free morphemes and bound morphemes.( )10. The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The followings are all features of language except __________.A. dualityB. productivityC. changeabilityD. displacement2. The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.A. synonymyB. antonymC. polysemyD. homonymy3. ______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ConversionB. AbbreviationC. EponymsD. Blending4. Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.A. babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speechB. babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrasticC. babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speechD. babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word5. The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second language acquisition except _________.A. motivationB. nationalityC. ageD. learning strategy6. Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leech (1983) proposes _____________.A. the cooperative principleB. the principle of relevanceC. the politeness principle C. speech acts7.Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.A. moon/noonB. foot/foodC. she/sheetD. sea/sea8.The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or moresegments are called ___________.A. distinctive featuresB. non-distinctive featuresC. suprasegmental featuresD. free variation9.The ____________ function (sometimes also referred to as experientialfunction) is realized by the transitivity system of language.A. ideationalB. interpersonalC. textualD. logical10.Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound morphemes_________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. affixesD. inflectional morphemesIII. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)( ) 1. Most children like drinking Coca-cola. a. Conversion ( ) 2. UNESCO is a branch United Nations. b. Derivation ( ) 3. The police machineguned the gang. c. Blending( ) 4. I like sandwiches very much. d. Backformation ( ) 5. There are a lot of fruits in the fridge. e. Acronym ( ) 6. Infotech is popular nowadays. f. Compounding ( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage( ) 8. His stepmother is very kind to him. h. Eponym( ) 9. The street was widened last year. i. ClippingIV. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(10 points)1. labiodentals [ ]2. interdentals [ ]3. back vowels [ ]4. high vowels [ ]5. palatal affricates [ ]V. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket. (10 points)( ) 1. The noise annoyed him. a. Material process ( ) 2. The police caught him b. Relational process ( ) 3. There are two books on the table. c. Mental process ( ) 4. John explained the theory to me. d. Verbal process( ) 5. He watches TV every day. e. Behavioral process ( ) 6. The conference is on Monday f. Existential processVI. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1.arbitrariness2.voicingVII. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “They can fish”. (10 points)VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse?2.What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with examples.3.What are the components of metaphors?综合测试题（四）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. English is a tone language.( ) 2. Bound morphemes are always attached to free morphemes to form new words.( ) 3. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meanings. ( ) 4. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process.( ) 5. Overgeneralization is found universal in second language acquisition. ( ) 6. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are experiential metafunction, interpersonal metafunction anddiscourse metafunction.( ) 7. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage. ( ) 8. There are two types of language in the world: natural language and artificial language.( ) 9. Coinage is a process of inventing words based on existing morphemes. ( )10 Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contributions in learning a second language.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The word “antidisestablishmentariaism” is composed of ______ morphemes.A. sixB. sevenC. eightD. nine2. __________ refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A. VoicingB. VoicedC. NasalizationD. Aspiration3. Smog is a ___________ word.A. derivedB. clippedC. blendedD. compound4. The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importance. This kind of motivation may be termed ____ motivation.A. instrumentalB. integrativeC. cognitiveD. none of them5. [u:] possesses the features _____________.A. [+high][+back][+round][-tense]B. [+high][-back][+round][+tense]C.[+high][+back][+round][+tense]D. [-high][+back][+round][+tense]6. English is an example of _________ languages.A. VSOB. SVOC. SOVD. SVO7. A ________ is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrastwords in meaning and in form.A. phonemeB. phoneC. morphemeD. morph8.Free morphemes were traditionally called _________.A. affixesB. prefixC. suffixD. root9.The lexical sense relation between elephant and animal is __________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. antonymyD. homonymy10.Words like male and female, pass and fail, etc. are ________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. relativeIII. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracketbefore the sentence. (10 points)( ) 1. John is talking to Jane. a. Material process ( ) 2. Tom is the leader b. Relational process ( ) 3. There is a cat on the bed. c. Mental process ( ) 4. The bad news astonished her. d. Verbal process ( ) 5. Edward broke the window. e. Behavioral process ( ) 6. He waved his hands. f. Existential processIV. State what semantic property or properties are shared by the group of words. (10 points)For example: typewriter, ruler, notebook[ +stationary]1. king, bachelor, son ________________________2. bull, rooster, stallion ________________________3. pine, rose, elm4. bravery, charity, devotion5. car, bike, planeV. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and the describe it. (10 points)Example: far [a:] back low vowel1. thread [ ]2. beat [ ]3. important [ ]4. live [ ]5. stop [ ]VI. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10 points)1.She can not bear children.(1)(2)(3) ______________________________________________2.He hates old men and women.(1)(2)VII. Explain the following terms with examples. (10 points)pounding2.Free variationVII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the distinction between semantics and pragmatics?2.What are the four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicativecompetence according to Hymes (1972)?3.What are the three types of antonyms (lexical opposition) in English?综合测试题（五）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.( ) 2. Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meaning.( ) 3. The Swiss linguist Chomsky regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.( ) 4. Language can be used to refer to things real or false, past, present or future.( ) 5. Language is merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation.( ) 6. We use language as symbolic code to represent the world around us. ( ) 7. The ideatonal function of language binds individuals together. ( ) 8. When we speak or write we usually confine ourselves to single phrases or sentences.( ) 9. Language is mostly a natural phenomenon.( ) 10. Applied linguistic is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields.Ⅱ. Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it. (5 points)1.Geographic2.Red3.Song4.Clock5.PsychopathyⅢ. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions. (5 points) Initial Medial Finalpit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cabFind similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:1./k/-/g/2./m/-/n/3./l/-/r/4./b/-/v/5./b/-/m/Ⅳ. Each of the following columns illustrates a different morphological process. (10 points)Column ⅠColumn ⅡColumn ⅢA. chairs A. reality A. blackboardB. wider B. movement B. greenhouseC.looked C.malcontent C. makeshiftD. Tom’s D. stepmother D. paintwork(1) What morphological process is shown by Column Ⅰ, Ⅱand Ⅲ.(2) What is the morphological difference between a),b) and c),d) inColumn Ⅱ.Ⅴ. Tell whether polarity or modality is expressed in the following sentences if modality, then identify the type (modalization or modulation). (10 points)1.I have not finished the task.2.He often comes to my office.3.I will show you how to make up the bed.4.He hardly came back to see his mother5.The company ought to cut the price of the products.Ⅵ. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/-PAN], [+/-POT], [+/-OVEN], [+/-SIEVE], etC. (10 points)boil:fry:steam:stew:bake:Ⅶ. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved:(15 points)a).The professor’s appointment was shocking.b).The design has big squares and circles.c).The governor is a dirty street fighter.Ⅷ. What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B?What is the implicature? (5 points)a).The dress is lovely, isn’t it?b).The material is nice.Ⅸ. Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence the magician touched the child with the wand. Be sure you indicate which meaning goes with which tree. (10 points)Ⅹ. Answer the following question: (20points)1.What is the functioning of stress and intonation in English?2.How do you account for the relation between phonetics andphonology?综合测试题（六）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (20 points)( ) 1. In the study of the first step is the task of auditory phonetics.( ) 2. The sound source is the larynx.( ) 3. The oral cavity contains most of the articulators, namely, the uvula, the velum the hard palate.( ) 4. Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower lip are labialdentals.( ) 5. Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme. ( ) 6. Abbreviations are formed by putting together the final letters of some or all words in a phrase or title.( ) 7. Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.( ) 8. All members.of a speech community can send and take messages. ( ) 9.Traditional grammar was initially based on European language, particularly on Latin and German.( ) 10. One of the important concepts of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.( ) 11. Pragmatics is the analysis of meaning in context.( ) 12. The meanings communicated through language are or two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings( ) 13. An expression used by a s peaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.( ) 14. Chomsky theory of conversational implicature is regarded as a breakthrough in pragmatic study of language use.( ) 15. Relevance is a relative notion. It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.( ) 16. Modality can be categorized into modalization and intention.( ) 17. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the object and the finite. ( ) 18. Relational processes are linguistic processes that represent a relation being set up between two separate.( ) 19. Mental processes are processes of sensing.( ) 20. A TG grammar must account for all or only grammatical sentences.Ⅱ. Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes. (5 points)1.Retroactive2.Befriended3.Televise4.Margin5.EndearmentⅢ.Write the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part of each word in A. (5 points)A Ba. terrorized (1) free rootb. uncivilized (2) bound rootC. terrorize (3) inflectional suffixd. lukewarm (4) derivational suffixe. impossible (5) inflectional prefix(6) derivational prefix(7) inflectional infix(8) derivational infixⅣ. Write out at least ten structure rules that each of the following rules abbreviate. (5 points)V P→V (NP) (PP) (Adv)NP→(Det) (Adj) N (PP)Ⅴ .Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences: (10 points)a)The man found the letter.b)The students put the books in the classroom.Ⅵ. Write the semantic feature shared by the given words. (5 points)1.Bull, rooster, bachelor, boyk, water, alcohol, oil3.Squash, tennis, cricket, fencing, boxing4.Idea, concept, love, clarity, democracy5.Pine, elm, willow, birch, poplarⅦ.Each of the following words is a basic level term. Write its superordinate in the left blank and one of its subordinate in the right blank. (10 points)1.table2.willow3.cat4.blue5.dictionary6.painting7.driver8.verb9.chemistry10.juiceⅧ. The opposite of analytic is contradictory. A sentence that is false due to the meaning of its words alone is contradictory.Kings are female is an example. Write a C by the contradictory sentences and S for situational by sentences that are not contradictory. (10 points)1.My sister is a man.2.Witches are wicked3.My sister is an only child.4.The evening star isn’t the morning star.5.The evening star isn’t the evening star.6.Babies are adults.7.Babies can lift one ton.8.Puppies are human.9.My bachelor friends are all married.10.My bachelor friends are all lonely.Ⅸ. Pig Latin is a common language game of English; but even Pig Latin has dialects, forms of the “language game” with different rules. (10 points)Consider the following data from three dialects of Pig Latin, each with its own rule applied to words beginning with vowels:Dialect 1 Dialect 2 Dialect 3“eat” [itme] [ithe] [ite]“arc” [arkme] [arkhe] [arke]⑴ State the rule that accounts for the Pig Latin forms in each dialect.Dialect 1:Dialect 2:Dialect 3:⑵ How would you say honest, admire, and illegal in each dialect? Give thephonetic transcription of the Pig Latin forms.honest 1. 2. 3.admire 1. 2. 3.illegal 1. 2. 3.Ⅹ. Answer the following questions: (20 points)1.What is the function of phonological knowledge?2.Exemplify the differences between anaphoric and cataphoricreference.综合测试题（七）Ⅰ. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points)1.The term l a refers to the natural process ofchildren’s language development.2.It is found that children all undergo certain stages of languagedevelopment, namely the b stage, holophrastic stage,the two-word stage, and the telegraphic speech stage.3.The practice of error analysis is divided into i ,describing and explaining.4.S refers to the analysis of meaning.5.In the aspect of affective meaning, statesman is commendingin sense while politician is d .6. D synonyms are words which are similar in meaningbut used in different dialects of the language.7.In order to avoid repetition the writer needs to use a sto replace a word used in the previous co-text when he/shewants to continue to address that idea.8.The sentence “The bachelor is unmarried” is it t .9.The domain to be conceptualized is called t domain,while the conceptualizing domain is termed the sourcedomain.10.P deixis specifies the locations relative to the speechevent.Ⅱ. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions: (5 points)1.tense front mid vowelteral liquid。
语言学杨忠第一章
Discussion:
What is language?
What does ‗language‘ mean?
General (broad) sense Used without articles. the universal properties of all human languages, i.e. the common features, not just one particular language.
(译文: 语言是用于人类交际的﹑任意的﹑ 有声的符号系统。)
A generally accepted definition:
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (Wardhaugh, 1977).
What is language?
A medium of communication.
A system of code
A carrier of culture
An instrument for thinking
A glue of a community
A social institution
What is language?
(译文: 语言是用于人类交际的﹑任意的﹑ 有声的符号系统。)
(1) What is language?
Language is systematic. Language is symbolic. Language is arbitrary. Language is primarily vocal. Language is human specific.
What is language?
杨忠--语言学概论 课后综合测试题及中文版答案(仅供借鉴)
综合测试题（一）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points) ：() 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.() 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.() 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.() 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.() 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.() 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.() 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.() 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.() 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research. ()10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. displacementD. interchangeability2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A. analyticB. isolatingC. syntheticD. agglutinating3. The general roles language plays are termedA. metalanguagesB. metafunctionsC. metadiscoursesD. metagrammar4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A. BlendingB. EponymsC. BackformationD. Clipping5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A. suffixB. prefixC. morphemeD. morph6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A. EnvironmentalistB. functionalistC. nativistD. both a and b7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.A. person deixisB. time deixisC. place deixisD. discourse deixis8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleusB. onsetC. codeD. rhyme9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A. linguisticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.A. pidginB. creoleC. EsperantoD. natural languageIII. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets: (10 points)A( ) 1. Socialinguistics( ) 2. Applied Linguistics( ) 3. Morphology( ) 4. Phonetics( ) 5. Linguistics( ) 6. Syntax( ) 7. Psycholinguistics( ) 8. Pragmatics( ) 9. Phonology( ) 10 SemanticsBa. the analysis of sentence structureb. the analysis of meaning in contextc. the analysis of meaningd. the study of sound systems and patternse. the application of linguistic theories to other spheresf. the study of speech soundsg.the study of the relationship between language and societyh.the study of word structurei. the scientific study of languagej. the study of the relationship between language and mindIV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s) they all share: (10 points) 1. [t∫][dз] 2. [m] [n] [ɡ] 3. [f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h] 4. [d] [n] [z] [l] [r] 5. [i:] [i] [u:] [u]V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)Words analyzed number of morphemes troublesome free morphemesstepmother psycholinguistics understatement antidisestablishmentarianismVI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)1. The duck is too hot to eat. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________2. Visiting friends can be boring. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. derivation2. learner factors。
最新杨忠--语言学概论-课后综合测试题及中文版答案
综合测试题（一）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points) ：() 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.() 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.() 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.() 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.() 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.() 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.() 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.() 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.() 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research. ()10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. displacementD. interchangeability2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A. analyticB. isolatingC. syntheticD. agglutinating3. The general roles language plays are termedA. metalanguagesB. metafunctionsC. metadiscoursesD. metagrammar4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A. BlendingB. EponymsC. BackformationD. Clipping5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A. suffixB. prefixC. morphemeD. morph6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A. EnvironmentalistB. functionalistC. nativistD. both a and b7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.A. person deixisB. time deixisC. place deixisD. discourse deixis8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleusB. onsetC. codeD. rhyme9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A. linguisticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.A. pidginB. creoleC. EsperantoD. natural languageIII. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets: (10points)A( ) 1. Socialinguistics( ) 2. Applied Linguistics( ) 3. Morphology( ) 4. Phonetics( ) 5. Linguistics( ) 6. Syntax( ) 7. Psycholinguistics( ) 8. Pragmatics( ) 9. Phonology( ) 10 SemanticsBa. the analysis of sentence structureb. the analysis of meaning in contextc. the analysis of meaningd. the study of sound systems and patternse. the application of linguistic theories to other spheresf. the study of speech soundsg.the study of the relationship between language and societyh.the study of word structurei. the scientific study of languagej. the study of the relationship between language and mindIV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s) they all share: (10 points) 1. [t∫][dз] 2. [m] [n] [ɡ] 3. [f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h] 4. [d] [n] [z] [l] [r] 5. [i:] [i] [u:] [u]V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)Words analyzed number of morphemes troublesome free morphemesstepmother psycholinguistics understatement antidisestablishmentarianismVI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)1. The duck is too hot to eat. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________2. Visiting friends can be boring. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. derivation2. learner factorsVIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. What is the difference between “a red and a redcoat”?2. What are the features of modern linguistics?3. According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?综合测试题（二）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)() 1. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logical metafunction.() 2. Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.() 3. Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation according to Halliday. () 4. Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.() 5. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning.() 6. Second language acquisition is a complex process which involves social factors and learner factors.() 7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialets, sociodialects and registers.() 8.Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.() 9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.() 10. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The language used to talk about language is called __________.A. languageB. metalanguageC. natural languageD. artificial language2. [+continuant] specifies ________________.A. all the fricativesB. all the fricatives and glidesC. all the fricatives and liquidsD. all the fricatives, liquids and glides3. _________ is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words.A. CoinageB. BlendingC. AcronmymsD. Clipping4. A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.A. morphemeB. wordC. phonemeD. allophones5. The word “multinationality has ___________ morphemes.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 56. _________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use”, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are “varieties according to user”.A. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register7. __________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A. back-channel signalsB. adjacency pairsC. pre-sequencesD. insertion sequences8. The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized by Grice(1975) as ____________.A. the principle of relevanceB. cooperative principleC. the politeness principleD. the theory of prototypes9. Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they differ in __________.A. affective meaningB. styleC. collocationD. register10. “John explained the theory” is a ___________ process according to Halliday.A. materialB. mentalC. verbalD. behavioralIII. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points) 1. Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative principle generalized by Grice.2. M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and language teachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.3. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act. The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act. The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.4. The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________.5. C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.6. A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a___________,7.The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of children’ language development.8. A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from other regional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.IV. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)A() 1. This vet is very famous in the town.() 2. This classroom is large and bright..() 3. He is watering flowers.() 4.Orlon is a kind of cloth material.() 5. Watt is the measurement unit of electricity.() 6. EEC is an important organization in the world.() 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.() 8. The road was enlarged last year.() 9. Some young people have brunch quite often.Ba. Conversionb. Derivationc. Blendingd. Backformatione. Acronymf. Compoundingg. Coinageh. Eponymi. ClippingV. Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the sounds according to the natural class of sounds. And then name the feature(s) that define the one picked out and the group of sounds: (10 points)For example: 1. [ 2. [ 3. [ 4. [ 5. [ [z] voiced/voiceless ____ ____ ____ ___________ [f] [θ] [z] [s] [m] [?] [l] [n] [p] [b] [m] [v] [w] [s] [z] [∫] [dз] [з] [i:] [i] [?] [u] [e] [i:] [?:] [e] [?] ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________] __________________________VI. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the se ntence, “He found his book on Wall Street”: (10 points)VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. language and linguistics2. semantics and pragmaticsVII. Answer the following questions:(40%)1. How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human language?2. What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship between them?3. What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?综合测试题（三）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets. (10 points)()1. A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.() 2. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.() 3. The word “went” contains two morphemes.() 4. The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is called componential analysis (CA).() 5. Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or association with particular objects, action, or persons.() 6. The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.() 7. In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in Korean, they are allophones. () 8. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.() 9. Compounding is one type of word formation by combining both free morphemes andbound morphemes.()10. The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The followings are all features of language except __________.A. dualityB. productivityC. changeabilityD. displacement2. The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.A. synonymyB. antonymC. polysemyD. homonymy3. ______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ConversionB. AbbreviationC. EponymsD. Blending4. Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.A. babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speechB. babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrasticC. babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speechD. babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word5. The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second language acquisition except _________.A. motivationB. nationalityC. ageD. learning strategy6. Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leech (1983) proposes _____________.A. the cooperative principleB. the principle of relevanceC. the politeness principleD. speech acts7. Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.A. moon/noonB. foot/foodC. she/sheetD. sea/sea8. The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called ___________.A. distinctive featuresB. non-distinctive featuresC. suprasegmental featuresD. free variation9. The ____________ function (sometimes also referred to as experiential function) is realized by the transitivity system of language.A. ideationalB. interpersonalC. textualD. logical10. Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound morphemes _________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. affixesD. inflectional morphemesIII. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)A( ) 1. Most children like drinking Coca-cola.( ) 2. UNESCO is a branch United Nations.( ) 3. The police machineguned the gang.( ) 4. I like sandwiches very much.( ) 5. There are a lot of fruits in the fridge.( ) 6. Infotech is popular nowadays.( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.( ) 8. His stepmother is very kind to him.( ) 9.The street was widened last year.Ba. Conversionb. Derivationc. Blendingd. Backformatione. Acronymf. Compoundingg. Coinage h. Eponym i. ClippingIV. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(10 points)1. labiodentals2. interdentals3. back vowels4. high vowels5. palatal affricatesV. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket. (10 points)A( ) 1. The noise annoyed him.( ) 2. The police caught him( ) 3. There are two books on the table.( ) 4. John explained the theory to me.( ) 5. He watches TV every day.( ) 6. The conference is on MondayBa. Material processb. Relational processc. Mental processd. Verbal processe. Behavioral processf. Existential processVI. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. arbitrariness2. voicingVII. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “They can fish”. (10 points) VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. 2. What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse? What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with examples.3. What are the components of metaphors?综合测试题（四）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. English is a tone language.( ) 2. Bound morphemes are always attached to free morphemes to form new words.( ) 3. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meanings.( ) 4. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process.( ) 5. Overgeneralization is found universal in second language acquisition.( ) 6. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are experiential metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and discourse metafunction.( ) 7. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.() 8. There are two types of language in the world: natural language and artificial language. ( ) 9. Coinage is a process of inventing words based on existing morphemes.( )10 Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contributions in learning a second language.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The word “antidisestablishmentariaism” is composed of ______ morphemes.A. sixB. sevenC. eightD. nine2. __________ refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A. VoicingB. VoicedC. NasalizationD. Aspiration3. Smog is a ___________ word.A. derivedB. clippedC. blendedD. compound4. The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importance. This kind of motivation may be termed ____ motivation.A. instrumentalB. integrativeC. cognitiveD. none of them5. [u:] possesses the features _____________.A.[+high][+back][+round][-tense]B. [+high][-back][+round][+tense]C.[+high][+back][+round][+tense]D. [-high][+back][+round][+tense]6. English is an example of _________ languages.A. VSOB. SVOC. SOVD. SVO7.A ________ is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.A. phonemeB. phoneC. morphemeD. morph8. Free morphemes were traditionally called _________.A. affixesB. prefixC. suffixD. root9. The lexical sense relation between elephant and animal is __________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. antonymyD. homonymy10. Words like male and female, pass and fail, etc. are ________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. relativeIII. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracketbefore the sentence. (10 points)A( ) 1. John is talking to Jane.( ) 2. Tom is the leader( ) 3. There is a cat on the bed.( ) 4. The bad news astonished her.( ) 5. Edward broke the window.( ) 6. He waved his hands.Ba. Material processb. Relational processc. Mental processd. Verbal processe. Behavioral processf. Existential processIV. State what semantic property or properties are shared by the group of words. (10 points)For example: typewriter, ruler, notebook 1. king, bachelor, son 2. bull, rooster, stallion 3. pine, rose, elm 4. bravery, charity, devotion 5. car, bike, plane [ +stationary] ________________________ ________________________V. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and the describe it. (10 points)Example: far [a:] back low vowel1. thread2. beat3. important4. live5. stop [ [ [ [ [ ] ] ] ] ]VI. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10 points)1. She can not bear children.(1) (2)(3) ______________________________________________2. He hates old men and women.(1) (2) ______________________________________________VII. Explain the following terms with examples. (10 points)1. 2. Compounding Free variationVII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. 2. What is the distinction between semantics and pragmatics? What are the four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence according to Hymes (1972)?3. What are the three types of antonyms (lexical opposition) in English?综合测试题（五）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)() 1. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.( ) 2. Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meaning.() 3. The Swiss linguist Chomsky regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.( ) 4. Language can be used to refer to things real or false, past, present or future.( ) 5. Language is merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation.( ) 6. We use language as symbolic code to represent the world around us.( ) 7. The ideatonal function of language binds individuals together.( ) 8. When we speak or write we usually confine ourselves to single phrases or sentences. ( ) 9. Language is mostly a natural phenomenon.() 10. Applied linguistic is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields.Ⅱ. Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it. (5 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Geographic Red Song Clock PsychopathyⅢ. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions. (5 points)Initial pit/bit Medial rapid/rabid Final cap/cabFind similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. /k/-/g/ /m/-/n/ /l/-/r/ /b/-/v/ /b/-/m/Ⅳ. Each of the following columns illustrates a different morphological process. (10 points) Column ⅠA. chairs B. wider C.looked D. Tom’sColumn ⅡA. reality B. movement C.malcontent D. stepmotherColumn ⅢA. blackboard B. greenhouse C. makeshift D. paintwork(1) What morphological process is shown by Column Ⅰ, Ⅱand Ⅲ.(2) What is the morphological difference between a),b) and c),d) in Column Ⅱ.Ⅴ. Tell whether polarity or modality is expressed in the following sentences if modality, then identify the type (modalization or modulation). (10 points)1. I have not finished the task.2. He often comes to my office.3. I will show you how to make up the bed.4. He hardly came back to see his mother.5. The company ought to cut the price of the products.Ⅵ. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/-PAN], [+/-POT], [+/-OVEN], [+/-SIEVE], etc. (10 points)boil: fry: steam: stew: bake:Ⅶ. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved: (15 points)a). The professor’s app ointment was shocking.b). The design has big squares and circles.c). The governor is a dirty street fighter.Ⅷ. What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B? What is the implicature? (5points)a). The dress is lovely, isn’t it?b). The material is nice.Ⅸ. Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence the magician touched the child with the wand. Be sure you indicate which meaning goes with which tree. (10 points)Ⅹ. Answer the following question: (20 points)1. What is the functioning of stress and intonation in English?2. How do you account for the relation between phonetics and phonology?综合测试题（六）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (20 points)( ) 1. In the study of the first step is the task of auditory phonetics.( ) 2. The sound source is the larynx.( ) 3. The oral cavity contains most of the articulators, namely, the uvula, the velum the hard palate.( )4. Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower lip are labialdentals.( ) 5. Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.( ) 6. Abbreviations are formed by putting together the final letters of some or all words in a phrase or title.( ) 7. Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. ( ) 8. All members.of a speech community can send and take messages.( ) 9.Traditional grammar was initially based on European language, particularly on Latin and German.( ) 10. One of the important concepts of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.( ) 11. Pragmatics is the analysis of meaning in context.( ) 12. The meanings communicated through language are or two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings( ) 13. An expression used by a speaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.( ) 14. Chomsky theory of conversational implicature is regarded as a breakthrough in pragmatic study of language use.( ) 15. Relevance is a relative notion. It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.( ) 16. Modality can be categorized into modalization and intention.( ) 17. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the object and the finite.( ) 18. Relational processes are linguistic processes that represent a relation being set up between two separate.( ) 19. Mental processes are processes of sensing.( ) 20. A TG grammar must account for all or only grammatical sentences.Ⅱ. Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes. (5 points)1. Retroactive2. Befriended3. Televise4. Margin5. EndearmentⅢ.Write the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part of each word in A. (5 points)Aa. terrorizedb. uncivilizedc. terrorized. lukewarme. impossible B(1) free root (2) bound root (3) inflectional suffix (4) derivational suffix (5) inflectional prefix (6) derivational prefix (7) inflectional infix (8) derivational infixⅣ. Write out at least ten structure rules that each of the following rules abbreviate. (5 points)VP→V (NP) (PP) (Adv) NP→(Det) (Adj) N (PP)Ⅴ .Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences: (10 points)a) The man found the letter.b) The students put the books in the classroom.Ⅵ. Write the semantic feature shared by the given words. (5 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bull, rooster, bachelor, boy Milk, water, alcohol, oil Squash, tennis, cricket, fencing, boxing Idea, concept, love, clarity, democracy Pine, elm, willow, birch, poplarⅦ.Each of the following words is a basic level term. Write its superordinate in the left blank and one of its subordinate in the right blank. (10 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. table willow cat blue dictionary painting driver verb chemistry juiceⅧ. The opposite of analytic is contradictory. A sentence that is false due to the meaning of its words alone is contradictory.Kings are female is an example. Write a C by the contradictory sentences and S for situational by sentences that are not contradictory. (10 points)1. My sister is a man.2. Witches are wicked.3. My sister is an only child.4. The evening star isn’t the morning star.5. The evening star isn’t the evening star.6. Babies are adults.7. Babies can lift one ton.8. Puppies are human.9. My bachelor friends are all married.10. My bachelor friends are all lonely.Ⅸ. Pig Latin is a common language game of English; but even Pig Latin has dialects, forms of the “language game” with differen t rules. (10 points)Consider the following data from three dialects of Pig Latin, each with its own rule applied to words beginning with vowels: Dialect 1 “eat” “arc” [itme] [arkme] Dialect 2 [ithe] [arkhe] Dialect 3 [ite] [arke]⑴State the rule that accounts for the Pig Latin forms in each dialect. Dialect 1: Dialect 2: Dialect 3: ⑵How would you say honest, admire, and illegal in each dialect? Give the phonetic transcription of the Pig Latin forms. honest admire 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3.Illegal1.2.3.Ⅹ. Answer the following questions: (20 points)1. What is the function of phonological knowledge?2. Exemplify the differences between anaphoric and cataphoric reference.综合测试题（七）Ⅰ. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points) 1. 2. The term l a refers to the natural process of children’s language development. It is found that children all undergo certain stages of language development, namely the b 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. stage, holophrastic stage, , the two-word stage, and the telegraphic speech stage. The practice of error analysis is divided into i describing and explaining. S refers to the analysis of meaning . In the aspect of affective meaning, statesman is commending in sense while politician is d D synonyms are words which are similar in meaning but used in different dialects of the language. In order to avoid repetition the writer needs to use a s to replace a word used in the previous co-text when he/she wants to continue to address that idea.8. 9. The sentence “The bachelor is unmarried” is it t The domain to be conceptualized is called t domain.10. P event.Ⅱ. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions: (5 points)。
2011年翻译硕士MTI参考书目
北京外国语大学1.《中式英语之鉴》Joan Pinkham 、姜桂华著，2000年，外语教学与研究出版社。
2.《英汉翻译简明教程》庄绎传著，2002年，外语教学与研究出版社。
3.《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》叶子南著，2001年，清华大学出版社。
4.《非文学翻译理论与实践》罗进德主编，2004年，中国对外翻译出版公司。
5.《非文学翻译》，李长栓著，2009年9月外语教学与研究出版社出版。
6.《非文学翻译理论与实践》，李长栓著，中国对外翻译出版公司。
广东外语外贸大学初试无参考书，以下为复试参考书目：1.《实用翻译教程（修订版）》，刘季春主编，中山大学出版社，2007年。
2.《英汉翻译基础教程》，冯庆华、穆雷主编，高等教育出版社，2008年。
3.《英语口译教程》，仲伟合主编，高等教育出版社，2007年。
4.《商务英语口译》（第二版），赵军峰主编，高等教育出版社，2009年。
5. 有关英语八级考试的书籍，以及英美政治、经济、文化等方面百科知识的书籍湖南师范大学暂无，复试科目为：听力、英语写作南京大学暂无，可用近年来国内出版的英语专业高级阅读、翻译、写作教材，以及任何大学语文教材南开大学暂无，参考《全日制翻译硕士专业学位（MTI）研究生入学考试指南》，外研社同济大学翻译硕士英语：暂无参考书，建议考生多阅读国内外英文报刊杂志，扩大词汇量，扩宽视野，培养中西文化比较意识。
汉语写作与百科知识：不设具体参考书目，希望考生关注时事，加强人文知识的学习和积累。
英语翻译基础：1.《文体与翻译》,刘宓庆,中国对外翻译出版公司,20072.《实用翻译教程》,冯庆华,上海外语教育出版社,20073.《翻译基础》，刘宓庆，华东师范大学出版社，2008西南大学1．《实用汉英翻译教程》，曾诚编，北京：外语教学与研究出版社。
2．《英译汉教程》，连淑能编著，北京：高等教育出版社。
中南大学翻译硕士英语，暂无英语翻译基础：1.《英汉—汉英应用翻译教程》，方梦之编，上海外语教育出版社，2004年2.《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》，叶子南编，清华大学出版社，2008年汉语写作与百科知识：1.《应用文写作》，王首程主编，高等教育出版社，2009年中山大学翻译硕士英语：1.英美概况部分参见《英语国家社会与文化入门》上、下册，朱永涛编，高等教育出版社，2005；2.其它部分不列参考书汉语写作与百科知识: 参照教指委公布的考试大纲北京航空航天大学翻译硕士英语：不根据某一教科书命题英语翻译基础：1. Dictionary of Translation Studies 上海外语教育出版社（2004年）2.《翻译研究词典》外语教学与研究出版社（2005年）3.《英汉互译实用教程》武汉大学出版社（2003年）汉语写作与百科知识：不根据某一教科书命题北京师范大学1.庄绎传，《英汉翻译简明教程》。
2021东北师范大学外国语言学及应用语言学考研参考书真题经验
东北师范大学外国语言学及应用语言学考研经验考研其实是一件非常枯燥和艰辛的过程，这段时间也非常感谢high研APP 的伙伴们的鼓励和支持，没有你们我可能都坚持不下来。
只有一个建议：选择自己喜欢且擅长的，剩下要做的就是朝着这个方向努力啦。
关于初试一、参考书及资料政治：肖秀荣精讲精练，肖秀荣1000题，肖秀荣历年真题，李凡政治新时器，肖秀荣四套卷，八套卷，时政小册子，风中劲草德语：德语四级练习册，新编大学德语教材前三册，东师真题专业课：杨忠语言学，杨忠对应练习册，胡壮麟语言学（没看完），英语国家概况（下册没看），星火语言学，东师真题基础英语：精读56册，专八阅读，东师真题二、各科准备情况1.政治由于我高中是理科生，政治几乎是零基础，所以还是花费了很多时间在政治上面的。
马克思不懂的那部分看看加深一下理解，最开始看的是政治新时器和配套的1000题，1000题能做几遍是几遍，虽然到最后也有很多记不住，但我觉得做题能加深我的记忆。
不赞同买好多本习题册，一本书看得精比看好多本书有用多了。
到了后期可以看看风中劲草，有人是直接背，我剩的时间很少，就只是把做题中不会的知识点给看了。
大题就只是背了肖四，还是就剩几天才背的（心痛的回忆呀），全押中了也是幸运哈哈哈！第一轮的复习，是最为基础的复习。
刚开始，不需要给自己的复习太大压力，主要的任务是熟悉考点。
政治学科和其他学科不同，不必要静下来来看很长时间书才开始做题。
政治科目的复习，可以把看书和做题交叉在一起，配套进行。
边看书边做题，通过做题来强化自己看书的效果。
能够做到熟知考点，遇到考点不觉得陌生，就可以了。
这一轮的复习，建议以单项选择题为主，因为多项选择题需要有一定知识积累才能开始做题。
第二轮的复习，可谓是最艰难的。
经过一轮对知识点的熟悉，处在夹生半熟的状态。
多项选择题刚好可以检测知识点的复习情况。
这一轮的复习，是最为关键的。
在政治选择题中，最为关键的就是多项选择题，分值高、难度大，要想拿到不错的分数，务必好好练习。
东北师范大学 语言学概论 课后题术语归纳
东北师范大学智慧树知到“汉语言文学”《语言学概论》网课测试题答案卷3
长风破浪会有时，直挂云帆济沧海。
住在富人区的她全文为Word 可编辑，若为PDF 皆为盗版，请谨慎购买！东北师范大学智慧树知到“汉语言文学”《语言学概论》网课测试题答案（图片大小可自由调整） 第1卷 一.综合考核(共10题)1.用某些已有的字的复合图形来表示属于行为动作的词语，传统文字学称这类字为()。
A.形声字 B.象形字 C.指示字 D.会意字2.伦敦方言是英吉利共同语的基础方言。
() A.正确 B.错误3.音强取决于声波的长短。
() A.正确 B.错误4.藏语所采用的文字系统是()。
A.音素文字 B.音节文字 C.表意文字 D.音位文字5.句法是指词的构成和变化的规则。
() A.正确 B.错误6.莫里斯1938年首先使用了“语用学”这一术语。
() A.正确 B.错误7.衔接：衔接是形式方面的问题，是篇章的有形网络。
()A.正确B.错误8.言语(名词解释)9.结构主义语言学直接继承了亚里士多德的语言学理论。
()A.正确B.错误10.语言趋于统一的表现是亲属语言的形成和日益推广。
()A.正确B.错误第1卷参考答案一.综合考核1.参考答案：D2.参考答案：A3.参考答案：B4.参考答案：A5.参考答案：B6.参考答案：A7.参考答案：A8.参考答案：言语是说话时实际存在的话语以及为说出和理解这些话语而进行的行为过程。
言语属于个人，是具体的。
9.参考答案：B10.参考答案：B。
东北师范大学英语语言学考研复习经验总结
东北师范大学英语语言学考研复习经验总结2013年东北师范大学英语语言学考研复习经验总结看到别人分享的经验，忍不住也来分享一下。
一、语言学就是杨忠老师的语言学与胡壮麟的书。
我大学时期学的是戴伟栋的新编简明英语语言学教程。
我认为杨忠老师的书比胡的书好多的，书又薄还比较容易理解。
我当时看杨书的时候是参照它的汉语版本（上面有好多错误，但是也要看，起码能巩固课本上的知识。
PS:13年复试笔试考到了上面的几个小题目。
所以也要认真对待啊。
）及一份笔记看的。
看第一遍的时候，就是查了查不会的单词，没什么印象。
慢慢的多看几遍就好了。
第七章十分重要，要结合胡的书看，特别是例子。
忘了是看第几遍的时候，我自己整理的一份笔记，其实无非就是课本及笔记上的知识点，知识整理一下感觉更有条理。
但是当我整理完了之后发现，完全是在抄课本还有自己补充的内容，然后就没有然后了……你懂得，那个本子也被束之高阁了。
当然，我并不反对用本子做笔记，还是那句话吧，适合自己的才是最好的。
看好课本以后就是研究真题了，真题灰常灰常重要。
胡的书看的时候感觉头痛啊，还痛苦，每看一页我就会不由的叹气，以至于，同位会说，又叹气了……到了后来，一遍比一遍熟悉，感觉轻松了不少，是对照着圣才的那本胡壮麟语言学教程的，这本满蛮有条理。
二、政治先说辅导班吧，很多人会问我到底要不要报辅导班？？去年我也问过他们这个问题，纠结到底要不要。
最后，为了买了个安慰还是没按捺住，报了某辅导机构的政治冲刺班。
（上课在一个大教室里，还不是在校内……真心受不了）。
不过，真心讲一句，贾诩的讲课还是很搞笑的，也许最大的收获就是“买笑”了。
我是在暑假结束后才开始复习政治的，就是大纲解析下来之后才开始看的（虽然我的大纲解析一遍都没看完，不要学我哈！！），因为实在是太无聊，太枯燥，后来就跟着辅导班的进程走了。
什么讲题班，押题班，冲刺班，都上了，不过，让他给忽悠的还真的是信心百倍，就感觉，大题肯定考这个了。
语言学概论杨忠
1. What are the categories of lexical meaning?Lexical meaning in eludes: a) refere ntial meaning (also deno tative meanin g). b) Associativemeanin gs. Refere ntial meaning is the cen tral meaning and it is more stable and uni versal. Associative meanings are meanings are meanings that hinge on refere ntial meaning, whichare less stable and more culture-specific.Types of associative meanings: connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning,reflected meaning, collective meaning2. What are the comp onents of metaphor?There are two positi ons on the fun cti on of metaphors: a) the classical view sees metaphor arhetorical device; b) another view holds metaphor a cognitive device. Metaphors 一s possible precisely because there are metaphors in a pers on ual systems. ' s con ceptAll metaphors are composed of two doma ins: target doma in (also tenor) and source doma in(vehicle).3. How does tran sformatio nal grammar acco unt for senten ce- related ness?1) According to Chomsky, a grammar as the tacit shared knowledge of all speakers is a system of fin ite rules by which an infinite nu mber of senten ces can be gen erated. He attempts to account for this aspect of syntax by postulating that deep structures and surface structures.2) Deep structures are the basic structures gen erated by phrase structure rules.3) Surface structures are derived structures, the structures of senten ces that we actuallyspeak. Surface structures are derived from deep structures through transformational rules which in clude replaceme nt, i nserti on, deleti on and cop ing, etc.4. On what basis do linguists regard human Ianguage as species-specific (unique tohuma ns)?Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com muni cati on. Many philosophers and lin guists believe that la nguage is unique to man. Lan guage is a huma n trait that sets us apart from other living creatures. They spell out a number of features of Ian guage which are not found in an imal com muni catio n systems. These features: creativity, duality, arbitrari ness, displaceme nt, cultural tran smissi on, in tercha ngeability and reflexivity. These are uni versal features possessed by all huma n Ian guages. Although some ani mal com muni cati on systems possess, to a very limited degree, one or ano ther of these features except creativity and duality, none is found to have all the features. On this basis linguists tend to conclude that human Ianguages are qualitatively different form animal com muni cati on systems.5. What part of syn tax can phrase structure rules acco unt for and what they cannot?Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.These rules are part of speakers ' syn tactic kno wledge, which gover n the con structi on ofsenten ces.There are a lot of part of syn tactic kno wledge, in clud ing structural ambiguity (which stri ngs of words have more tha n one meanin g), words order (differe nt arran geme nts of the same words have differe nt meanin gs), grammatical relati ons (what eleme nt relates to what other eleme nt directly or in directly), recurs ion (the repeated use of the same rules to createinfinite sentences), sentence relatedness (sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related), and syntactic categories (a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one ano ther without loss of grammaticality) etc. Phrase structure rules can acco unt for structural ambiguity, word order, grammatical relati ons, recursi on, and syn tactic categories; but they cannot acco unt for sentence related ness.6. How do socioli nguists classify the varieties of En glish?The term variety is the label give n to the form of a Ian guage used by any group of speakersor used in a particular field. A variety is characterized by the basic lexic on, phono logy, syntax shared by members of the group. Varieties of a Ianguage are of four types: the sta ndard variety, regi onal dialects, sociolects and registers.A regi onal dialect is a variety of a Ian guage spoke n by people livi ng in an area. The En glishIan guage has many regi onal dialects. British En glish, America n En glish, Australia n En glish.In dia n En glish, South Africa n En glish, etc. are all regi onal varieties of the Ian guage. Onedialect is disti nctive from ano ther phono logically, lexically and grammatically.7. What are the fun cti ons of supra-segme ntal features?The pho netic features, disti nctive or non-disti nctive, that we have discussed so far may be properties of sin gle segme nts. In this sect ion we will look at features that are found over a segme nt or seque nee of two or more segme nts, which are called suprasegme ntal features.These features are also distinctive features. They are found in such units of syllables, words, phrases and senten ces. The most widely found suprasegme ntal features are stress, inton ati on and tone.Stress is defined as the perceived prominence (comparative loudness) of one or more syllable elements over others in a word. This definition implies that stress is a relative no ti on. Inton ati on: whe n we speak, we cha nge the pitch of our voice to express ideas. Thesame sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker. I n En glish, there are three basic inton ati on patterns: fall, rise and fall-rise. Tone isthe variation of pitch at the word level to distinguish words. The same sequenee ofsegments can be different words if uttered with different tones. English is not a toneIan guage. Chin ese is a typical tone Ian guage.Inton ati on and stress gen erally occur simulta neously in uttera nee. When inton atio n con tour falls on asyllable, the nu cleus is stressed and the vowel is n aturally len gthe ned a bit. In the mea ntime, there is a little pause after the syllable. This simulta neous fun cti oning of the features serves to highlight the informationfocus, or to eliminate ambiguity (doublein terpretati ons of the same phrase or senten ce).8. What are aspects of syn tactic kno wledge?Syn tactic kno wledge is the knowing of which stri ngs of words are grammatical and which are no t. I n additi on, it in cludes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammatical relatio ns 4) recursi on 5) sentence related ness 6) syn tactic categories.9. The adva ntages and disadva ntages of comp onen tial an alysis?1st, it is a breakthrough in the formal representation of meaning. Once formally represented, meaning components can be seen. 2nd, it reveals the impreciseness of thetermino logy in the traditi onal approach to meaning an alysis. Look ing at the sema ntic formula of man and woma n aga in you can see that it is not true that the total meaning of one word con trasts with that of the other. It is merely in one sema ntic feature that the two words con trast. Whe n we look at the sema ntic formulae of man and father, we find that all the sema ntic features of man are in cluded in the sema ntic formula of father. The n we reach a differe nt con clusi on from com mon sense in regard to the relati on betwee n man and father. Is this contradictory? The answer is No. The obvious fact that man includes father is derived from the perspective of refere nee. Comp onen tial an alysis exam ines the comp onents of sen se. The more sema ntic features a word has, the n arrower its refere nee it is.The limitations of componential analysis are also apparent. It cannot be applied to the an alysis of all lexic on, merely to words withi n the same sema ntic field. It is con troversial whether semantic features are universal primes of word meanings in all Ianguage.Nevertheless, CA is so far a most in flue ntial approach in the structural an alysis of lexical meaning.11. Why is lin guistics a vast field of study?Linguistics is a broad field of study, because Ianguage is a complicated entity with many layers and facets. There are a nu mber of divisi ons of lin guistics, which can be put into two categories. 1) In tra-discipli nary divisi ons: the study of Ian guage in gen eral is ofte n termed gen eral li nguistics. It is based on the view that Ian guage as a system is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. 2) Inter-disciplinarydivisions. a) Sociology dealswith Ian guage and culture. b) Psycholi nguistics deals with the relati on betwee n Ian guage and mind c) applied linguistics is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descripti ons in other fields. All above three bel ong to socioli nguistics.12. How is lin guistics differe nt from traditi onal grammar?1) Traditi onal grammar is prescriptive and moder n lin guistics is descriptive.2) Traditi onal grammatical categories are merely based on Europea n Ian guage but lin guistic studies all la nguages.3) Traditional grammar lacks a theoretical framework, while modern linguistics is theoretically rather tha n pedagogically orie nted.13. How are speech sounds described?The study of speech sounds is phon etics which in cludes 3 parts: 1) articulatory phon etics 2) acoustic pho netics 3) auditory pho netics. Articulatory phon etics is the primary concern inlin guistics, in which speech sound is described withi n 3 sides:The descripti on of consonan ts: a) place of articulati on b) manners of articulati on c) voic ing d)aspirati onThe descripti on of vowels: a) mon ophtho ngs b) diphth ongs c) lip rounding d) ten sity14. Differe nee betwee n lin guistic compete nee and com muni cative compete nee1) Linguists like Chomsky who are not concerned with Ianguage use propose the termlin guistic compete nee to acco unt for a speaker ' s kno wledge of his or her langu 2) Socioli nguists like Dell Hymes propose com muni cative compete nee as the most gen eralterm to acco unt for both the tacit kno wledge of Ian guage and the ability to use it. Accord ingto Hymes, there are 4 parameters that un derlie a speaker consm uni cative compete nee,n amely the ability to judge: a) whether sth is possible. b) feasible c) appropriate 4) done.15. How are words decomposed into their eon stitue nts1) Words are composed of one or more tha n one morphemes.2) Morphemes are the smallest meanin gful unit of Ian guage.3) Morphemes can be categorized into 2 kin ds. a) free morphemes( they eon stitute wordsby themselves) b) bound morphemes( they are n ever used in depe nden tly)4) Bound morphemes in elude in flecti onal morphemes and derivati onal morphemes.16. What are aspects of syn tactic kno wledge?Syn tactic kno wledge is the knowing of which stri ngs of words are grammatical and which areno t. I n additi on, it in eludes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammatical relatio ns 4)recursi on 5) sentence related ness 6) syn tactic categories.17. What are the two classes of phon etic features? What is the fun dame ntal differe nee?The two classes of phon etic features are disti nctive features and non-dist in ctive features.Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, in other words, those distinguishing phonemes. Non-distinctive features do not distinguish meanings, i.e. the features belong to allophones. However, whether a phonetic feature is distinctive or non-disti nctive varies from one Ian guage to ano ther Ian guage.18. How do you acco unt for the relati on betwee n pho netics and phono logy?Phono logy and pho netics are both concerned with the study of speech soun ds, but the two differ in perspectives. Phon etics, particularly articulatory phon etics, focuses on how speech sounds are produced, what phon etic features they have, and how to tran scribe them .Inpho netics, sound segme nts are assumed to be in variable; variati ons are overlooked.Phono logy focuses on three fun dame ntal questi ons. What sounds make up the list of sounds that can dist in guish meaning in a particular Ian guage? What sounds vary in what ways in what con text? What sounds can appear together in a seque nee in a particular Ian guage?19. What are the comp onents of com muni cative compete nee ?Accordi ng to Hedge, there are mainly five comp onents of com muni cative compete nee. They are lin guistic compete nee, pragmatic compete nee, discourse compete nee, strategic compete nee, and flue ncy.1. An alyze the sentence in terms of type of process, mood structure, and theme and rheme:The academicia n will address the issue of the legitimacy of clo ning at the conferen ce.It is the verbal process. In this senten ce, the sayer is the academicia n, the receivers arethe people at the conference though it is not mentioned but we can infer it from the senten ce. The verbiage is the issue of the legitimacy of cloning.This sentence is the realizati on of lin guistic in teract ion, it is the givi ng of in formati on .Itssyntactic form is statement. The subject is the academician, the finite is the verbaloperator “ will ”.The con stitue nt that sta nds for the starti ng-poi nt for the message is termed theme; all therest of the sentence is labeled rheme. In this senten ce, the theme is the academicia n and“ the issue of the legitimacy of cloning at the conference ” is the rhen 2. Analyze the two English sound segments 【K】and 【Kh】in terms of distribution and thepho netic feature that dist in guish them.1) Both are in complementary distribution. They are the allophones of the phoneme 【K】.【K】：fricative, voiceless, alveolar.【Kh ] : elsewhere2) the phon etic feature that disti nguish them is aspirati onWhat are aspects of syn tactic kno wledge?Syn tactic kno wledge is the knowing of which stri ngs of words are grammatical and which areno t. I n additi on, it in cludes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammatical relatio ns 4)recursi on 5) sentence related ness 6) syn tactic categories.3. Point out the sema ntic problem of the sentence "the orpha n is stayi ng with his pare ntsThere are some sentences which sound grammatical but meaningless. The sentence "theorpha n is stayi ng with his pare nts ” is just one example. This sentence is always false ' called con tradictio n. An orpha n is a child whose pare nts are dead, or a child who has bee ndeprived of parental care. The theme (the orphan) and the rheme (is staying with his pare nts) are in compatible.4. An alyze the cha nge of feature concerning the liquids and n asals in flight, snow, smart, pray and gen eralize the rule.Liquids /I/ /r/ appear after a voiceless consonant /f/ and /p/ respectively, they are devoiced.Nasals /n//m/ appear after a voiceless consonant /s/, they are devoiced.Rule: Devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant.Or: Whe n the En glish liquids, glides and the two an terior n asals appear after a voiceless consonan t, it is devoiced. This rule can be expressed as follows: devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant , that is, [+voiced+c onsonan tal] [-voiced] /[-voiced+c onsonan tal]-. The phono logy /l/ /r/ bel ong to liquids, and /m/ /n/ bel ong toan terior n asals. All these four are voiced consonant, but in these words, they cha nge to the voiceless, for they appear after voiceless consonan ts.6. An alyze the cook ing term stew as a verb by way of comp onen tial an alysis and mark the feature that you thi nk is disti nguisher.stew: +cook +hot +close dish +juice (+ juice: sema ntic dist in guisher)7. Analyze the cause of the error that some Chinese speakers of English use although and but withi n one senten ce.In the process of analyzing learners' Ianguage, error analysis is a milestone. Explainingerrors is the final but very importa nt step in error an alysis. In terms of sources, errors are divided in to in terl in gual errors and in trali ngual errors. In terl in gual errors are caused bymother tongue interferenee which means the negative role one's knowledge of L1 to L2 learning. In Chinese, we can use 不但”，而且” inhe same sentence, so some Chinese speakers transfer this expression directly toEnglish. But according to English grammar,“ although and ”“ but can not appear in the same sentence. This phenomenon is a kind of negative transfer of learners' syntactic knowledge. This is a typical phenomenon of in terfere nee in lear ning.9. An alyze the sema ntic properties of the give n cook ing terms, using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/- PAN], [+/- POT], [+/- OVEN], [+/- SIEVE], etc.boil: [+WATER] [-FAT] [- PAN] [+ POT] [- OVEN]卜SIEVE]fry: [- WATER] [+FAT] [+ PAN] [- POT], [- OVEN] [+SIEVE]steam: [+WATER] [-FAT] [- PAN] [+POT] [-OVEN] [- SIEVE]stew: [+WATER] [+FAT] [- PAN] [+ POT] [- OVEN] [- SIEVE]bake: [- WATER] [+FAT] [- PAN] [- POT] [+ OVEN] [- SIEVE]10. Write the type of referenee of it in each of the following sentences:(1) It is rather foggy these days.(2) It is so far hard to tell how many lives are claimed in the catastrophe..(3) The most powerful earthquake triggered massive tidal waves that slammed in tocoastl ines across Asia yesterday. It killed over 30,000 people in Sri Lan ka, Indon esia, In dia,Thaila nd, Malaysia, Myanmar, Ban gladesh and Maldives.(1) “ It ” here refeto the weather. It is an exphoric referenee, referring to the world outside lin guistic forms.(2) “ It ” refers to the following expression, “ how man lives are claimed in the which is a linguistic form.. Thus, it is an endophoric referenee, specifically, cataphoricrefere nee (cataphora).(3) “ It r e fers to the preceding expression, that “ massivetidal waves slammed into coastlines across Asia yesterday T h erefore, it is an endophoric referenee, specifically, an aphoric refere nee (an aphora).11. An alyze the ambiguity of the two senten ces, telli ng the differe nee:(1) F lying pla nes can be dan gerous.(2) She cannot bear childre n.1. a. The behavior of flying pla nes can be dan gerous.b. Pla nes which is flying can be dan gerous.2. a. She cannot en dure childre n.b. She cannot give birth to childre n.1 Analyze the relation of —r —st and more most in English and generalize their distributio n.-er est are the in flect ional affixes of adj. or adv . —r and more are allomorphs of a same morpheme indicating comparative. —st and most are allomorphs of a same morpheme indicating superlative.Distribution of more most is before a adj. which has at least two syllables. —r —st are used as the affixes of adj. and adv. which has one ore two syllables.2 analyze the semantic differenee of father and daddy in the given sentence, using Leech 's classificati on of lexical meanin gs.Classificati on: conno tative meaning, social meaning, affective meanin g, reflected meaning and collocative meaning. Daddy has an affective meaning. Whe n you use the term, you are in in timate relati on ship with your father. So a father is just who has a child, but daddy is the one loved by his child.3 an alyze the differe nee betwee n sum mon and call in terms of register.Register refers to varieties accordi ng to use. Sum mon is a formal word, used in court of law to order sb to appear, while call is widely used in daily life.4 point out the maxim flouted and the implicature of B 's uttera nee:A: Did you no tice someth ing odd betwee n the host and hostess?B: Have ano ther glass of beer?It flouted the maxim of releva nee. The implicature of B' s uttera nee : the hearer does n 't want to gossip about those people .5 point out the degree of formality of :It is gratify ing that the cooperative program has bee n proceedi ng smoothly formal.6 what is dist in ctive featureDisti nctive features are features that disti nguish meanin gs.7 How do you acco unt for the relati on betwee n sema ntics and pragmatics.They are two separate fields. Both study meaning, but sema ntics studies the conven ti onalmeaning of a word while pragmatics studies the intern ati onal meaning, the meaning in use.Sema ntics is bilateral while pragmatics is trilateral. Sema ntics studies the relati on ship11betwee n sig n and mea ning, but pragmatics studies the sig n, mea ning and user.8 What are the two main schools of con temporary western lin guistics? What are thefun dame ntal differe nces betwee n them?TG grammar v.s systematic-f un cti onal grammarTG based on UG, studies the general principles while systematic-functional grammar studies Ian guage fun cti ons.12。
语言学概论第一章
Knowing the meaning of words.
Knowing the sounds and sound patterns in our lg constitutes only one part of our linguistic knowledge. In addition, knowing a lg is knowing that certain sound sequences signify certain concepts or meanings. If you do not know a lg, the words will be mainly incomprehensible, because the relationship between speech sounds and the meanings they represent , for the most part, an arbitrary one.
The proportions in the final score
Performance in class is 10%. Paper on some topic is 10%. Final exam is 80%.
CONTENTS
Chapter One Chapter Two Chapter Three Chapter Four Chapter Five Review (1) Introduction to Linguistics(3) Phonetics (3) Phonology (3) Morphology (4) Syntax (4)
Noam Chomsky, Language and Mind
We use language every day. We live in a world of lg. We talk to our friends, our associates, our wives and husbands, our lovers, our teachers and our parents. We talk to bus drivers and total strangers. we talk face to face and over telephone, and everyone responds with more talk. Hardly any moment passes without someone talking, writing, or reading. Indeed, lg is most essential to mankind. Our lives increasingly depend on fast and successful use of lg. It is the possession of lg that distinguishes humans from animals.To understand our humanity one must understand the nature of lg that makes us human.
语言学概论(杨忠)
1. What are the categories of lexical meaning?Lexical meaning includes: a) referential meaning (also denotative meaning). b) Associative meanings. Referential meaning is the central meaning and it is more stable and universal. Associative meanings are meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning, which are less stable and more culture-specific.Types of associative meanings: connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collective meaning2. What are the components of metaphor?There are two positions on the function of metaphors: a) the classical view sees metaphor a rhetorical device; b) another view holds metaphor a cognitive device. Metaphors 一s possible precisely because there are metaphors in a person’s conceptual systems.All metaphors are composed of two domains: target domain (also tenor) and source domain (vehicle).3. How does transformational grammar account for sentence- relatedness?1) According to Chomsky, a grammar as the tacit shared knowledge of all speakers is a system of finite rules by which an infinite number of sentences can be generated. He attempts to account for this aspect of syntax by postulating that deep structures and surface structures.2) Deep structures are the basic structures generated by phrase structure rules.3) Surface structures are derived structures, the structures of sentences that we actually speak. Surface structures are derived from deep structures through transformational rules which include replacement, insertion, deletion and coping, etc.4. On what basis do linguists regard human language as species-specific (unique tohumans)?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Many philosophers and linguists believe that language is unique to man. Language is a human trait that sets us apart from other living creatures. They spell out a number of features of language which are not found in animal communication systems. These features: creativity, duality, arbitrariness, displacement, cultural transmission, interchangeability and reflexivity. These are universal features possessed by all human languages. Although some animal communication systems possess, to a very limited degree, one or another of these features except creativity and duality, none is found to have all the features. On this basis linguists tend to conclude that human languages are qualitatively different form animal communication systems.5. What part of syntax can phrase structure rules account for and what they cannot?Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. These rules are part of speakers’ syntactic knowledge, which govern the construction of sentences.There are a lot of part of syntactic knowledge, including structural ambiguity (which strings of words have more than one meaning), words order (different arrangements of the same words have different meanings), grammatical relations (what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly), recursion (the repeated use of the same rules to create infinite sentences), sentence relatedness (sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related), and syntactic categories (a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality) etc. Phrase structure rules canaccount for structural ambiguity, word order, grammatical relations, recursion, and syntactic categories; but they cannot account for sentence relatedness.6. How do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?The term variety is the label given to the form of a language used by any group of speakers or used in a particular field. A variety is characterized by the basic lexicon, phonology, syntax shared by members of the group. Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialects, sociolects and registers.A regional dialect is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area. The English language has many regional dialects. British English, American English, Australian English. Indian English, South African English, etc. are all regional varieties of the language. One dialect is distinctive from another phonologically, lexically and grammatically.7. What are the functions of supra-segmental features?The phonetic features, distinctive or non-distinctive, that we have discussed so far may be properties of single segments. In this section we will look at features that are found over a segment or sequence of two or more segments, which are called suprasegmental features. These features are also distinctive features. They are found in such units of syllables, words, phrases and sentences. The most widely found suprasegmental features are stress, intonation and tone.Stress is defined as the perceived prominence (comparative loudness) of one or more syllable elements over others in a word. This definition implies that stress is a relative notion. Intonation: when we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas. The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker. In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise and fall-rise. Toneis the variation of pitch at the word level to distinguish words. The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones. English is not a tone language. Chinese is a typical tone language.Intonation and stress generally occur simultaneously in utterance. When intonation contour falls on a syllable, the nucleus is stressed and the vowel is naturally lengthened a bit. In the meantime, there is a little pause after the syllable. This simultaneous functioning of the features serves to highlight the information focus, or to eliminate ambiguity (double interpretations of the same phrase or sentence).8. What are aspects of syntactic knowledge?Syntactic knowledge is the knowing of which strings of words are grammatical and which are not. In addition, it includes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammatical relations 4) recursion 5) sentence relatedness 6) syntactic categories.9. The advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?1st, it is a breakthrough in the formal representation of meaning. Once formally represented, meaning components can be seen. 2nd, it reveals the impreciseness of the terminology in the traditional approach to meaning analysis. Looking at the semantic formula of man and woman again you can see that it is not true that the total meaning of one word contrasts with that of the other. It is merely in one semantic feature that the two words contrast. When we look at the semantic formulae of man and father, we find that all the semantic features of man are included in the semantic formula of father. Then we reach a different conclusion from common sense in regard to the relation between man and father. Is this contradictory? The answer is No. The obvious fact that man includes father is derived from the perspective of reference. Componential analysis examines thecomponents of sense. The more semantic features a word has, the narrower its reference it is.The limitations of componential analysis are also apparent. It cannot be applied to the analysis of all lexicon, merely to words within the same semantic field. It is controversial whether semantic features are universal primes of word meanings in all language. Nevertheless, CA is so far a most influential approach in the structural analysis of lexical meaning.11. Why is linguistics a vast field of study?Linguistics is a broad field of study, because language is a complicated entity with many layers and facets. There are a number of divisions of linguistics, which can be put into two categories. 1) Intra-disciplinary divisions: the study of language in general is often termed general linguistics. It is based on the view that language as a system is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. 2) Inter-disciplinary divisions. a) Sociology deals with language and culture. b) Psycholinguistics deals with the relation between language and mind c) applied linguistics is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields. All above three belong to sociolinguistics.12. How is linguistics different from traditional grammar?1)Traditional grammar is prescriptive and modern linguistics is descriptive.2)Traditional grammatical categories are merely based on European language but linguistic studies all languages.3)Traditional grammar lacks a theoretical framework, while modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.13.How are speech sounds described?The study of speech sounds is phonetics which includes 3 parts: 1) articulatory phonetics 2) acoustic phonetics 3) auditory phonetics. Articulatory phonetics is the primary concern in linguistics, in which speech sound is described within 3 sides:The description of consonants: a) place of articulation b) manners of articulation c) voicing d) aspirationThe description of vowels: a) monophthongs b) diphthongs c) lip rounding d) tensity14. Difference between linguistic competence and communicative competence1) Linguists like Chomsky who are not concerned with language use propose the term linguistic competence to account for a speaker’s knowledge of his or her language.2) Sociolinguists like Dell Hymes propose communicative competence as the most general term to account for both the tacit knowledge of language and the ability to use it. According to Hymes, there are 4 parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence, namely the ability to judge: a) whether sth is possible. b) feasible c) appropriate 4) done.15. How are words decomposed into their constituents1) Words are composed of one or more than one morphemes.2) Morphemes are the smallest meaningful unit of language.3) Morphemes can be categorized into 2 kinds. a) free morphemes( they constitute words by themselves) b) bound morphemes( they are never used independently)4) Bound morphemes include inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes.16. What are aspects of syntactic knowledge?Syntactic knowledge is the knowing of which strings of words are grammatical and which are not. In addition, it includes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammaticalrelations 4) recursion 5) sentence relatedness 6) syntactic categories.17. What are the two classes of phonetic features? What is the fundamental difference?The two classes of phonetic features are distinctive features and non-distinctive features. Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, in other words, those distinguishing phonemes. Non-distinctive features do not distinguish meanings, i.e. the features belong to allophones. However, whether a phonetic feature is distinctive or non-distinctive varies from one language to another language.18. How do you account for the relation between phonetics and phonology? Phonology and phonetics are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but the two differ in perspectives. Phonetics, particularly articulatory phonetics, focuses on how speech sounds are produced, what phonetic features they have, and how to transcribe them. In phonetics, sound segments are assumed to be invariable; variations are overlooked.Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions. What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language? 19. What are the components of communicative competence？According to Hedge, there are mainly five components of communicative competence. They are linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence, and fluency.1. Analyze the sentence in terms of type of process, mood structure, and theme and rheme:The academician will address the issue of the legitimacy of cloning at the conference.It is the verbal process. In this sentence, the sayer is the academician, the receivers are the people at the conference though it is not mentioned but we can infer it from the sentence. The verbiage is the issue of the legitimacy of cloning.This sentence is the realization of linguistic interaction, it is the giving of information. Its syntactic form is statement. The subject is the academician, the finite is the verbal operator “will”.The constituent that stands for the starting-point for the message is termed theme; all the rest of the sentence is labeled rheme. In this sentence, the theme is the academician and “the issue of the legitimacy of cloning at the conference” is the rheme.2. Analyze the two English sound segments【K】and 【Kh】in terms of distribution and the phonetic feature that distinguish them.1) Both are in complementary distribution. They are the allophones of the phoneme【K】. 【K】: fricative, voiceless, alveolar.【Kh】: elsewhere2) the phonetic feature that distinguish them is aspirationWhat are aspects of syntactic knowledge?Syntactic knowledge is the knowing of which strings of words are grammatical and which are not. In addition, it includes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammatical relations 4) recursion 5) sentence relatedness 6) syntactic categories.3. Point out the semantic problem of the sentence "the orphan is staying with his parentsThere are some sentences which sound grammatical but meaningless. The sentence "theorphan is staying with his parents” is just one example. This sentence is always false which is called contradiction. An orphan is a child whose parents are dead, or a child who has been deprived of parental care. The theme (the orphan) and the rheme (is staying with his parents) are incompatible.4. Analyze the change of feature concerning the liquids and nasals in flight, snow, smart, pray and generalize the rule.Liquids /l/ /r/ appear after a voiceless consonant /f/ and /p/ respectively, they are devoiced.Nasals /n//m/ appear after a voiceless consonant /s/, they are devoiced.Rule: Devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant.Or: When the English liquids, glides and the two anterior nasals appear after a voiceless consonant, it is devoiced. This rule can be expressed as follows: devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant，that is, [+voiced+consonantal] [-voiced] / [-voiced+consonantal]-. The phonology /l/ /r/ belong to liquids, and /m/ /n/ belong to anterior nasals. All these four are voiced consonant, but in these words, they change to the voiceless, for they appear after voiceless consonants.6. Analyze the cooking term stew as a verb by way of componential analysis and mark the feature that you think is distinguisher.stew: +cook +hot +close dish +juice (+ juice: semantic distinguisher)7. Analyze the cause of the error that some Chinese speakers of English use although and but within one sentence.In the process of analyzing learners' language, error analysis is a milestone. Explaining errors is the final but very important step in error analysis. In terms of sources, errorsare divided into interlingual errors and intralingual errors. Interlingual errors are caused by mother tongue interference which means the negative role one's knowledge of L1 to L2 learning. In Chinese, we can use “不但”，“而且”in the same sentence, so some Chinese speakers transfer this expression directly to English. But according to English grammar, “although” and “but” can not appear in the same sentence. This phenomenon is a kind of negative transfer of learners' syntactic knowledge. This is a typical phenomenon of interference in learning.9. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/- WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/- PAN], [+/- POT], [+/- OVEN], [+/- SIEVE], etc. boil: [+WATER] [-FAT] [- PAN] [+ POT] [- OVEN] [- SIEVE]fry: [- WATER] [+FAT] [+ PAN] [- POT], [- OVEN] [+SIEVE]steam: [+WATER] [-FAT] [- PAN] [+POT] [-OVEN] [- SIEVE]stew: [+WATER] [+FAT] [- PAN] [+ POT] [- OVEN] [- SIEVE]bake: [- WATER] [+FAT] [- PAN] [- POT] [+ OVEN] [- SIEVE]10. Write the type of reference of it in each of the following sentences:(1)It is rather foggy these days.(2)It is so far hard to tell how many lives are claimed in the catastrophe..(3)The most powerful earthquake triggered massive tidal waves that slammed into coastlines across Asia yesterday. It killed over 30,000 people in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Maldives.(1)“It” here refers to the weather. It is an exphoric reference, referring to the world outside linguistic forms.(2)“It” refers to the following expression, “how man lives are claimed in the catastrophe”,which is a linguistic form.. Thus, it is an endophoric reference, specifically, cataphoric reference (cataphora).(3)“It” refers to the preceding expression, that “massive tidal waves slammed into coastlines across Asia yesterday”. Therefore, it is an endophoric reference, specifically, anaphoric reference (anaphora).11. Analyze the ambiguity of the two sentences, telling the difference:(1)Flying planes can be dangerous.(2)She cannot bear children.1. a. The behavior of flying planes can be dangerous.b. Planes which is flying can be dangerous.2. a. She cannot endure children.b. She cannot give birth to children.1 Analyze the relation of –er –est and more most in English and generalize their distribution.-er est are the inflectional affixes of adj. or adv . –er and more are allomorphs of a same morpheme indicating comparative. –est and most are allomorphs of a same morpheme indicating superlative. Distribution of more most is before a adj. which has at least two syllables. –er –est are used as the affixes of adj. and adv. which has one ore two syllables.2 analyze the semantic difference of father and daddy in the given sentence, using Leech `s classification of lexical meanings.Classification: connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning and collocative meaning. Daddy has an affective meaning. When you use the term,you are in intimate relationship with your father. So a father is just who has a child, but daddy is the one loved by his child.3 analyze the difference between summon and call in terms of register.Register refers to varieties according to use. Summon is a formal word, used in court of law to order sb to appear, while call is widely used in daily life.4 point out the maxim flouted and the implicature of B `s utterance:A: Did you notice something odd between the host and hostess?B: Have another glass of beer?It flouted the maxim of relevance. The implicature of B` s utterance : the hearer doesn `t want to gossip about those people .5 point out the degree of formality of :It is gratifying that the cooperative program has been proceeding smoothly formal.6 what is distinctive featureDistinctive features are features that distinguish meanings.7 How do you account for the relation between semantics and pragmatics.They are two separate fields. Both study meaning, but semantics studies the conventional meaning of a word while pragmatics studies the international meaning, the meaning in use. Semantics is bilateral while pragmatics is trilateral. Semantics studies the relationship between sign and meaning, but pragmatics studies the sign, meaning and user.8 What are the two main schools of contemporary western linguistics? What are the fundamental differences between them?TG grammar v.s systematic-functional grammarTG based on UG, studies the general principles while systematic-functional grammarstudies language functions.。
东北师范大学《语言学概论》在线作业1-0002
语言学概论在线作业1-0002
《马克思主义与语言学问题》的作者是（）。
A:索绪尔
B:布龙菲尔德
C:斯大林
D:赵元任
参考选项：C
黏着语的特点是（）。
A:词根和后缀都有相当大的独立性，构形后缀就像是粘附在词根上似的B:词在句中的语法关系主要是靠词序和虚词来表现的
C:把句子成分作为附加成分包括在同一个词里
D:词根或词干与构形词缀或词尾结合得很紧密
参考选项：A
结构主义语言学独特的研究方法是（）。
A:历史比较法
B:归纳法
C:分布分析法和直接成分分析法
D:句子成分分析法
参考选项：C
“桌子我都擦干净了”中的“桌子”，其语义角色为（）。
A:施事
B:受事
C:与事
D:工具
参考选项：B
（）是我国最早的解释词义的专著。
A:《尔雅》
B:《说文解字》
C:《方言》
D:《释名》
参考选项：A
普通话"豆腐"快念时读成[tou51f ]，这种现象是（）。
A:同化
B:异化
C:弱化
D:脱落
参考选项：D
1。
杨忠---语言学概论中文版学习指导东北师范大学
《语言学概论》学习指导杨忠主编《语言学概论》学习指导主编杨忠副主编：林正军魏昆编者（按姓氏笔画排序）王泽霞王晶芝杨忠林正军《语言学概论学习指导》是为网络课程学历教育考生编写的学习指导书，既可用于网络语言学课程的大纲及教材辅导，亦可用作语言学课程教学的辅导材料。
语言学作为与外语教学密切相关的学科之一，在外语教学中的地位和作用越来越显著。
在大学英语本科专业，语言学已被当作一门重要的专业课开设。
同时，语言学也是外语教师职业发展和培训的必修课。
为了配合《语言学概论》（杨忠主编，高等教育出版社，2002）这本教材的教与学，我们组织编写了这本学习指导用书。
本书与教材相对应，共分为十章，每章包括导读、重点与难点、习题及语言学名家介绍四部分。
本书的编写体例由杨忠、林正军和魏昆共同商定。
具体分工如下：杨忠负责序言部分的撰写、以及全书的审校工作；王泽霞负责第一至三章及综合测试题一至四的编写；王晶芝负责第四至六章及综合测试题五至八的编写；林正军负责第七至十章及综合测试题九至十的编写、以及全书的统稿工作；魏昆负责全书的校对和编排工作。
本书语言学名家简介部分的编写参考了刘润青的《西方语言学流派》（外语教学与研究出版社，2004）、当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库的相关导读部分、以及中国学术期刊全文数据库的部分文章，在此我们向以上著作及文章的作者致谢！本书在编写过程中得到东北师范大学出版社魏昆老师以及出版社的大力支持，在此表示衷心感谢！编者2006年2月19日序第一章语言和语言学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—费迪南·德·索绪尔第二章语音学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—维伦·马泰休斯第三章音位学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—路易斯·叶姆斯列夫第四章形态学：词的构成研究导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—布龙菲尔德第五章句法：句子结构分析导读本章习题语言学名家介绍—乔姆斯基第六章语义学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—杰弗瑞·利奇第七章语用学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—约翰·塞尔第八章社会语言学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—威廉·拉波夫第九章第二语言习得导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—约翰·鲁珀特·弗斯第十章语言学与外语教学导读本章习题语言学名家介绍—韩礼德绪论漫谈外语教师学习语言学杨忠就“从语言学中学什么”和“怎样学习语言学”两个相关的话题与年轻的外语同行们交流一下学习语言学的体会，代为序。
2013年东北师范大学语言学经验分享
2013年东北师范大学语言学经验分享书目是杨忠老师的书跟胡壮麟的语言学第四版。
主要是杨忠老师的书，这本书要细看，至少5遍，最后自己能够从头到尾整一遍。
胡的书也要看，6，8，12章个人认为比较重要，可以参考圣才那本书。
二、基础英语当时背的跨考考研词汇，还买了本考研词汇，因为太难放弃了。
阅读用的是100篇，作文是专八作文。
翻译就是买了几本翻译的书，针对散文小说之类的（例如张培基）。
新题型排序题，这个个人感觉有点难度，这个用的是非英语专业考研题训练的。
三、二外日语主要是看三本书，大部分是自学的。
我主要是看的课本，做了一点题。
四、最后说一句：利用好真题。
有不少学弟学妹会问我，你考研的时候有遇到什么困难么？对这个问题，我也在问自己，到底有没有遇到困难呢？什么才是困难呢?我不知道在图书馆上演抢位大战算不算困难？不知道隔三差五的清馆算不算困难？不知道每天睡不够，逼着自己早起算不算困难？不知道暑假不回家，狼狈的到处找房子，和房东讨价还价算不算困难？不知道在本来就冬冷夏热的图书馆一坐就是一天，密不透风的环境，汗水足够洗澡，屁股总是有数不完的痱子，这算不算困难？不知道冬天顶着寒风一个人走在去图书馆的路上，别平常人却还在和周公聊天，这不算困难？不知道晚上，有时一个人独自回到租赁的房子，还要逞强假装坚强，一个人哼着小调壮胆算，然后快速打开房门，关上，出奇的利索。
不知道这，又算不算困难？不知道中午不能回去睡觉，只能趴在桌子上小憩一会儿（因为天太热，而且也不近），这算不算得困难？不知道看老胡毫无头绪，看不下去，一遍一遍的叹气，这又算不得困难？不知道日语压力过大，跑到天台上一个人迎着风哭泣，这算不算困难？不知道因为阅读理解错的太多，信心剧减，这算不算困难？不知道看的语言学书比较杂，不知道怎么整理，这算不算困难？不知道在焦急的等待初试成绩的时候，自己被甩了，这算不算困难呢？？不知道……不知道……亲爱的学弟学妹们，我不知道你们口中的困难指的是什么。
杨忠语言学翻译[1]
![杨忠语言学翻译[1]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/0cf6ad2167ec102de2bd89ba.png)
语言学概论主编：杨忠目录第一章语言和语言文化 (2)第二章语音学 (8)第三章音位学 (13)第四章形态学 (19)第五章句法 (23)第六章语义学 (36)第七章语用学 (41)第八章社会语言学 (47)第九章第二语言习得 (52)第十章语言学与外语教学 (57)第一章语言和语言学一、导读1.1 什么是语言？我们在醒着的大多数时间里运用语言（在梦里也会用到）。
人们经常把语言看成是理所当然。
在与他人交往过程中，我们很少思考是什么让我们可以谈论宇宙和我们心灵世界的一切。
作为一名外语学习者，你是否对语言的本质进行过思考？作为一名职业英语教师，你是否对你所教授学科的本质有过探索？深入这个问题，去理解语言的多面性。
语言包括很多作用：语言是交流手段，是符号系统，是文化载体，是思维工具。
正是由于语言的多面性，解释了语言的的定义不能被普遍接受的原因。
语言学家们必须要直面这个问题，在他们课题中，语言作为他们的研究对象。
过去，数以百计的这类定义被提出。
在这里，我们要引用一些来做讨论。
语言是一个系统，它的要素可以并且一定能被考虑到它们的共时等同中。
（de Saussure，1916）语言是语句的一种心向（限定词或者非限定词），每一个限定词在词长以及构建出自限定词的要素的心向。
（Chomsky，1957）语言仅仅是人类非本能的通过自主产生的符号，来交流思想，情绪，要求的一种手段。
（Sapir，1921）不同的语言学家从不同的视角对语言进行了定义，反映了语言本质的不同侧面，但与此同时，也遗漏了一些问题。
在语言学界，“语言是人类用于交际的任意有声符号系统”的定义得到了广泛的接受。
这一定义是建立在理论的假设上的。
就其本身而言，语言是被看做是人类所特有的。
换而言之，就是假定语言只有人类才有。
动物的交流系统（比如鸟的吱吱叫，蜜蜂的舞蹈，狗的叫声等等）都被排除在外。
交流系统是否也被被定义为不同于人类的其他生物所掌握了？1.2人类语言的本质特征许多哲学家和语言学家都相信语言是人类所独有的。
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《语言学概论》学习指导杨忠主编《语言学概论》学习指导主编杨忠副主编：林正军魏昆编者（按姓氏笔画排序）王泽霞王晶芝杨忠林正军《语言学概论学习指导》是为网络课程学历教育考生编写的学习指导书，既可用于网络语言学课程的大纲及教材辅导，亦可用作语言学课程教学的辅导材料。
语言学作为与外语教学密切相关的学科之一，在外语教学中的地位和作用越来越显著。
在大学英语本科专业，语言学已被当作一门重要的专业课开设。
同时，语言学也是外语教师职业发展和培训的必修课。
为了配合《语言学概论》（杨忠主编，高等教育出版社，2002）这本教材的教与学，我们组织编写了这本学习指导用书。
本书与教材相对应，共分为十章，每章包括导读、重点与难点、习题及语言学名家介绍四部分。
本书的编写体例由杨忠、林正军和魏昆共同商定。
具体分工如下：杨忠负责序言部分的撰写、以及全书的审校工作；王泽霞负责第一至三章及综合测试题一至四的编写；王晶芝负责第四至六章及综合测试题五至八的编写；林正军负责第七至十章及综合测试题九至十的编写、以及全书的统稿工作；魏昆负责全书的校对和编排工作。
本书语言学名家简介部分的编写参考了刘润青的《西方语言学流派》（外语教学与研究出版社，2004）、当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库的相关导读部分、以及中国学术期刊全文数据库的部分文章，在此我们向以上著作及文章的作者致谢！本书在编写过程中得到东北师范大学出版社魏昆老师以及出版社的大力支持，在此表示衷心感谢！编者2006年2月19日序第一章语言和语言学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—费迪南·德·索绪尔第二章语音学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—维伦·马泰休斯第三章音位学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—路易斯·叶姆斯列夫第四章形态学：词的构成研究导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—布龙菲尔德第五章句法：句子结构分析导读本章习题语言学名家介绍—乔姆斯基第六章语义学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—杰弗瑞·利奇第七章语用学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—约翰·塞尔第八章社会语言学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—威廉·拉波夫第九章第二语言习得导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—约翰·鲁珀特·弗斯第十章语言学与外语教学导读本章习题语言学名家介绍—韩礼德绪论漫谈外语教师学习语言学杨忠就“从语言学中学什么”和“怎样学习语言学”两个相关的话题与年轻的外语同行们交流一下学习语言学的体会，代为序。
当了八年英语教师之后有了个机会公派出国学习。
当时最想学的就是语言学。
可是，到了目的地的第二天，接待我们的教育部官员却说语言学对提高英语教学水平没什么帮助。
凭直觉我感到教语言不懂语言学不行。
所以还是选了应用语言学方向，选的第一门基础课是语言学概论。
我发现选这门课的人有两百多人，来自人文社会科学若干系科。
几位教授、讲师共同承担这门课程，各讲一部分（team teaching），博士生上辅导课。
作业挺多，挺难，考试拉单桌。
功夫没白下，一年下来总成绩得了A。
回国后，系里让我接一位外教的课，继续教过去教过的综合英语。
教学方法跟过去不一样了。
后来，先后为本科生和研究生开了语言学课程，出版了一本语言学教材，发表了一些语言研究和语言教学研究的论文。
回顾三十年英语教学生涯，学语言学之前和之后相比，教学和研究能力相去甚远。
一个专业化的外语教师需要具有听、说、读、写、译、教六种技能，在教学过程中同时充当多重角色。
第一，他/她是目的语的使用者，用所教的语言来传授知识，组织活动，与学生进行情感和信息交流。
第二，是目的语的研究者，能独立探索那个语言的规律。
第三，是目的语的传授者，能全面理解教育目的、课程目标，了解学生的群体及个体特点和需要，科学合理地选择教学内容和方法，善于调动学生积极性，指导学习方法。
教师教育界认为，专业化的教师是善于反思的教师。
反思的一个重要条件是通过经常性阅读专业文献，与同领域的专家和同行及时沟通本专业的发展。
所以，一个外语教师的专业发展离不开三个R，即，reading, research, reflection。
为人师表的社会角色要求教师必须终生学习。
“道之所存，师之所存”就意味着要当好先生就要永远当好学生。
1．从语言学中学什么？学语言观。
著名应用语言学家科德（Corder）在1973年出版的《应用语言学导论》中指出：“我们处理工作的方法会受到我们对语言的看法的影响，也即受到关于语言的某种或几种看来和我们面临的特定问题有关的非正式理论的影响，甚至取决于这些理论。
”这段话中明确地指出了教语言的方法和对语言的看法之间的关系。
对语言的看法即是语言观，对语言本质的理解。
理查德（Richards）和罗杰斯（Rogers）把外语教学法分解为理论基础、内容设计、教学步骤三个组成部分。
语言学对语言本质研究的进展直接影响教学方法的更新。
语言学家探讨的问题也是语言教师需要思考的问题。
语言的本质是什么？语言发挥什么作用？怎样发挥作用？语言符号系统由什么构成？人怎样习得或学习语言？对于诸如此类的问题一个专业化的外语教师必须思考、回答。
要探讨怎样教语言，就不能不思考语言是什么。
当教师必有教育观，教语言定有语言观。
不学语言学也可有语言观，但那是潜意识的语言观。
一个外语教师学习了语言学，他/她的语言观则会理性化，对语言本质的认识会更符合语言实际。
对语言本质认识的深化有助于对教学的思考。
学研究方法。
对于一个外语教师来说，仅学习传统语法不能满足工作需要。
传统语法是教学语法，它只提供语法学家描写语言的结果，从中学不到得出结论的方法。
现代语言学的研究目标是既描写又解释语言现象。
语言学作为一门科学，其基本方法大致与其它科学相同。
观察，提问，提出假说，验证假说，得出结论。
读语言学论著可以从中学习研究思路和方法，看作者如何在回顾先前研究成果基础上提出问题，提出什么样的假说，怎样设计求证方法，怎样概括结果，得出结论。
这个学习过程是非常有益的思维训练过程，对于外语教师学习研究语言和语言学习很有价值。
学语言规律。
研究是“探求事物的真相、性质、规律（《现代汉语词典》）。
阅读语言学著述可以从语言学家那里学到他们通过研究发现的语言普遍规律或某一自然语言的规律，包括语音特征及分类、音位规则、词语构成、句法、语义类型与成分、语用原则、会话结构、语篇模式和连贯、语言变体、语言习得，等等。
这些方面的知识有助于外语教师的专业发展。
第一，掌握这些方面的语言规律能全面深入地把握教学内容，能高屋建瓴地使用教材，创造性设计练习和试卷。
第二，这些方面的知识能帮助教师敏锐地诊断学生的语误并找出其原因，科学区分和对待不同类型的语误。
第三，这些方面的知识能帮助教师反思自己的外语学习，发现问题，提高准确、得体地使用所学语言的能力。
2．怎样学习语言学？体会价值，激发动力。
语言学是比较抽象的学科，要学好非下一番功夫不可。
人们说兴趣是最好的老师，是因为有了兴趣就有持久的学习动力。
然而在没进入一个学科之前无法谈到是否会产生兴趣。
就个人而言（且不说学历教育所规定的课程），要不要学习某个学科，取决于个人对那个学科价值的判断，看它对自己的素质提高和专业发展是否有作用。
对于语言教师来说，语言学的价值毋须质疑。
应用语言学家将语言学对语言教学的贡献概括为应用和启示两方面。
语言描述的成果为语言教学直接提供内容，如音标、教学语法等。
语言学理论研究成果对语言教师思考教什么和怎样教两个根本问题颇有启发。
应用语言学家们认为外语教学是一个系统工程，包括决策、策划、操作、评价四个紧密联系的层面。
决策者们依据经济建设和社会发展需要确定教什么语言，在什么教育阶段开始，在课程设置中占什么位置。
专家们研究制定教学大纲、课程标准，编写教材，培养培训师资，外语教师是外语教育的操作者。
评价的目的是检验外语教育教学的效果。
这四个层面的工作都离不开语言学研究成果。
一个语言教师如果没有语言理论知识就好比一个不懂人体科学的体育教练。
无论他/她自己运动水平多高，不研究运动机理就不可能培养出高水平运动员。
同样道理，语言教师只有懂得语言符号系统是怎样构成的，是如何发挥作用的，语言学习过程有那些因素，怎样发挥这些因素的作用，才能更有效地从事语言教学，提高人才培养质量。
整体入手，见木见林。
语言是非常复杂的现象，语言学分支很多，派别林立。
语言学的分支是依其研究对象划分的，即依语言的各种要素划分的。
语言的基本要素是语音、结构、意义。
研究语音的分支是语音学、音位学，研究结构的是形态学和句法学，研究意义的是语义学和语用学。
语言与社会、心理、文化、教育等密切相关，因此出现一些语言研究的交叉学科，如社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语言学等。
即使研究对象是同样的语言层面，由于采用的方法不同，视角不同，还会有不同的学派。
例如，转换生成语法和系统功能语法都研究句子结构，但是两种语法的视角不同，研究的结果就不同，所发现的组句规律截然不同。
它们彼此互补，并不矛盾。
从整体上把握语言学众多的分支和派别可以了解语言学的全貌，做到纲举目张。
了解立论过程，深入理解理论。
理论是对自然和社会现象的系统性解释。
任何理论都产生于研究过程。
研究过程始于观察和提问，然后提出假说（即对所观察到的现象的初步解释或对所提出问题的初步解答），最后验证假说。
如果假说得到充分验证，则成为理论。
如果验证失败，则须重新提出假说，再验证新的假说。
语言学理论也是在这样的过程中产生的。
理解一个语言学理论，就须从语言学家所提出的问题开始，弄清假说，看它是如何被验证的。
这样才能深入理解理论。
语言学的发展本身也是一个过程。
科学哲学家波普尔（Popper）认为, 科学发展史就是一个原有理论被证伪、新理论提出的过程。
人类对世界的认识逐步深化。
很难想象那一个理论完全脱离已有知识而凭空提出。
新理论的立论前提是发现了原有理论不能解释或不能完全解释的现象和问题。
这就是学术论文都有文献综述的道理。
了解一个理论的来龙去脉才能把握它的精髓，判别它的价值。
因此，阅读一部语言学论著或论文时，要注意作者对原有理论的评述，看他/她指出的问题，然后再看他/她的观点是什么，是怎样验证的。
用例证解读术语。
每一门科学都有术语。
语言学术语也很多。
术语是一门科学的专门用语。
语言学术语与其它科学术语不同。
其他科学的术语属于对象语言，例如分数，植物，流体，燃烧，等都是术语，也是汉语的词。
而语言学术语属于元语言，即关于语言的语言。
对象语言是我们谈论语言之外的事物和对象的语言，元语言是我们用来谈论对象语言的语言。
比较两个英语句子中的man:(1)Man is a bipedal hairless primate.(2)Man is composed of three phonemes.句（1）是给man 下的定义，man 用来指一种客观存在。