现代语言学考试要点

语言学考试必备

一、名词解释：5*2=10分1.音位：音位是具体语言或方言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。

2.语流音变：在语流这一活动的言语的声音里，有一种共时的变化的现象特别值得注意，那就是语流音变。

语言单位的读音进入言语之后，其中一个音受到前后音或者说话各种因素的影响而在发音上产生某种变化。

3.语义指向：语义指向是从语义平面揭示句法成分之间的关系，是指向句法结构中某一成分在语义平面上支配或说明的方向。

4.组合关系：语言符号与符号之间按照一定的规则组成的言语链条关系，叫组合关系。

组合关系是一种现实的、有顺序、可数的横向关系；聚合关系是一种联想的、无顺序、不易精确数出来的纵向关系。

5.语法范畴：把不同的形式所表示的同一类语法意义进行归类所得出的类，就是语法范畴。

二、填空：30*1-30分1、传统语义学包括：文字学音韵学训诂学2、语言符号的系统性及其特点（1）音义结合的符号：语音是其形式，语义是其内容。

（2）语言符合的形式和其所代表的的事物具有约定俗称性。

特点：任意性，线条性3.谁是现代语言学之父及他的代表作：索绪尔《普通语言学教程》。

4.语音四要素：音高、音强、音长、音质。

5、语义演变的结果：语义的扩大、语义的缩小、词义的转移。

6.语义三角：词义、语音、客观事物之间处于一种三足鼎立、相互制约、相互作用的关系之中。

7、基本词汇的特点：全民常用性、稳定性、能产性8、反义词的分类：互补对立、两极对立和关系对立9、语素和词的区别：• 语素是语言中不能独立运用的最小的音义结合体。

• 语素和词的区分就在于能否独立运用。

10、词义演变途径：比喻和借代11、文字的分类：1. 表意文字和表音文字，2. 表单位文字，3. 自源文字和借源文字三、选择5*1-5分1、语音四要素，辅音，舌根音，元音，前元音，2、语义场分类• （1）同义义场：绝对同义义场和相对同义义场；（2）反义义场a. 互补对立义场，b. 两极对立义场，c. 关系对立义场；（3）多义义场；（4）联想义场：分类联想、部分联想和描绘联想三种。

现代语言学复习要点

现代语言学复习要点现代语言学是研究语言的本质、结构、演化和使用的学科，涉及到语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个方面。

下面是现代语言学中的重要知识点，帮助您进行复习。

语音学音位与音素音位是语音学中的基本单位，是被感知为一种有区别的声音的语音单位。

音素是语音学中的一个概念，是语音中能够起差别作用的最小单位。

一种语音中可能存在多个音位，但其对应的音素数量通常比较少。

### 调值语音学中通常使用调值来表示声音的高低的。

不同的语言中可能有不同数量的调，比如汉语中有四个音调，英语中没有固定的调值。

### 音系音系是指一种语言中所有音位（包括所有音素）的总体，包括其音位的数量、种类和分布等方面。

语法学句子成分句子成分是指构成句子的基本单词、短语或从句。

一般来说，句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等。

### 句子结构句子结构是指句子内不同成分的组成方式。

对于不同语言，其句子结构可能存在明显差异，如英语中主语一般出现在谓语前，而在汉语中通常是在谓语后。

### 语法关系语法关系是指句子中不同成分之间的关系，如主语与谓语之间的关系、宾语与谓语之间的关系等。

语义学词义词义是单词所表达的概念或意义。

不同的单词可能存在相同或相似的词义，因此在语义学中通常需要进行词义分类和比较。

### 语义关系语义关系是指单词、短语、句子等之间的意义相互联系。

常见的语义关系包括同义关系、反义关系、上下位关系等。

### 语篇意义语篇意义是指句子及其上下文所构成的整体意义。

在语篇分析中，不仅要关注句子内部的语义关系，还需考虑句子与上下文之间的语义关系。

语用学言语行为言语行为是指言语交流过程中所体现的具体行为，如陈述、命令、请求、批评等。

不同类型的言语行为具有不同的功能和表达方式。

### 语用礼貌语用礼貌是指在言语交际过程中对他人尊重、友好的表达方式。

常见的语用礼貌策略包括委婉语、礼貌用语、双重否定等。

### 上下文依存言语交际过程中，具体表达的含义通常需要依赖于上下文信息。

自考《现代语言学》复习讲义

自考《现代语言学》复习讲义自考《现代语言学》复习讲义一、常考题型1.填空2.单项选择3.判断正误4.解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5.回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题。

二、各章节学习要点Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论）is linguisticsDefinition （语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, ., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general.The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴）—4The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics tothe research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支：1）phonetics（语音学）2)phonology （音系学）3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学）The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学：1) Psycholingusitcs (心理语言学)；2) Sociolinguistics (社会语言学)；3) Anthropological linguistics (人类语言学)；4) Computational linguistics (计算语言学) Some important distinctions in linguistics —71.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive （规定性和描述性）Modern linguistics, ., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic （共时性和历时性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writing （口头语和书面语）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1.3.4 Langue and parole （语言和言语）The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.1.3.5 Competence and performance （语言能力和语言运用）Similar to Saussure’s dis tinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.While Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are verysimilar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2. What is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。

语言学概论考试重点

语言学概论考试题型
名词解释（4/5）简答题（4/5）分析题（4/5）论述题（1）
第一章语言的功能
1.语言的基本功能
2.语言和思维的关系
第二章语言是符号系统
1.语言的内涵或性质语言的二层性语言是音义结合的符号系统
2.如何理解语言的符号性？
3.如何理解语言的系统性？
第三章语音
1.汉语拼音的国际音标
2.元音舌位图
3.语流音变的概念和类型
第四章语法
1.语法意义、语法范畴、语法化的概念
2.词和句子表现语法意义的手段分别有哪些？
3.语法分析的手段有哪些？配价分析法和变化分析法的含义
4.从语法角度对语言所划分出来的语言类型有哪些？各自有什么含义？第五章语义
1.词义的发展演变类型
2.语境的含义及其作用
第六章文字
1.文字的地位与作用文字和语言的关系
2.文字的性质及其分类
第七章语言的发展与演变
1.语言发展演变的原因
2.语言发展演变的特点
3.语言分化与统一的表现
4.语言系统发展演变的表现与特点？主要关注词汇与语法方面。

语言学考试要点

语言学考点一、导言1、语言学研究分两个阶段：传统语言学（语文学）阶段和现代语言学阶段。

传统语言学特点：主要以书面语为主要研究材料，给政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学方面的经典著作作注解；始终处于附属地位，不能形成独立的科学。

现代语言学特点：较重视口语研究，如制定语言规范，确立共同语的各方面标准等；研究目的主要是分析语言的结构，以此探讨语言发展的共同规律；现代语言学已经发展成为一门独立的学科。

传统语文学的三个中心：印度传统、希腊（解读经文的需要→梵语语言的研究起步早→“声明学”）－罗马传统（希腊语研究和古拉丁语研究）和中国传统——“小学”（文字学、音韵学和训诂学）。

现代语言学流派：历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学和转换生成语言学。

2、语言学的分科：（1）功能角度：理论语言学和应用语言学（2）具体研究对象：普通（一般）语言学和个别（专语、具体）语言学。

（3）研究时段：共时语言学和历时语言学（4）研究方法：描写语言学和对比语言学（5）研究对象的状态：静态语言学和动态语言学（6）研究角度和范围：微观语言学和宏观语言学二、语言的功能与语言符号1、为什么人类能掌握语言，而动物不能。

1)语言能力是人类特有的掌握语言需要发达的头脑和灵活的发音器官，即要有高度的抽象思维能力和灵巧的发音能力。

动物只是能模仿，具备初级思维的能力，能通人性，但它们仍然学不会人类的语言。

人类高度的抽象思维能力和灵巧的发音能力是在长期的劳动中形成的。

2)人类的语言和动物的“语言”有着根本的区别①人类语言单位明晰——动物的“语言”浑沌一片②人类语言符号具有完全的任意性——动物的“语言”的任意性受到很大的局限。

③人类语言符号结构有二层性——动物的“语言”没有结构可言。

④人类的语言是开放的——动物的“语言”是封闭的。

⑤人类的语言存在于社会——动物的“语言”是先天的。

2、为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？（1）语言是交际工具。

语言是人与人之间的了解的纽带，只要有人群活动的地方就需要语言，人们用它进行交际，交流思想，以便在认知现实、改造现实的过程中协调相互之间的行为，以取得最佳的效果。

语言学概论考试重点

一、名词解释：⒈组合关系符号和符号组合起来的关系成为符号的组合关系。

聚合关系言语链条上的某一环节能够相互替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群的关系叫聚合关系。

⒉语流音变音位和音位组合的时候，由于受邻音的影响，或者说话时快慢、上下、强弱的不同，可能发生不同的变化，叫做语流音变。

分析例子常见的语流音变有同化、异化、弱化、脱落四种。

1、同化：两个不同的音位，其中一个受另一个的影响，变成跟它相同或相近的音位。

如books的s发成/s/，可是dogs的s却变成了/z/，因为/g/是浊音，/s/受/g/的影响也变成了浊音/z/。

2、异化：指两个本来相同或相近的音位，其中一个由于某种原因变得跟另一个不同。

如一般话两个上声相连，第一个上声要变成阳平。

“你好、语法、粉笔、雨伞、土改〞3、弱化：在语流中，有些音的发音可能变弱，不那么清楚，这种现象叫做弱化。

如英语冠词a、an、the的语音弱化。

4、脱落：弱化音往往会进一步脱落。

如X话“你们〞常发成/nim/，“我们〞常发成/wom/，“豆腐〞/toufu/说成/touf/。

⒊音位变体一个音位常常是一组音，其各个音之间没有区别意义的作用，属于同一个音位的多个音素，都是这个音位的变体。

⒋非音质音位语音中，音高、音强、音长也是区别言语单位的语音形式，也能起区别意义的作用，也能构成音位。

有区别词的语音形式的作用的音高、音强、音长等叫做非音质音位。

⒌音素是构成音节的最小单位或最小的语音片段，是从音质的角度划分出来的最小的线性的语音单位。

⒍义素是义位的组成局部，是由分解义位而得到的比义位低一层的语义单位。

如“哥哥〞这个义位可分解为四个义素：亲属、同胞、年长、男性。

⒎义项是传统词汇学——词典学中常用的术语。

现代语义学中的“义位〞根本上对应于传统词汇学中的“义项〞。

⒏词法语素组合成词的规则叫构词法，它和词的变化规则合在一起叫做词法。

句法词组合成词组或句子的规则叫做句法。

语言学考试复习重难点

语言学考试复习重难点Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

语言学考试要点（考试重点整理）

语言学考试要点（考试重点整理）Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to descri be and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behaviorin using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they shouldnot say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared byall the members of aspeech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age,sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions.(name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings andattitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establisha comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with allthe sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription （严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols together withdiacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But theydiffer in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce duringlinguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned withword formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme thatmust be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)/doc/2c13051977.html,pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes./doc/2c13051977.html,pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control:a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form andwhat it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested byOgden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);Thereferent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with theform of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from thispoint of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Twotypes of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gra dable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词/doc/2c13051977.html,ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.。

现代语言学要点(英语言文学自考)

一下为资料内容：==================================== ==================================== ==========现代语言学学习笔记第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theori es, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic studyPhonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in li nguistic communicationPhonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communicationMorphology, which studies the way in which morphem es are arranged to form wordsSyntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentencesSemantics, which is the study of meaning in language. Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of useSociolinguistics, which is the study of language with re ference to societyPsycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the applic ation of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narr ow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching a nd learning, especially the teaching of foreign and secon d languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and co mputational linguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "hi gh "(religious, literary) written language . It sets model s for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, an d mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be sci entific and objective and the task of linguists is suppose d to describe the language people actually use, whetherit is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchroni c study of language describes a language as it is at so me particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical d evelopment of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。

现代语言学复习要点

Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1 什么是语言学 what is linguistics?1.1 定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2 语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。

b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of lingu istics called phonetics. 语音学phoneticsHow speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology 音位学/ 音系学phonology交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the bran ch of study calledmorphology. 形态学morphologyhow morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。

自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结

第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics,（神经语言学） mathematicallinguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctionsin linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive描写与规定If a linguistic studydescribes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use,it is said to be descriptive, if itaims to lay down rules to tellpeople what they should sayand what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differsfrom traditional grammar.Traditional grammar isprescriptive while modernlinguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists issupposed to describe thelanguage people actually use,whether it i s “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of alanguage at some point intime is a synchronic study; thedescription of a language as itchanges through time isa diachronic study. In modernlinguistics, synchronic study ismore important.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing are thetwo major media ofcommunication.Modern linguistics regardsthe spoken form of languageas primary, but not the writtenform.Reasons:●1. Speech precedes writing;●2. There are still manylanguages that have only thespoken form;●3. In terms of function, thespoken language is used for awider range of purposes thanthe written, and carries alarger load of communicationthan the written.Langue and parole [pə'rəul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. deSaussure made the distinctionbetween langue and paroleearly 20th century.Langue refers to theabstract linguistic systemshared by all the members ofa speech community,and parole refers to therealization of langue in actualuse.Saussure made thedistinction in order to singleout one aspect of language forserious study. He believeswhat linguists should do is toabstract langue from parole, todiscover the regularitiesgoverning the actual use oflanguage and make them thesubjects of study of linguistics.语言能力和语言运用Competence andperformanceProposed by Americanlinguist N. Chomsky in the late1950’s.He defines competence asthe ideal user’s knowledge ofthe rules of his language,and performance the actualrealization of this knowledgein linguistic communication.He believes the task of thelinguists is to discover andspecify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.Sapir,Edward uses “ideas”“emotions” and “desires” in hisdefinition.Hall, like Sapir, treatslanguage as a purely humaninstitution.Chomsky’s definition isquite different, it focus on thepurely structural properties oflanguages and to suggest thatthese properties can beinvestigated from amathematically precise pointof view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to thedefining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish itfrom any animal system ofcommunication.American linguist CharlesHockett specified twelvedesign features.1) Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）It means that there is nological connection betweenmeanings and sounds.For instance, there is nonecessary relationshipbetween the word dog and theanimal it refers to. The factthat different sounds are usedto refer to the same object indifferent languages and thatthe same sound may be usedto refer to different objects isanother good example.Although language isarbitrary by nature, it is notentirely arbitrary. Some words,such as the words created inthe imitation of sounds bysounds are motivated in acertain degree. The arbitrarynature of language makes itpossible for language to havean unlimited source ofexpressions.2) Productivity能产性Language is productive orcreative in that it makespossible the construction andinterpretation of an infinitelylarge number of sentences,including those that they havenever said or heard before.3) Duality结构二重性It means that language is asystem, which consists of twosets of structure, or two levels,one of sounds at the lowerlevel and the other ofmeanings at the higher level.At the lower or the basic level,there is the structure ofindividual and meaninglesssounds, which can be groupedinto meaningful units at thehigher level. This duality ofstructure or double articulationof language enables its usersto talk about anything withintheir knowledge.4) Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language canbe used to talk about whathappened in the past, what ishappening now, or what willhappen in the future.Language can also be used totalk about our real wordexperiences or theexperiences in our imaginaryworld. In other words,language can be used to referto contexts removed from theimmediate situations of thespeaker.5) Cultural transmission文化传播性While we are born with theability to acquire language, thedetails of any language arenot genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taughtand learned anew.**********************************Chapter 2Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium oflanguage语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

自考《现代语言学》复习讲义

自考《现代语言学》复习讲义一、常考题型1.填空2.单项选择3.判断正误4.解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5.回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题。

二、各章节学习要点Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论）is linguisticsDefinition （语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, ., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general.The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴）—4The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics tothe research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支：1）phonetics（语音学） 2)phonology （音系学） 3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学）The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学：1) Psycholingusitcs (心理语言学)；2) Sociolinguistics (社会语言学)；3) Anthropological linguistics (人类语言学)；4) Computational linguistics (计算语言学)Some important distinctions in linguistics —71.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive （规定性和描述性）Modern linguistics, ., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic （共时性和历时性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writing （口头语和书面语）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1.3.4 Langue and parole （语言和言语）The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.1.3.5 Competence and performance （语言能力和语言运用）Similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.While Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2. What is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。

自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料

自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料0830 - 现代语言学 2.1 The naming theory 2.2 Dichotic listening research of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has 3. The language centers 2.2 The conceptualist view undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a 完整版9.5页 3.1 Broca’s area 2.3 Contextualism diachronic study. 笔记依据教材 3.2 Wernicke’s area ompetence: The ideal user’s 2.4 Behaviorism 6).Language c《现代语言学》3. Lexical meaning 3.3 The angular gyrus knowledge of the rules of his language. A 何兆熊、梅德明主编外语教学与研究出版社 3.1 Sense and reference 3.4 Language perception, comprehension and transformational-generative grammar(转化生成语笔记依据目录 3.2 Major sense relations production 法)is a model of language competence. Chapter 1 Introduction 4. The critical period for language acquisition 3.2.1 Synonymy7).Language performance: performance is the 1. What is linguistics? 4.1 The critical period hypothesis 3.2.2 Polysemy actual realization of the ideal language user’s 1.1 Definition 4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration of 3.2.3 Homonymy knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 1.2 The scope of linguistics 3.2.4 Hyponymy language faculty with age 8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic 1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 3.2.5 Antonymy 5. Language and thought system shared by all the members of a speech 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 4. Sense relations between sentences 5.1 Early views on language and thought community; Langue is the set ofconventions and 1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 5. Analysis of meaning 5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis rules which language users all have to follow; 1.3.3 Speech and writing 5.1 Componential analysis—a way to analyze 5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Langue is relatively stable, it does not change 1.3.4 Langue and parole lexical meaning 5.3.1 Words and meaning frequently. 1.3.5 Competence and performance 5.2 Predication analysis—a way to analyze 5.3.2 Grammatical structure 9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue 2. What is language? sentence meaning 5.3.3 Translation in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the 2.1 Definitions of language Study questions5.3.4 Second language acquisition conventions and the application of the rules; parole 2.2 Design features Chapter 6 Pragmatics 5.3.5 Language and world views varies from person to person, and from situation to Study questions 1. What is pragmatics? 5.4 Understanding the relation of language and situation. Chapter 2 Phonology 1.1 Definition thought 10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary 1. The phonic medium of language 1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics 5.4.1 Major functions of language vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. Phonetics 1.3 Context5.4.2 The development and blending of language 11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of 2.1 What is phonetics? 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 5.4.3 Thinking without language language. It means that there is no logical 2.2 Organs of speech 2. Speech act theory 5.4.4 Language as a conventional coding system connection between meanings and sounds. A good 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech 3.Principle of conversation to express thought example is the fact that different sounds are used sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions 5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thought Study questions to refer to the same object in different languages. 2.4 Classification of English speech sounds Study questions Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics12).Productivity: Language is productive or 2.4.1 Classification of English consonants Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 1. The purpose and significance of the historical creative in that it makes possible the construction 2.4.2 Classification of English vowels 1. First language acquisition study of language and interpretation of new signals by its users. 3. Phonology 2. The nature of language change 1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition 13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists 3.1 Phonology and phonetics 3. The historical development of English 1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition of of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of 3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 3.1 Major periods in the history of English grammatical rules sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of 3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, 3.1.1 Old English 1.3 The role of input and interaction meanings at the higher level. and minimal pair 3.1.2 Middle English 1.4 The role of instruction 14).Displacement: language can be used to refer 3.4 Some rules in phonology 3.1.3 Modern English 1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement to things which are present or not present, real or 3.4.1 Sequential rules 3.2 linguistic change of English 1.6 The role of imitation imagined matters in the past, present, orfuture, or 3.4.2 Assimilation rules 3.2.1 Sound change 2. Stages offirst language acquisition in far-away places. In other words, language can 3.4.3 Deletion rule 3.2.2 Morphological change 2.1 The prelinguistic stage be used to refer to contexts removed from the 3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, 3.2.3 Syntactic change 2.2 The one-word stage immediate situations of the speaker. intonation 2.3 The two-word stage 3.2.4 Lexical change 15).Cultural transmission: While we are born 3.5.1 Stress 2.4 The multiword stage 3.2.5 Semantic change with the ability to acquire language, the details of 3.5.2 Tone 3. The development of the grammatical system 4. Language family any language are not genetically transmitted, but 3.5.3 Intonation 4.1 Classifying genetically related languages 3.1 The development of phonology instead have to be taught and learned. Study questions 4.2 The Indo-English language family 3.2 The development of syntax 16).Design features: It refers to the defining Chapter 3 Morphology 5. The causes of language change 3.3 The development of morphology properties of human language that distinguishit 1. Definition 5.1 Sound assimilation 3.4 The development ofvocabulary and semantics from any animal system of communication 2. Morpheme 5.2 Rule simplification and regularization 4. Second language acquisition 2.Explain the following definition of linguistics: 2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of 5.3 Internal borrowing 4.1 Acquisition vs. learning Linguistics is the scientific study of language. language 4.2 Transfer and interference 5.4 Elaboration Linguistics investigates not any particular language, 2.2 Types of morphemes 5.5Sociological triggers 4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA but languages in general. 2.2.1 Free morphemes 5.6 Cultural transmission development Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on 2.2.2 Bound morphemes 5.7 Children’s approximation toward the adult 4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，2.2.3 Morphological rules grammar 4.5 The role of input 真实的) language data. No serious linguistic 3. Compounding Study questions 4.6 The role of formal instruction conclusion is reached until after the linguist has 3.1 Types of compound words Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 4.7 Individual learner factors done the following three things: observing the way 3.2 Features of compounds 1. Languagevariation 4.7.1 The optimum age for second language Study questions language is actually used, formulating some 1.1 Speech community acquisition Chapter 4 Syntax hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against 1.2 Speech variety 4.7.2 Motivation 1.Syntax as a system of rules linguistic facts to prove their validity. 1.3 Regional variation 4.7.3 Acculturation 2. Sentence structure 3.What are the branches of linguistics? What 1.4 Social variation 4.7.4 Personality 2.1 The basic components of a sentence 1.5 Stylistic variation …does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是… (中间部分略) 2.2 Types of sentences 1.6 Idiolectal variation 完整版请——什么每个分支的研究对象是什么,) 2.2.1 The simple sentence 2. Standard and nonstandard language QQ:1273114568 索取 Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 2.2.2 The coordinate sentence 2.1 Standard and nonstandard language 1)Generallinguistics, which is the study of 2.2.3 The complex sentence Study questions 2.2 Lingua francas language as a whole and which deals with the 2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of Suggested Answers to Study Questions 2.3 Pidgins basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and sentences An English-Chinese Glossary 2.4 Creoles methods applicable in any linguistic study 2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence A Detailed Note for Modern Linguistics 3. Diglossia and bilingualism 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are 2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence 3.1 Diglossia Chapter 1: Introduction used in linguistic communication 2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure 3.2 Bilingualism 1.Define the following terms:3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put 3. Syntactic categories 4. Ethnic dialect 1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the together and used to convey meaning in 3.1 Lexical categories 4.1 Black English, a case study of ethnic dialect scientific study of language. communication 3.2 Phrasal categories 4.2 The social environment of Black English 2).General linguistics: The study of language as 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which 4. Grammatical relations 5. Socialdialect a whole is called general linguistics. morphemes are arranged to form words 5. Combinational rules 5.1 Education varieties 3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and 5.1 Phrase structure rules 5.2 Age varieties linguistics refers to the application of linguistic words are combined to form sentences 5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 5.3 Gendervarieties principles and theories to language teaching and 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in 5.3 X-bar theory 5.4 Register varieties learning, especially the teaching of foreign and lan?guage. 6. Syntactic movement and movement rules 5.5 Address terms second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in 6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement 5.6 Slang the application of linguistic findings to the solution isolation, but in the context of use 6.2 Other types of movement 5.7 Linguistic taboo of practical problems such as the recovery of 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language 6.3 D-structure and S-structure 5.8 Euphemism speech ability. with reference to society 6.4 M ove α—a general movement rule Study questions 4).Synchronic study: The study of a language9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language 7. Toward a theory of universal grammar Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics at some point in time.e.g. A study of the features of with reference to the workings of mind.7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar 1. The biological foundations of language the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about 7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar 1.1 The case of Phineas Gage synchronic study. the application of linguistic findings in linguistic Study questions 1.2 The human brain 5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as studies; in a nar?row sense, applied linguistics Chapter 5 Semantics 1.3 Brain lateralization it changes through time. A diachronic study of refers to the application of linguistic principles and 1. What is semantics? 2.Linguistic lateralization language is a historical study, which studies the theories to language teaching, especially the 2. Some views concerning the study of meaning 2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language historical development of language over a period teaching of foreign and second languages. matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks languages communication. Speech is considered primary 11)Other related branches are anthropological at language from a psychological point of view and 2).auditory phonetics:It studies the speech over writing. The reasons are: speech is prior to linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics(神to him competenceis a property of the mind of sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies writing in language evolution, speech plays a each individual. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. greater role in daily communications, and speech 经语言学), mathematical linguistics(数学语言学), 10.What characteristics of language do you 3).acoustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds is the way in which people acquire their native and computational linguistics(计算机语言学). by looking at the sound waves. It studies the language. think should be included in a good, 4.What makes modern linguistics different physical means by which speech sounds are 3.What are the three branches of phonetics? comprehensive definition of language? from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语transmitted through the air from one person to How do they contribute to the study of speech Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols 法有什么区别,) another. sounds? 语音学的三个分支是什么它们是如何研used forhuman communication. 4).international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It is a Traditional grammar is prescriptive(规定性); it is First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of 究语言学的, (可参照一下课文原话，可能更容易standardized and internationally accepted system based on "high "(religious, literary) written language are combined according to rules. of phonetic transcription. 理解) language. It sets models for language users to Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that5).Broad transcription: the transcription with 1)Articulatory phonetics describes the way our follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive(描述there is no intrinsic connection between the word letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one speech organs work to produce the speech sounds 性); its investigations are based on authentic and and the thing it refers to. sound. This is the transcription normally used in and how they differ. Third, language is vocal because the primary mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be dictionaries and teaching textbooks.2)Auditory phonetics studies the physical medium is sound for all languages. scientific and objective and the task of linguists is6).Narrow transcription: is the transcription with properties of the speech sounds, and reaches The term “human” is meant to specify that supposed to describe the language people actually letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a language is human-specific. use, whether it is "correct" or not. the transcription used by the phoneticians in their theoretical ideal. 11.What features of human language have 5.Is modernlinguistics mainly synchronic(共study of speech sounds. 3)Acoustic phonetics studies the physical been specified by Charles Hockett to show that 时性) or diachronic(历时性)? Why? 7).diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be properties of the speech sounds, the way sounds it is essentially different from any animal (The description of language at some point in time added to the letter-symbols to make finer travel from the speaker to the hearer; it deals with communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征is a synchronic study; the description of a language distinctions than the letters alone make possible. the sound waves through the use of such as it changes through time is a diachronic study.) 8).Voiceless(清音): when the vocal cords are machines as a spectrograph(声谱仪). 是什么, Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing drawn wide apart, letting air go through without 4.Where are the articulatory apparatus of 1.Arbitrariness(任意性): (课本答案:a sign of on the present-day language. Unless the various causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a human being contained? sophistication only humans are capable of) It states of a language are successfully studied, it will condition are called voiceless sounds. means that there is no logical connection between Pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity and nasal cavity. not be possible to describe language from a 9).Voicing (浊音): Sounds produced while the meanings and sounds. Although language is5.What is voicing and how is it caused? 什么叫diachronic point of view. vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. 浊音化,它是如何形成的,6.Which enjoyspriority in modern linguistics, 10).Vowel: the sounds in production of which no Non-arbitrary words make up only a small Voicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal speech or writing? Why? articulators come very close together and the air percentage of the total number. The arbitrary cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken stream passes through the vocal tract without nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it letting air go through without causing vibration, the language for the following reasons: obstruction are called vowels. makes it possible for language to have an sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. First, speech precedes writing. The writing system 11).Consonants: the sounds in the production of unlimited source of expressions. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that is always a later invention used to record the which there is an obstruction of the air stream at2.Productivity(创造性): (课本答案:creativity: the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced some point of the vocal tract are called speech. There are still some languages that only animals are quite limited in the messages they are in this way are voiced. consonants. have the spoken form. able to send)Language is productive or creative in 6.What is the function of nasal cavity? How 12).phonology: Phonology studies the system of Then, a larger amount of communication is carried that it makes possible the con?struction and sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover does it perform this function? out in speech than in writing. interpretation of an infinitely large number ofhow speech sounds in a language form patterns Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire The function of nasal cavity is to nasalize the sentences, including those they have never said or and how these sounds are used to convey their native language. sounds that are produced. It does this by closing heard before. meaning in linguistic communication.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语the air passage connecting the oral and nasal 3.Duality(二重性): (课本答案:a feature totally 13).phone: Phones can be simply defined as the cavities so that the air stream can only go through parole的, lacking in any animal communication)It means that speech sounds we use when speaking a language. the nasal cavity. (The distinction between langue and parole was language is a system, which consists of two sets of A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not 7.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower necessarily distinguish meaning. which are involved in the production of speech Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are level and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).phoneme: a collection of abstract phonetic sounds? French words.) At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system The various pats of the tongue: the tip, the front, of individual and meaningless sounds, which can represented or realized as a certain phone by a shared by all the members of a speech community, the blade, and the back; the uvula; the soft palate; be grouped into meaningfulunits at the higher level. certain phonetic context. and parole refers to the realization of langue in the hard palate; the teeth ridge (alveolar); the This duality of structure or dou?ble articulation of 15).allophone: The different phones which can actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and upper and lower teeth; the lips. language enables its users to talk about anything represent a phoneme in different phonetic rules which language users all have to follow while 8.How broad transcription and narrow within their knowledge. environments are called the allophones of that parole is the concrete use of the conventions and transcription differ? 宽式标音和严式标音有什4.Displacement(移位性): (课本答案:no animal phoneme. For example [l] and [l] the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is can “talk” about things remov ed from the 16).phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers 么区别, not the language people actually use, but parole is immediate situation)Language can be used to to the relation between two phonemes. If two The broad transcription is the transcription of concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring phonemes can occur in the same environment and refer to things which are present or not present, sounds by using one letter to represent one sound. language events. Langue is relatively stable, it distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic real or imagined matters in the past, present, or The narrow transcription is the transcription with does not change frequently; while parole varies contrast. future, orfar-away places. In other words, diacritics (变音符号) to show detailed articulatory from person to person, and from situation to17).Complementary distribution: refers to the language can be used to refer to contexts removed features of sounds. situation. relation between two similar phones which are from the immediate situations of the speaker. In broad transcription, the symbol [l] in used for the8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur 5. Cultural transmission(文化传递性): (课本sound [l] in words like leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], performance各指什么, in different environments. 答案:details of human language system are taught and health [helθ]. The sound [l] in all these words is18).minimal pair: When two different forms are (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s and lear ned while animals are born with the differ slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a identical in every way except for one sound proposed the distinction between competence and capacity to send out certain signals as a means of vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is segment which occurs in the same place in the performance.) limited communication)While we are born with the needed to indicate it; the [l] in [fi:l] and [bild], strings, the two words are said to form a minimal Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s occurring before another consonant, is called dark ability to acquire language, the details of any pair. For example: bin and pin. knowledge of the rules of his language. This [l], indicated in narrow transcription as [l]. Then in language are not genetically transmitted, but 19).suprasegmental features: the phonemic internalized set of rules enables the language user [helθ], the sound [l] isfollowed by the dental sound instead have to be taught and learned. features that occur above the level of the segments to produce and understand an infinitely large [θ], it is thus called a dental [l], and transcribed as 12.Do you think human language is entirely are called suprasegmental features. The main number of sentences and recognize sentences [helθ](注:l下有一个向下的框，无法打印) in narrow arbitrary? Why? suprasegmental features include stress, tone and that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According transcription. Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely intonation. to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization 9.How are the English consonants classified? arbitrary, because there are a limited number of 20).tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are of this knowledge in linguistic communication. words whose connections between forms and 英语的辅音是如何分类的, caused by the differing rates of vibration of the Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother meanings can be logically explained to a certain 1)by manner of articulation. vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish tongue is perfect, his performances may have extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words a.stops(plosive爆破音):[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g] meaning just like phonemes. The mistakes because of social and psychological which are coined on the basis of imitation of meaning-distinctive function of the tone is b.fricatives(磨擦音): [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[,ð], [? ], [?], [h] factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. especially important in tone languages, for Chomsky believes that whatlinguists should study c.affricates(破擦音): [ t?], [d?] Take compounds for another example. The two example, in Chinese. is the competence, which is systematic, not the d.liquids(lateral边音，流音): [l], [r] elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are 21).intonati on: When pitch, stress and sound performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的). e.nasals(鼻音): [m],[ n],[,, ?] non-motivated, but the compound is not length are tied to the sentence rather than the word 9.How is Saussure’s distinction between arbitrary. f.glide s (semivowels半元音): [w], [ j] in isolation, they are collectively known as langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s … … (中间部分略) 2)by place of articulation : intonation. For example, English has four basic 完整版请—— distinction between competence and a.bilabial(双唇音): [p],[b],[m],[w] types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, QQ:1273114568 索取performance? And what is their difference? biodental(唇齿音): [f],[v] the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone. Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction c.dental(舌齿音): [θ],[,, ð] 2.What are the two major media of Chapter 2: Phonology between the abstract language system and the d.alveolar(齿龈音): [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r] communication?Of the two, which one is 1.Define the terms: actual use of language. Their purpose is to single e.palatal(腭音): [?], [?],[ t? ], [d?], [j] primary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么,1).phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of out one aspect of language for serious study.f.velar(软腭音): [k], [g], [? ] the phonic medium of language; it is concerned 哪一个是基本的交际媒介,为什么, They differ in that Saussuretakes a sociological with all the sounds that occur in the world’ sg.glottal(喉音，声门单): [h] view of language and his notion of langueis a Speech and writing are the major media of10.What criteria are used to classify the Assimilation rule: rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying one ofits English vowels? 英语的元音是如何分类的, phonetic features. 1) According to the position of the tongue, vowels Deletion rule: rule governing the deletion of a may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] sound in a certain phonetic context although it is [e] [æ] [a], central vowels such as [?:] [?] [?], and represented in spelling. back vowels such as [u:] [? ] [?:] [? ] [ɑ:] 17.What are supresegmental features? How do 2) According to the openness of the mouth, we the major suprasegmental features of English classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels function in conveying meaning? 什么是超音位such as [i:] [i] [u:] [? ], semi-close vowels such as [e] [?:], semi-open vowels such as [?] [?:], and 特征,它是如何影响语义的, (p40) open vowels such as [æ] [a] [? ] [? ] and [ɑ:]. Suprasegmental features are phonological 3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are features above the sound segment level. divided into rounded vowels and unrounded The major suprasegmental features in English are vowels. In English all the front and central vowels word stress, sentence stress and intonation. are unrounded vowels, all the back vowels, with 1)The location of stress in English distinguishes exception of [ɑ:], are rounded. meaning, such as`import and im`port. The similar 4) According to the length of thevowels, the alternation of stress also occurs between a English vowels can also be classified into long compound noun and a phrase consisting of the vowels and short vowels. The long vowels include same elements. A phonological feature of the [i:] [?:] [?: ] [u:] [ɑ:]，while the rest are short vowels. English compounds is that the stress of the word11.What is the difference between a always falls on the first element and the second monophthong and a diphthong? element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not A monophthong is one for which the organs of speech remain in a given position for a period of necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is time. A diphthong is a vowel sound consisting of a black. deliberate glide. The organs of speech starting in 2) Sentence stress refers to the relative force the position of one vowel and immediately moving which is given to the words in a sentence. The more important words such as nouns, main verbs, in the direction of another vowel, for example: [i:], [i] adjectives, adverbs, and demonstrative pronouns, are monophthongs, and [a? ], [e? ] are are pronounced with greater force and made more diphthongs. 12.How do phonetics and phonology differ in prominent. And the other categories of words (articles, personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs, their focus of study? Who do you think will be prepositions, and conjunctions) are usually not more interested in the difference between stressed. But to give special emphasis to a certain [l]and [l], [p] and [ph], a phonetician or a notion, a word in sentence that is usually phonologist? Why? unstressed can be stressed to。

《现代语言学》考试题型和复习范围

《现代语言学》考试题型和复习范围Time of Duration: 90 minutes开卷（仅可带教材）教材版本：何兆熊、梅德明主编，《现代语言学》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1999（全国高等教育自学考试指定教材英语专业本科段）Scope for Examination: From Chapter 1 to Chapter 10 of Textbook(可参照课本320-363页“考试大纲”中的有关知识点复习)I. Directions:Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets on the answer sheet. (1.5%×30=45%)注意复习与课本十章有关的After-class Exercises中的相应练习题。

II. Directions:Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets on the answer sheet. (1%×15=15%)注意复习与课本十章有关的After-class Exercises中的相应练习题。

III. Directions:Define the following terms. (4%×5=20%)注意复习与课本十章有关的After-class Exercises中的相应练习题。

IV. Directions:Answer the following questions. (10%×2= 20%)注意复习与课本十章有关的After-class Exercises中的相应练习题。

自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料

自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料0830 - 现代语言学 2.1 The naming theory 2.2 Dichotic listening research of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has 3. The language centers 2.2 The conceptualist view undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a 完整版9.5页 3.1 Broca’s area 2.3 Contextualism diachronic study. 笔记依据教材 3.2 Wernicke’s area ompetence: The ideal user’s 2.4 Behaviorism 6).Language c《现代语言学》3. Lexical meaning 3.3 The angular gyrus knowledge of the rules of his language. A 何兆熊、梅德明主编外语教学与研究出版社 3.1 Sense and reference 3.4 Language perception, comprehension and transformational-generative grammar(转化生成语笔记依据目录 3.2 Major sense relations production 法)is a model of language competence. Chapter 1 Introduction 4. The critical period for language acquisition 3.2.1 Synonymy7).Language performance: performance is the 1. What is linguistics? 4.1 The critical period hypothesis 3.2.2 Polysemy actual realization of the ideal language user’s 1.1 Definition 4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration of 3.2.3 Homonymy knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 1.2 The scope of linguistics 3.2.4 Hyponymy language faculty with age 8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic 1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 3.2.5 Antonymy 5. Language and thought system shared by all the members of a speech 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 4. Sense relations between sentences 5.1 Early views on language and thought community; Langue is the set ofconventions and 1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 5. Analysis of meaning 5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis rules which language users all have to follow; 1.3.3 Speech and writing 5.1 Componential analysis—a way to analyze 5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Langue is relatively stable, it does not change 1.3.4 Langue and parole lexical meaning 5.3.1 Words and meaning frequently. 1.3.5 Competence and performance 5.2 Predication analysis—a way to analyze 5.3.2 Grammatical structure 9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue 2. What is language? sentence meaning 5.3.3 Translation in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the 2.1 Definitions of language Study questions5.3.4 Second language acquisition conventions and the application of the rules; parole 2.2 Design features Chapter 6 Pragmatics 5.3.5 Language and world views varies from person to person, and from situation to Study questions 1. What is pragmatics? 5.4 Understanding the relation of language and situation. Chapter 2 Phonology 1.1 Definition thought 10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary 1. The phonic medium of language 1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics 5.4.1 Major functions of language vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. Phonetics 1.3 Context5.4.2 The development and blending of language 11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of 2.1 What is phonetics? 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 5.4.3 Thinking without language language. It means that there is no logical 2.2 Organs of speech 2. Speech act theory 5.4.4 Language as a conventional coding system connection between meanings and sounds. A good 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech 3.Principle of conversation to express thought example is the fact that different sounds are used sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions 5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thought Study questions to refer to the same object in different languages. 2.4 Classification of English speech sounds Study questions Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics12).Productivity: Language is productive or 2.4.1 Classification of English consonants Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 1. The purpose and significance of the historical creative in that it makes possible the construction 2.4.2 Classification of English vowels 1. First language acquisition study of language and interpretation of new signals by its users. 3. Phonology 2. The nature of language change 1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition 13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists 3.1 Phonology and phonetics 3. The historical development of English 1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition of of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of 3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 3.1 Major periods in the history of English grammatical rules sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of 3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, 3.1.1 Old English 1.3 The role of input and interaction meanings at the higher level. and minimal pair 3.1.2 Middle English 1.4 The role of instruction 14).Displacement: language can be used to refer 3.4 Some rules in phonology 3.1.3 Modern English 1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement to things which are present or not present, real or 3.4.1 Sequential rules 3.2 linguistic change of English 1.6 The role of imitation imagined matters in the past, present, orfuture, or 3.4.2 Assimilation rules 3.2.1 Sound change 2. Stages offirst language acquisition in far-away places. In other words, language can 3.4.3 Deletion rule 3.2.2 Morphological change 2.1 The prelinguistic stage be used to refer to contexts removed from the 3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, 3.2.3 Syntactic change 2.2 The one-word stage immediate situations of the speaker. intonation 2.3 The two-word stage 3.2.4 Lexical change 15).Cultural transmission: While we are born 3.5.1 Stress 2.4 The multiword stage 3.2.5 Semantic change with the ability to acquire language, the details of 3.5.2 Tone 3. The development of the grammatical system 4. Language family any language are not genetically transmitted, but 3.5.3 Intonation 4.1 Classifying genetically related languages 3.1 The development of phonology instead have to be taught and learned. Study questions 4.2 The Indo-English language family 3.2 The development of syntax 16).Design features: It refers to the defining Chapter 3 Morphology 5. The causes of language change 3.3 The development of morphology properties of human language that distinguishit 1. Definition 5.1 Sound assimilation 3.4 The development ofvocabulary and semantics from any animal system of communication 2. Morpheme 5.2 Rule simplification and regularization 4. Second language acquisition 2.Explain the following definition of linguistics: 2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of 5.3 Internal borrowing 4.1 Acquisition vs. learning Linguistics is the scientific study of language. language 4.2 Transfer and interference 5.4 Elaboration Linguistics investigates not any particular language, 2.2 Types of morphemes 5.5Sociological triggers 4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA but languages in general. 2.2.1 Free morphemes 5.6 Cultural transmission development Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on 2.2.2 Bound morphemes 5.7 Children’s approximation toward the adult 4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，2.2.3 Morphological rules grammar 4.5 The role of input 真实的) language data. No serious linguistic 3. Compounding Study questions 4.6 The role of formal instruction conclusion is reached until after the linguist has 3.1 Types of compound words Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 4.7 Individual learner factors done the following three things: observing the way 3.2 Features of compounds 1. Languagevariation 4.7.1 The optimum age for second language Study questions language is actually used, formulating some 1.1 Speech community acquisition Chapter 4 Syntax hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against 1.2 Speech variety 4.7.2 Motivation 1.Syntax as a system of rules linguistic facts to prove their validity. 1.3 Regional variation 4.7.3 Acculturation 2. Sentence structure 3.What are the branches of linguistics? What 1.4 Social variation 4.7.4 Personality 2.1 The basic components of a sentence 1.5 Stylistic variation …does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是… (中间部分略) 2.2 Types of sentences 1.6 Idiolectal variation 完整版请——什么每个分支的研究对象是什么,) 2.2.1 The simple sentence 2. Standard and nonstandard language QQ:1273114568 索取 Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 2.2.2 The coordinate sentence 2.1 Standard and nonstandard language 1)Generallinguistics, which is the study of 2.2.3 The complex sentence Study questions 2.2 Lingua francas language as a whole and which deals with the 2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of Suggested Answers to Study Questions 2.3 Pidgins basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and sentences An English-Chinese Glossary 2.4 Creoles methods applicable in any linguistic study 2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence A Detailed Note for Modern Linguistics 3. Diglossia and bilingualism 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are 2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence 3.1 Diglossia Chapter 1: Introduction used in linguistic communication 2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure 3.2 Bilingualism 1.Define the following terms:3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put 3. Syntactic categories 4. Ethnic dialect 1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the together and used to convey meaning in 3.1 Lexical categories 4.1 Black English, a case study of ethnic dialect scientific study of language. communication 3.2 Phrasal categories 4.2 The social environment of Black English 2).General linguistics: The study of language as 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which 4. Grammatical relations 5. Socialdialect a whole is called general linguistics. morphemes are arranged to form words 5. Combinational rules 5.1 Education varieties 3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and 5.1 Phrase structure rules 5.2 Age varieties linguistics refers to the application of linguistic words are combined to form sentences 5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 5.3 Gendervarieties principles and theories to language teaching and 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in 5.3 X-bar theory 5.4 Register varieties learning, especially the teaching of foreign and lan?guage. 6. Syntactic movement and movement rules 5.5 Address terms second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in 6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement 5.6 Slang the application of linguistic findings to the solution isolation, but in the context of use 6.2 Other types of movement 5.7 Linguistic taboo of practical problems such as the recovery of 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language 6.3 D-structure and S-structure 5.8 Euphemism speech ability. with reference to society 6.4 M ove α—a general movement rule Study questions 4).Synchronic study: The study of a language9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language 7. Toward a theory of universal grammar Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics at some point in time.e.g. A study of the features of with reference to the workings of mind.7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar 1. The biological foundations of language the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about 7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar 1.1 The case of Phineas Gage synchronic study. the application of linguistic findings in linguistic Study questions 1.2 The human brain 5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as studies; in a nar?row sense, applied linguistics Chapter 5 Semantics 1.3 Brain lateralization it changes through time. A diachronic study of refers to the application of linguistic principles and 1. What is semantics? 2.Linguistic lateralization language is a historical study, which studies the theories to language teaching, especially the 2. Some views concerning the study of meaning 2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language historical development of language over a period teaching of foreign and second languages. matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks languages communication. Speech is considered primary 11)Other related branches are anthropological at language from a psychological point of view and 2).auditory phonetics:It studies the speech over writing. The reasons are: speech is prior to linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics(神to him competenceis a property of the mind of sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies writing in language evolution, speech plays a each individual. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. greater role in daily communications, and speech 经语言学), mathematical linguistics(数学语言学), 10.What characteristics of language do you 3).acoustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds is the way in which people acquire their native and computational linguistics(计算机语言学). by looking at the sound waves. It studies the language. think should be included in a good, 4.What makes modern linguistics different physical means by which speech sounds are 3.What are the three branches of phonetics? comprehensive definition of language? from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语transmitted through the air from one person to How do they contribute to the study of speech Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols 法有什么区别,) another. sounds? 语音学的三个分支是什么它们是如何研used forhuman communication. 4).international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It is a Traditional grammar is prescriptive(规定性); it is First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of 究语言学的, (可参照一下课文原话，可能更容易standardized and internationally accepted system based on "high "(religious, literary) written language are combined according to rules. of phonetic transcription. 理解) language. It sets models for language users to Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that5).Broad transcription: the transcription with 1)Articulatory phonetics describes the way our follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive(描述there is no intrinsic connection between the word letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one speech organs work to produce the speech sounds 性); its investigations are based on authentic and and the thing it refers to. sound. This is the transcription normally used in and how they differ. Third, language is vocal because the primary mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be dictionaries and teaching textbooks.2)Auditory phonetics studies the physical medium is sound for all languages. scientific and objective and the task of linguists is6).Narrow transcription: is the transcription with properties of the speech sounds, and reaches The term “human” is meant to specify that supposed to describe the language people actually letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a language is human-specific. use, whether it is "correct" or not. the transcription used by the phoneticians in their theoretical ideal. 11.What features of human language have 5.Is modernlinguistics mainly synchronic(共study of speech sounds. 3)Acoustic phonetics studies the physical been specified by Charles Hockett to show that 时性) or diachronic(历时性)? Why? 7).diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be properties of the speech sounds, the way sounds it is essentially different from any animal (The description of language at some point in time added to the letter-symbols to make finer travel from the speaker to the hearer; it deals with communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征is a synchronic study; the description of a language distinctions than the letters alone make possible. the sound waves through the use of such as it changes through time is a diachronic study.) 8).Voiceless(清音): when the vocal cords are machines as a spectrograph(声谱仪). 是什么, Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing drawn wide apart, letting air go through without 4.Where are the articulatory apparatus of 1.Arbitrariness(任意性): (课本答案:a sign of on the present-day language. Unless the various causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a human being contained? sophistication only humans are capable of) It states of a language are successfully studied, it will condition are called voiceless sounds. means that there is no logical connection between Pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity and nasal cavity. not be possible to describe language from a 9).Voicing (浊音): Sounds produced while the meanings and sounds. Although language is5.What is voicing and how is it caused? 什么叫diachronic point of view. vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. 浊音化,它是如何形成的,6.Which enjoyspriority in modern linguistics, 10).Vowel: the sounds in production of which no Non-arbitrary words make up only a small Voicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal speech or writing? Why? articulators come very close together and the air percentage of the total number. The arbitrary cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken stream passes through the vocal tract without nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it letting air go through without causing vibration, the language for the following reasons: obstruction are called vowels. makes it possible for language to have an sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. First, speech precedes writing. The writing system 11).Consonants: the sounds in the production of unlimited source of expressions. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that is always a later invention used to record the which there is an obstruction of the air stream at2.Productivity(创造性): (课本答案:creativity: the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced some point of the vocal tract are called speech. There are still some languages that only animals are quite limited in the messages they are in this way are voiced. consonants. have the spoken form. able to send)Language is productive or creative in 6.What is the function of nasal cavity? How 12).phonology: Phonology studies the system of Then, a larger amount of communication is carried that it makes possible the con?struction and sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover does it perform this function? out in speech than in writing. interpretation of an infinitely large number ofhow speech sounds in a language form patterns Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire The function of nasal cavity is to nasalize the sentences, including those they have never said or and how these sounds are used to convey their native language. sounds that are produced. It does this by closing heard before. meaning in linguistic communication.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语the air passage connecting the oral and nasal 3.Duality(二重性): (课本答案:a feature totally 13).phone: Phones can be simply defined as the cavities so that the air stream can only go through parole的, lacking in any animal communication)It means that speech sounds we use when speaking a language. the nasal cavity. (The distinction between langue and parole was language is a system, which consists of two sets of A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not 7.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower necessarily distinguish meaning. which are involved in the production of speech Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are level and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).phoneme: a collection of abstract phonetic sounds? French words.) At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system The various pats of the tongue: the tip, the front, of individual and meaningless sounds, which can represented or realized as a certain phone by a shared by all the members of a speech community, the blade, and the back; the uvula; the soft palate; be grouped into meaningfulunits at the higher level. certain phonetic context. and parole refers to the realization of langue in the hard palate; the teeth ridge (alveolar); the This duality of structure or dou?ble articulation of 15).allophone: The different phones which can actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and upper and lower teeth; the lips. language enables its users to talk about anything represent a phoneme in different phonetic rules which language users all have to follow while 8.How broad transcription and narrow within their knowledge. environments are called the allophones of that parole is the concrete use of the conventions and transcription differ? 宽式标音和严式标音有什4.Displacement(移位性): (课本答案:no animal phoneme. For example [l] and [l] the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is can “talk” about things remov ed from the 16).phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers 么区别, not the language people actually use, but parole is immediate situation)Language can be used to to the relation between two phonemes. If two The broad transcription is the transcription of concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring phonemes can occur in the same environment and refer to things which are present or not present, sounds by using one letter to represent one sound. language events. Langue is relatively stable, it distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic real or imagined matters in the past, present, or The narrow transcription is the transcription with does not change frequently; while parole varies contrast. future, orfar-away places. In other words, diacritics (变音符号) to show detailed articulatory from person to person, and from situation to17).Complementary distribution: refers to the language can be used to refer to contexts removed features of sounds. situation. relation between two similar phones which are from the immediate situations of the speaker. In broad transcription, the symbol [l] in used for the8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur 5. Cultural transmission(文化传递性): (课本sound [l] in words like leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], performance各指什么, in different environments. 答案:details of human language system are taught and health [helθ]. The sound [l] in all these words is18).minimal pair: When two different forms are (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s and lear ned while animals are born with the differ slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a identical in every way except for one sound proposed the distinction between competence and capacity to send out certain signals as a means of vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is segment which occurs in the same place in the performance.) limited communication)While we are born with the needed to indicate it; the [l] in [fi:l] and [bild], strings, the two words are said to form a minimal Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s occurring before another consonant, is called dark ability to acquire language, the details of any pair. For example: bin and pin. knowledge of the rules of his language. This [l], indicated in narrow transcription as [l]. Then in language are not genetically transmitted, but 19).suprasegmental features: the phonemic internalized set of rules enables the language user [helθ], the sound [l] isfollowed by the dental sound instead have to be taught and learned. features that occur above the level of the segments to produce and understand an infinitely large [θ], it is thus called a dental [l], and transcribed as 12.Do you think human language is entirely are called suprasegmental features. The main number of sentences and recognize sentences [helθ](注:l下有一个向下的框，无法打印) in narrow arbitrary? Why? suprasegmental features include stress, tone and that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According transcription. Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely intonation. to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization 9.How are the English consonants classified? arbitrary, because there are a limited number of 20).tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are of this knowledge in linguistic communication. words whose connections between forms and 英语的辅音是如何分类的, caused by the differing rates of vibration of the Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother meanings can be logically explained to a certain 1)by manner of articulation. vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish tongue is perfect, his performances may have extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words a.stops(plosive爆破音):[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g] meaning just like phonemes. The mistakes because of social and psychological which are coined on the basis of imitation of meaning-distinctive function of the tone is b.fricatives(磨擦音): [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[,ð], [? ], [?], [h] factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. especially important in tone languages, for Chomsky believes that whatlinguists should study c.affricates(破擦音): [ t?], [d?] Take compounds for another example. The two example, in Chinese. is the competence, which is systematic, not the d.liquids(lateral边音，流音): [l], [r] elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are 21).intonati on: When pitch, stress and sound performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的). e.nasals(鼻音): [m],[ n],[,, ?] non-motivated, but the compound is not length are tied to the sentence rather than the word 9.How is Saussure’s distinction between arbitrary. f.glide s (semivowels半元音): [w], [ j] in isolation, they are collectively known as langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s … … (中间部分略) 2)by place of articulation : intonation. For example, English has four basic 完整版请—— distinction between competence and a.bilabial(双唇音): [p],[b],[m],[w] types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, QQ:1273114568 索取performance? And what is their difference? biodental(唇齿音): [f],[v] the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone. Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction c.dental(舌齿音): [θ],[,, ð] 2.What are the two major media of Chapter 2: Phonology between the abstract language system and the d.alveolar(齿龈音): [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r] communication?Of the two, which one is 1.Define the terms: actual use of language. Their purpose is to single e.palatal(腭音): [?], [?],[ t? ], [d?], [j] primary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么,1).phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of out one aspect of language for serious study.f.velar(软腭音): [k], [g], [? ] the phonic medium of language; it is concerned 哪一个是基本的交际媒介,为什么, They differ in that Saussuretakes a sociological with all the sounds that occur in the world’ sg.glottal(喉音，声门单): [h] view of language and his notion of langueis a Speech and writing are the major media of10.What criteria are used to classify the Assimilation rule: rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying one ofits English vowels? 英语的元音是如何分类的, phonetic features. 1) According to the position of the tongue, vowels Deletion rule: rule governing the deletion of a may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] sound in a certain phonetic context although it is [e] [æ] [a], central vowels such as [?:] [?] [?], and represented in spelling. back vowels such as [u:] [? ] [?:] [? ] [ɑ:] 17.What are supresegmental features? How do 2) According to the openness of the mouth, we the major suprasegmental features of English classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels function in conveying meaning? 什么是超音位such as [i:] [i] [u:] [? ], semi-close vowels such as [e] [?:], semi-open vowels such as [?] [?:], and 特征,它是如何影响语义的, (p40) open vowels such as [æ] [a] [? ] [? ] and [ɑ:]. Suprasegmental features are phonological 3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are features above the sound segment level. divided into rounded vowels and unrounded The major suprasegmental features in English are vowels. In English all the front and central vowels word stress, sentence stress and intonation. are unrounded vowels, all the back vowels, with 1)The location of stress in English distinguishes exception of [ɑ:], are rounded. meaning, such as`import and im`port. The similar 4) According to the length of thevowels, the alternation of stress also occurs between a English vowels can also be classified into long compound noun and a phrase consisting of the vowels and short vowels. The long vowels include same elements. A phonological feature of the [i:] [?:] [?: ] [u:] [ɑ:]，while the rest are short vowels. English compounds is that the stress of the word11.What is the difference between a always falls on the first element and the second monophthong and a diphthong? element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not A monophthong is one for which the organs of speech remain in a given position for a period of necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is time. A diphthong is a vowel sound consisting of a black. deliberate glide. The organs of speech starting in 2) Sentence stress refers to the relative force the position of one vowel and immediately moving which is given to the words in a sentence. The more important words such as nouns, main verbs, in the direction of another vowel, for example: [i:], [i] adjectives, adverbs, and demonstrative pronouns, are monophthongs, and [a? ], [e? ] are are pronounced with greater force and made more diphthongs. 12.How do phonetics and phonology differ in prominent. And the other categories of words (articles, personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs, their focus of study? Who do you think will be prepositions, and conjunctions) are usually not more interested in the difference between stressed. But to give special emphasis to a certain [l]and [l], [p] and [ph], a phonetician or a notion, a word in sentence that is usually phonologist? Why? unstressed can be stressed to。

自考【现代语言学】讲义(word版)

《现代语言学》应考指导一、考试相关情况说明（一）课程基本情况《现代语言学》是英语专业本科生的必修课程之一。

本课程的指定教材是全国高等教育自学考试指导委员会组编，何兆熊、梅德明主编：《现代语言学》，高等教育出版社1999年版。

本教材系统介绍了现代语言学研究的分支及基本理论，从语言的角度分析了语言本身的性质及与社会等各学科之间的关系，揭示了语言各个层面具有的特征。

（三）重难点分布从知识点分布来看，本课程试题覆盖了教材10章的全部内容。

从整体来看，教材10章内容知识点分布不均匀，重点章节主要是第1章，第3章，第4章，第5章，第6章，第8章，第9章及第10章。

第2章，第7章相对次之。

（四）试题难度从试题难度来看，试题知识面涵盖广。

对于重点知识每年都会重复出现，只是以不同的形式出现，每年考查的内容较多。

这一点大家要特别注意，不要以为以前考过的知识点就不会再考。

虽然每年均有偏题出现，一般是属于课程涉及的较细的内容，但所占比例较低，属于正常情况。

总体而言，试题较为容易。

（五）命题特点整体上看，出题顺序基本上按照教材章节顺序来出题，但并不是特别规律。

此特点有助于我们答题时准确把握考点所属章节，提高答题正确率。

从具体题型来看，单选题和填空题出题的特点为概念性知识点会常考，是非题也集中于一些基本知识点的掌握。

名词解释题，论述题没有规律可循，因此，将书中出现的概念及相关基本理论全部掌握即可，千万不要押题，否则容易失分。

二、本课程的学习建议1.考生在开始学习这门课时，应根据自己的情况制定一个切实可行的学习计划，合理安排时间，通常可分为二个阶段：一是依据教材分章学习和做同步练习题阶段；二是总复习阶段，其复习技巧将在下面单独介绍。

2.紧扣大纲复习。

最好能够按照大纲中提炼的课程内容将教材内容简化成自己的学习小册子。

也就是将大纲中课程内容总分再充实一下，各知识点都丰富一下。

比如说某个概念，要把定义或含义写在这个概念之后。

利于记忆。

自考现代语言学每章要点总结

自考现代语言学每章要点总结第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics?is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called?general linguistics. 普通语言学The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called?phonetics. （语音学）?The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called?phonology. （音系学）?The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called?morphology. （形态学）?The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called?syntax. （句法学）?The study of meaning in language is called?semantics. （语义学）?The study of meaning in context of use is called?pragmatics. （语用学）?The study of language with reference to society is called?socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）?The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications as the recovery of speech ability is generally known as?applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include?anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学）?neurological linguistics, （神经语言学）?mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and?computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive描写与规定If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be?descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be?prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a?synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a?diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.?Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form.?Reasons:1. Speech precedes writing;2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form;3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole [p?'r?ul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th?century.Langue?refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and?parole?refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.语言能力和语言运用Competence and performanceProposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines?competence?as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and?performance?the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.?4/ What is language?语言的定义Language?is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir,Edward uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition.Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution.Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural。

自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助,我也是学生,这是由老师总的,我将PPT转为WORD)

第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branchesinclude anthropologicallinguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics,（神经语言学） mathematicallinguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctionsin linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive描写与规定If a linguistic studydescribes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use,it is said to be descriptive, if itaims to lay down rules to tellpeople what they should sayand what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differsfrom traditional grammar.Traditional grammar isprescriptive while modernlinguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists issupposed to describe thelanguage people actually use,whether it i s “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of alanguage at some point intime is a synchronic study; thedescription of a language as itchanges through time isa diachronic study. In modernlinguistics, synchronic study ismore important.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing are thetwo major media ofcommunication.Modern linguistics regardsthe spoken form of languageas primary, but not the writtenform.Reasons:●1. Speech precedes writing;●2. There are still manylanguages that have only thespoken form;●3. In terms of function, thespoken language is used for awider range of purposes thanthe written, and carries alarger load of communicationthan the written.Langue and parole [pə'rəul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. deSaussure made the distinctionbetween langue and paroleearly 20th century.Langue refers to theabstract linguistic systemshared by all the members ofa speech community,and parole refers to therealization of langue in actualuse.Saussure made thedistinction in order to singleout one aspect of language forserious study. He believeswhat linguists should do is toabstract langue from parole, todiscover the regularitiesgoverning the actual use oflanguage and make them thesubjects of study of linguistics.语言能力和语言运用Competence andperformanceProposed by Americanlinguist N. Chomsky in the late1950’s.He defines competence asthe ideal user’s knowledge ofthe rules of his language,and performance the actualrealization of this knowledgein linguistic communication.He believes the task of thelinguists is to discover andspecify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.Sapir,Edward uses “ideas”“emotions” and “desires” in hisdefinition.Hall, like Sapir, treatslanguage as a purely humaninstitution.Chomsky’s definition isquite different, it focus on thepurely structural properties oflanguages and to suggest thatthese properties can beinvestigated from amathematically precise pointof view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to thedefining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish itfrom any animal system ofcommunication.American linguist CharlesHockett specified twelvedesign features.1) Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）It means that there is nological connection betweenmeanings and sounds.For instance, there is nonecessary relationshipbetween the word dog and theanimal it refers to. The factthat different sounds are usedto refer to the same object indifferent languages and thatthe same sound may be usedto refer to different objects isanother good example.Although language isarbitrary by nature, it is notentirely arbitrary. Some words,such as the words created inthe imitation of sounds bysounds are motivated in acertain degree. The arbitrarynature of language makes itpossible for language to havean unlimited source ofexpressions.2) Productivity能产性Language is productive orcreative in that it makespossible the construction andinterpretation of an infinitelylarge number of sentences,including those that they havenever said or heard before.3) Duality结构二重性It means that language is asystem, which consists of twosets of structure, or two levels,one of sounds at the lowerlevel and the other ofmeanings at the higher level.At the lower or the basic level,there is the structure ofindividual and meaninglesssounds, which can be groupedinto meaningful units at thehigher level. This duality ofstructure or double articulationof language enables its usersto talk about anything withintheir knowledge.4) Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language canbe used to talk about whathappened in the past, what ishappening now, or what willhappen in the future.Language can also be used totalk about our real wordexperiences or theexperiences in our imaginaryworld. In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission文化传播性While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.********************************** Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

现代语言学考试要点

现代语言学考试复习要点1. Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary(随意的) vocal symbols used for human communication..2. microlinguistics and macrolinguisticsmicrolinguistics: is concerned with the study of language or languages per se, not concern other field of study such as sociology, psychology, literature, computer science, etc.Macrolinguistics:is concerned with the study of language which involves other discipline (interdisciplinary) sociolinguistics: Psycholinguistics: Applied linguistics:3 langue and parole(语言和言语) 由Swiss linguist F. de Saussure 提出的Langue r efers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.(conventions and rules; abstract; relatively stable;)Parole refers to the realization of a langue in actual use.(the concrete use of the conventions and rules; concrete, refers to the naturally occurring language events; varies from person to person, situation to situation)区别的目的：parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too variedand confusing for systematic investigation and what linguistsshould do is to abstract langue from parole(发现规律)。

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自考现代语言学每章要点总结

自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助,我也是学生,这是由老师总的,我将PPT转为WORD)

现代语言学考试要点

语言学考试必备

现代语言学复习要点

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自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料

自考00830现代语言学自考核心考点笔记自考重点资料