chapter 3 word formation外文翻译
Unit 3 Word formation
语法填空： 1. graduate/ graduation graduated 1)She __________from Cambridge with a degree in law. graduates 2)There are many_________without job after graduation now. ___________ 2. final/ finally finally 1)The loved couple parted _________. final 2) After the _______exam, we had a good time on the hill. Finally 3) ________,they had their own house.
5. rely / reliable I’m sure he won’t let you down；he’s always reliable ________. 6. advantage /disadvantage If you don’t speak good English，you’ll be at a bigdisadvantage __________ when you try to get a job. 7. cycle/ cyclist cyclists A group of _________covered the distance of over a hundred miles a day.
1.他是如此的固执以至于我无法说服他改变主意。 He was so stubborn that I couldn’t persuade him to change his mind.
2.无论你做什么，我都支持你。 Whatever/ No matter what you do ,I will support you. 3.我信赖他的原因是他是一个值得信赖的人。 The reason why I rely on him is that he is a reliable man. 4．令我们吃惊的是，在如此炎热的天气里，他穿着羊 毛大衣。
英语词汇学-Unit-03-Word-fromation
NATO ← the North Atlantic Treaty Organizatio← light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation（激光）
ASEAN ← the Association for South-East Asian Nations（东南亚国家联盟）
E-school = electronic school（网络学校）
01
H-bomb = hydrogen bomb（氢弹）
03
U-boat = undersea boat（潜艇）
05
E-tail = electronic retail（电子零售）；
02
V-day = victory day（胜利日）
apocope (back clipped) dorm(itory), disco(theque), expo(sition), gas(oline), hi(gh)-fi(delity), memo(randum), rep(resentative), aphaeresis (front clipped) (violon)cello, bus, cab, phone, front and back clipped flu, fridge syncope (middle clipped, contraction) fossil(iz)ation, pacif(ic)ist gov't (government), can’t
Chapter IV Word formation (II)
4. Back-formation Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language. e.g. typewrite was formed from the noun typewriter by removing the supposed derivation suffix -er, and the verb edit formed from editor by dropping the suffix -or. Backformation is therefore a process of shortening, too. The majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-formation has a long
The above two types of word-formation--acronyms and clipping are processes of shortening. They show a typical characteristic of the vocabulary of contemporary English: the tendency to shorten the English words, reflecting the tense, fast-paced and competitive modern life. 3. Blending Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms. e.g. newscast
WORD-FORMATION IN ENGLISH
WORD-FORMATION IN ENGLISHThis book is an introduction to the study of word-formation, that is, the ways in which new words are built on the bases of other words (e.g. happy - happy-ness), focusing on English. The book's didactic aim is to enable students with little or no prior linguistic knowledge to do their own practical analyses of complex words. Readers are familiarized with the necessary methodological tools to obtain and analyze relevant data and are shown how to relate their findings to theoretical problems and debates. The book is not written in the perspective of a particular theoretical framework and draws on insights from various research traditions, reflecting important methodological and theoretical developments in the field. It is a textbook directed towards university students of English and Linguistics at all levels. It can also serve as a source book for teachers and advanced students, and as an up-to-date reference concerning many word-formation processes in English.INGO FLAG is Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Siegen. He has published extensively in various linguistics journals and is a member of the editorial board of the Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages. His most recent books include Morphological Productivity: Structural Constraints in English Derivation (1999) and Phonology and Morphology of Creole Languages (ed., 2003).Introduction: what this book is about and how it can be usedThe existence of words is usually taken for granted by the speakers of a language. To speak and understand a language means - among many other things -knowing the words of that language. The average speaker knows thousands of words, and new words enter our minds and our language on a daily basis. This book is about words. More specifically, it deals with the internal structure of complex words, i.e. words that are composed of more than one meaningful element. Take, for example, the very word meaningful, which could be argued to consist of two elements, meaning and -ful, or even three, mean, -ing, and -ful. We will address the question of how such words are related to other words and how the language allows speakers to create new words. For example, meaningful seems to be clearly related to colorful, but perhaps less so to awful or plentiful. And, given that meaningful may be paraphrased as 'having (a definite) meaning,' and colorful as 'having (bright or many different) colors,' we could ask whether it is also possible to create the word coffeeful, meaning 'having coffee.' Under the assumption that language is a rule-governed system, it should be possible to find meaningful answers to such questions.This area of study is traditionally referred to as 'word-formation' and the present book is mainly concerned with word-formation in one particular language. English. As a textbook for an undergraduate readership it presupposes very little or no prior knowledge of linguistics and introduces and explains linguistic terminology and theoretical apparatus as we go along. Technical terms usually appear in bold print when first mentioned. Definitions of terms can be easily located via the subject index, in which the respective page numbers are given in bold print.The purpose of the book is to enable the students to engage in (and enjoy!) their own analyses of English (or other languages') complex words. After having worked with the book, the reader should be familiar with the necessary and most recent methodological tools to obtain relevant data (introspection, electronic text collections, various types of dictionaries, basic psycholinguistic experiments, internet resources), and able to systematically analyze their data and to relate their findings to theoretical problems and debates. The book is not written from the perspective of a particular theoretical framework and draws on insights from various research traditions.Word-formation in English can be used as a textbook for a course on word-formation (or the word-formation parts of morphology courses), as a source-book for teachers, for student research projects, as a book for self-study by more advanced students (e.g. for their exam preparation), and as an up-to-date reference concerning selected word-formation processes in English for a more general readership.For each chapter there are a number of basic and more advanced exercises, which are suitable for in-class work or as students' homework. The more advanced exercises include proper research tasks, which also give the students the opportunity to use the different methodological tools introduced in the text. Students can control their learning success by comparing their results with the answer key provided at the end of the book. The answer key features two kinds of answers. Basic exercises always receive definite answers, while for the more advanced tasks sometimes no 'correct' answers are given. Instead, methodological problems and possible lines of analysis arediscussed. Even readers not interested in working on the exercises may find it fruitful to read the answer key texts for the advanced exercises, since they broaden and deepen the discussion of certain questions raised in the pertinent chapters.Those who consult the book as a general reference on English word-formation may check subject, affix, and author indexes and the list of references in order to quickly find what they need. Chapters 3 and 4 introduce the reader to most recent developments in research methodology, while short descriptions of individual affixes are located in chapter 4. Each chapter is also followed by a list of recommended further reading.As every reader knows, English is spoken by hundreds of millions of people and there exist numerous varieties of English around the world. The variety that has been taken as a reference for this book is General American English. The reason for this choice is purely practical: it is the variety the author knows best. With regard to most of the phenomena discussed in this book, different varieties of English pattern very much alike. However, especially concerning aspects of pronunciation there are sometimes remarkable, though perhaps minor, differences observable between different varieties. Mostly for reasons of space, but also due to the lack of pertinent studies, these differences will not be discussed here. However, 1 hope that the book will enable the readers to adapt and relate the findings presented with reference to American English to the variety of English they are most familiar with.The structure of the book is as follows. Chapters 1 through 3 introduce the basic notions needed for the study and description of word-internal structure (chapter 1), the problems that arise with the implementation of the said notions in the actual analysis of complex words in English (chapter 2), and one of the central problems in word-formation, productivity (chapter 3). The descriptively oriented chapters 4 through 6 deal with the different kinds of word-formation processes that can be found in English: chapter 4 discusses affixation, chapter 5 non-affixational processes, chapter 6 compounding. Chapter 7 is devoted to two theoretical issues, the role of phonology inword-formation and the nature of word-formation rules.The author welcomes comments and feedback on all aspects of this book, especially from students. Without students telling their teachers what is good for them (i.e. for the students), teaching cannot become as effective and enjoyable as it should be for both teachers and teachees (oops, was that a possible word of English?).Basic conceptsOutlineThis chapter introduces basic concepts needed for the study and description of plex words. Since this is a book about the particular branch of morphology called word-formation, we will first take a look at the notion of 'word.' We will then turn to a first analysis of the kinds of phenomena that fall into the domain of word-formation, before we finally discuss how word-formation can be distinguished from the other sub-branch of morphology, inflection.1.1 What is a word?It has been estimated that average speakers of a language know from 45,000 to 60,000 words. This means that we as speakers must have stored these words somewhere in our heads, our so-called mental lexicon. But what exactly is it that we have stored? What do we mean when we speak of'words'?In non-technical everyday talk, we speak about 'words' without ever thinking that this could be a problematic notion. In this section we will see that, perhaps contra our first intuitive feeling, the'word' as a linguistic unit deserves some attention, because it is not as straightforward as one might expect.If you had to define what a word is, you might first think of the word as a unit ir the writing system, the so-called orthographic word. You could say, for example that a word is an uninterrupted string of letters which is preceded by a blank spaa and followed either by a blank space or a punctuation mark. At first sight, this look like a good definition that can be easily applied, as we can see in the sentence i example (1):(1) Linguistics is a fascinating subject.We count five orthographic words: there are five uninterrupted strings of letters, a of which are preceded by a blank space, four of which are also followed by a blank space, one of which is followed by a period. This count is also in accordance with our intuitive feeling of what a word is. Even without this somewhat formal and technical definition, you might want to argue, you could have told that the sentence in (1) contains five words. However, things are not always that straightforward. Consider the following example, and try to determine how many words there are: (2) Benjamin's girlfriend lives in a high-rise apartment buildingYour result depends on a number of assumptions. If you consider apostrophies to be punctuation marks, Benjamin's constitutes two (orthographic) words. If not, Benjamin's is one word. If you consider a hyphen a punctuation mark, high-rise is two (orthographic) words, otherwise it's one (orthographic) word. The last two strings, apartment building, are easy to classify, they are two (orthographic) words, whereas girlfriend must be considered one (orthographic) word. However, there are two basic problems with our orthographic analysis. The first one is that orthography is often variable. Thus, girlfriend is also attested with the spellings <girl-friend> and even <girl friend> (fish brackets are used to indicate spellings, i.e. letters). Such variable spellings are quite common (cf. word-formation, word formation, and wordformation, all of them attested), and even where the spelling is conventionalized, similar words are often spelled differently, as evidenced with grapefruit vs. passion fruit. For our problem of defining what a word is, such cases are rather annoying. The notion of what a word is, should, after all, not depend on the fancies of individual writers or the arbitrariness of the English spelling system. The second problem with the orthographically defined word is that it may not always coincide with our intuitions. Thus, most of us would probably agree that girlfriend is a word (i.e. one word) which consists of two words (girl and friend), a so-called compound. If compounds are one word, they should be spelled without a blank space separating the elements that together make up the compound. Unfortunately, this isnot the case. The compound apartment building, for example, has a blank space between apartment and building.To summarize our discussion of purely orthographic criteria of wordhood, we must say that these criteria are not entirely reliable. Furthermore, a purely orthographic notion of 'word' would have the disadvantage of implying that illiterate speakers would have no idea about what a word might be. This is plainly false.What, might you ask, is responsible for our intuitions about what a word is, if not the orthography? It has been argued that the word could be defined in four other ways: in terms of sound structure (i.e. phonologically), in terms of its internal integrity, in terms of meaning (i.e. semantically), or in terms of sentence structure (i.e. syntactically). We will discuss each in turn.You might have thought that the blank spaces in writing reflect pauses in the spoken language, and that perhaps one could define the word as a unit in speech surrounded by pauses. However, if you carefully listen to naturally occurring speech you will realize that speakers do not make pauses before or after each word. Perhaps we could say that words can be surrounded by potential pauses in speech. This criterion works much better, but it runs into problems because speakers can and do make pauses not only between words but also between syllables, for example for emphasis.But there is another way in which the sound structure can tell us something about the nature of the word as a linguistic unit. Think of stress. In many languages (including English) the word is the unit that is crucial for the occurrence and distribution of stress. Spoken in isolation, every word can have only one main stress, as indicated by the acute accents (') in the data presented in (3) below (note that we speak of linguistic 'data' when we refer to language examples to be analyzed).(3) carpenter textbookwater analysisfederal syllablemother understandThe main stressed syllable is the syllable which is the most prominent one in a word. Prominence of a syllable is a function of loudness, pitch and duration, with stressed syllables being pronounced louder, with higher pitch, or with longer duration than the neighboring syllable(s). Longer words often have additional, weaker stresses, so-called secondary stresses, which we ignore here for simplicity's sake. The words in (4) now show that the phonologically defined word is not always identical with the orthographically defined word.Benjamin'sgirlfriendapartment buildingWhile apartment building is two orthographic words, it is only one word in terms of stress behavior. The same holds for other compounds like travel agency, weather forecast, space shuttle, etc. We see that in these examples the phonological definition of 'word' comes closer to our intuition of what a word should be.We have to take into consideration, however, that not all words carry stress. For example, function words like articles or auxiliaries are usually unstressed (a car, the dog, Mary has a dog) or even severely reduced (Jane's in the garden, I'll be there). Hence, the stress criterion is not readily applicable to function words and to words that hang on to other words, so-called clitics (e.g. 've, 's, 'II).Let us now consider the integrity criterion, which says that the word is an indivisible unit into which no intervening material may be inserted. If some modificational element is added to a word, it must be done at the edges, but never inside the word. For example, plural endings such as -s in girls, negative elements such as un- in uncommon or endings that create verbs out of adjectives (such as -iz e in colonialize) never occur inside the word they modify, but are added either before or after the word. Hence, the impossibility of formations such as *gi-s-rl,*com-un-mon, * col-ize-onial (note that the asterisk indicates impossible words, i.e. words that are not formed in accordance with the morphological rules of the language in question).However, there are some cases in which word integrity is violated. For example, the plural ofson-in-law is not * son-in-laws but sons-in-law. Under the assumption that son-in-law is one word (i.e. some kind of compound), the plural ending is inserted inside the word and not at the end. Apart from certain compounds, we can find other words that violate the integrity criterion for words. For example, in creations like abso-bloody-lutely, the element bloody is inserted inside the word, and not, as we would expect, at one of the edges. In fact, it is impossible to add bloody before or after absolutely in order to achieve the same effect. Absolutely bloody would mean something completely different, and * bloody absolutely seems utterly strange and, above all, uninterpretable.We can conclude that there are certain, though marginal counterexamples to the integrity criterion, but surely these cases should be regarded as the proverbial exceptions that prove the rule.The semantic definition of 'word' states that a word expresses a unified semantic concept. Although this may be true for most words (even for son-in-law, which is ill-behaved with regardto the integrity criterion), it is not sufficient in order to differentiate between words and non-words. The simple reason is that not every unified semantic concept corresponds to one word in a given language. Consider, forexample, the smell of fresh rain in a forest in the fall. Certainly a unified concept, but we would not consider the smell of fresh rain in a forest in the fall a word. In fact, English simply has no single word for this concept. A similar problem arises with phrases like the woman who lives next door. This phrase refers to a particular person and should therefore be considered as something expressing a unified concept. This concept is however expressed by more than one word. We learn from this example that although a word may always express a unified concept, not every unified concept is expressed by one word. Hence the criterion is not very helpful in distinguishing between words and larger units that are not words. An additional problem arises from the notion of 'unified semantic concept' itself, which seems to be rather vague. For example, does the complicated word conventionalization really express a unified concept? If we paraphrase it as 'the act or result of making something conventional,' it is not entirely clear whether this should still be regarded as a 'unified concept.' Before taking the semantic definition of 'word' seriously, it would be necessary to define exactly what 'unified concept' means.This leaves us with the syntactically oriented criterion of wordhood. Words are usually considered to be syntactic atoms, i.e. the smallest elements in a sentence. Words belong to certain syntactic classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, etc.), which are called parts of speech, word classes, or syntactic categories. The position in which a given word may occur in a sentence is determined by the syntactic rules of a language. These rules make reference to words and the class they belong to. For example, the is said to belong to the class called articles, and there are rules which determine where in a sentence such words, i.e. articles, may occur (usually before nouns and their modifiers, as in the big house). We can therefore test whether something is a word by checking whether it belongs to such a word class. If the item in question, for example, follows the rules for nouns, it should be a noun, hence a word. Or consider the fact that only words (andgroups of words), but no smaller units, can be moved to a different position in the sentence. For example, in 'yes/no' questions, the auxiliary verb does not occur in its usual position but is moved to the beginning of the sentence (You can read my textbook vs. Can you read my textbook?). Thus syntactic criteria can help to determine the wordhood of a given entity.To summarize our discussion of the possible definition of 'word' we can say that, in spite of the intuitive appeal of the notion of 'word,' it is sometimes not easy to decide whether a given string of sounds (or letters) should be regarded as a word or not. In the treatment above, we have concentrated on the discussion of such problematic cases. In most cases, however, the stress criterion, the integrity criterion and the syntactic criteria lead to sufficiently clear results. The properties of words are summarized in (5):(5) Properties of words- words are entities having a part of speech specification- words are syntactic atoms- words (usually) have one main stress- words (usually) are indivisible units (no intervening material possible)Unfortunately, there is yet another problem with the word word itself, namely its ambiguity. Thus, even if we have unequivocally decided that a given string is u word, some insecurity remains about what exactly we refer to when we say things like(6) a. The word be occurs twice in the sentence,b.The utterance in (6), given in both its orthographic and its phonetic representation, can be understood in different ways, it is ambiguous in a number of ways. First, <be> or the sounds [bi] may refer to the letters or the sounds which they stand for. Then sentence (6) would, for example, be true for every written sentence in which the string <BLANK SPACE be BLANK SPACE>occurs twice. Referring to the spoken equivalent of (6a), represented by the phonetic transcription in (6b), (6) would be true for any sentence in which the string of sounds [bi] occurs twice. In this case, [bi] could refer to two different 'words,' e.g. bee and be. The next possible interpretation is that in (6) we refer to the grammatically specified form be, i.e. the infinitive, imperative or subjunctive form of the linking verb BE.Such a grammatically specified form is called the grammatical word (or morphosyntactic word). Under this reading, (6) would be true of any sentence containing two infinitive, two imperative or two subjunctive forms of be, but would not be true of a sentence which contains any of the forms am, is, are, was, were.To complicate matters further, even the same form can stand for more than one different grammatical word. Thus, the word-form be is used for three different grammatical words, expressing subjunctive, infinitive or imperative, respectively. This brings us to the last possible interpretation, namely that (6) may refer to the linking verb B E in general, as we would find it in a dictionary entry, abstracting away from the different word-forms in which the word BE occurs (am, is, are, was, were, be, been). Under this reading, (6) would be true for any sentence containing any two word-forms of the linking verb, i.e. am, is, are, was, were, he, and been. Under this interpretation, am, is, are, was, were, be, and been are regarded as realizations of an abstract morphological entity. Such abstract entities are called lexemes. Coming back to our previous example of be and bee, we could now say that BE and BEE are two different lexemes that simply sound the same (usually small capitals are used when writing about lexemes). In technical terms, they are homophonous words, or simply homophones.In everyday speech, these rather subtle ambiguities in our use of the term 'word' are easily tolerated and are often not even noticed, but when discussing linguistics, it is sometimes necessary to be more explicit about what exactly one talks about. Having discussed what we can mean when we speak of 'words,' we may now turn to the question of what exactly we are dealing with in the study of word-formation.1.2 Studying word-formationAs the term 'word-formation' suggests, we are dealing with the formation of words, but what does that mean? Let us look at a number of words that fall into the domain of word-formation and a number of words that do not:(7)neighbormatterbrowgreatpromisediscussb. apartment buildingc. chair inventor greenhouse inability team manager meaningless truck driver suddenness blackboard unhappy son-in-law decolonializatiopickpocketnIn columns (7a) and (7b) we find words that are obviously composed by putting together smaller elements to form larger words with more complex meanings. We can say that we are dealing with morphologically complex words. For example, employee can be analyzed as being composed of the verb employ and the ending -ee, the adjective unhappy can be analyzed as being derived from the adjective happy by the attachment of the element un-, and decolonialization can be segmented into the smallest parts de-, colony, -al, -ize, and -ation. We can thus decompose complex words into their smallest meaningful units. These units are called morphemes.In contrast to those in (7a) and (7b), the words in (7c) cannot be decomposed into smaller meaningful units, they consist of only one morpheme, they are mono-morphemic. Neighbor, for example, is not composed of neighb- and -or, although the word looks rather similar to a word such as inventor. Inventor ('someone who invents (something)') is decomposable into two morphemes, because both invent- and -or are meaningful elements, whereas neither neighb- nor-or carry any meaning in neighbor (a neighbor is not someone who neighbs, whatever that may be ...).As we can see from the complex words in (7a), some morphemes can occur only if attached to some other morpheme(s). Such morphemes are called bound morphemes, in contrast to free morphemes, which do occur on their own. Some bound morphemes, for example un-, must always be attached before the central meaningful element of the word, the so-called root, stem, or base, whereas other bound morphemes, such as -ity, -ness, or -less, must follow the root. Using Latin-influenced terminology, un- is called a prefix, -ity a suffix, with affix being the cover term for all bound morphemes that attach to roots. Note that there are also bound roots, i.e. roots that only occur in combination with some other bound morpheme. Examples of bound roots are often of Latin origin, e.g. later-(as in combination with the adjectival suffix -al), circul- (as in circulate, circulation, circulatory, circular), approb- (as in approbate, approbation, approbatory, approbator), simul- (as in simulant, simulate, simulation), but occasional native bound roots can also be found (e.g. hap-, as in hapless).Before we turn to the application of the terms introduced in this section, we should perhaps clarify the distinction between 'root,' 'stem,' and 'base,' because these terms are not always clearly defined in the morphological literature and are therefore a potential source of confusion. One reason for this lamentable lack of clarity is that languages differ remarkably in their morphological make-up, so that different terminologies reflect different organizational principles in the different languages. The part of a word which an affix is attached to is called base. We will use the term root to refer to bases that cannot be analyzed further into morphemes. The term 'stem' is usually used for bases of inflections, and occasionally also for bases of derivational affixes. To avoid terminological confusion, we will avoid the use of the term 'stem' altogether and speak of 'roots' and 'bases' only. The term 'root' is used when we want to explicitly refer to the indivisible central part of a complex word. In all other cases, where the status of a form as indivisible or not is not at issue, we can just speak of bases (or, if the base is a word, of base words). The derived word is often referred to as a derivative. The base of the suffix -al in the derivative colonial is colony, the base of the suffix -ize in the derivative colonialize is colonial, the base of -ation in the derivative colonialization is colonialize. In the case of colonial the base is a root, in the other cases it is not. The terminological distinctions are again illustrated in (8), using colonialization as an example:(8) derivative of -/ze/base of -ation。
M5U3 Word formation 教师版
M5U3 Word formation1. exact adj. 精确的，准确的exactly精确地(adv.) exactness精确 (n.)2.intention n. 意图，目的intentional故意的(adj.) intend打算 (v.)3.anxiety n. 忧虑，焦虑anxious焦虑的(adj.)anxiously着急地 (adv.)4.adopt vt. 收养，采用adoption收养(n.)5.legal adj. 法律许可的legally合法地(adv.) illegal（反义）非法的 (adj.)6.physician n. 医师physical身体的(adj.) physics物理(n.)7.consequence n. 结果consequent必然的 (adj.) as a consequence/in consequence结果 (phr.)8.transform vt. 使改变外观或性质transformation外观或性质的改变(n.)9.crime n. 罪，罪行criminal刑事的，犯罪的(adj.)10. profession n. 职业，行业professional职业的，专业的(adj.)11. original adj. 原来的，起初的originally原来，起初(adv.) origin起源(n.)12. judgement n. 判断力，看法judge判断(v.) judge法官(n.)judge by appearances以貌取人(phr.)13.conduct vt. 实施conductor乐队指挥(n.)14. majority n. 大多数major主要的(adj.)minority少数(n.)15. consideration n. 仔细考虑considerate考虑周到的(adj.) take...into consideration考虑(phr.)16.hunger n. 饥饿hungry饥饿的(adj.)17. nutrition n. 营养malnutrition（反义）营养不良(n.)18.ordinary adj. 普通的ordinarily普通地(adv.)19.reliable adj. 可信赖的rely信赖，依靠(v.) rely on信赖 (phr.)20.accurate adj. 准确的accurately准确(adv.)inaccurate（反义）不准确的(n.)21.actual adj. 真实的actually真实地(adv.)22.confirm v. 证实，确认confirmation证实，确认(n.)23.agriculture n. 农业agricultural农业的(adj.)24.favour n. 赞同，支持in favour of 赞同，支持(phr.)25.frighten vt. 使恐吓fright惊骇(n.)frightened/frightening惊吓的(adj.)26. profit n./v. 利润/获益profitable有利润的(adj.)27. permission n. 准许permit准许(v.)。
Unit 3英语词汇学 Word formation
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Exercises I. Tell meaning of the following initialisms and acronyms.
1. ID 2. VIP 3. NASA 4. TOFEL 5. OPEC 6. SALT 7. NATO 8. FBI
B. Initialism （首字母缩略词） Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. An intialism is pronounced letter by letter. e.g. BBC
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Task:
Explain the formation of the following blends and translate them into Chinese.
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botel Smog Advertistics comsat sci-fi airtel slimnastics medicare
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D. Blending （拼缀词） Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms. e.g. newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)
英语词汇学chapter3-4 word-formation
• E.g.: Home + work homework; Pick + pocket pickpocket
– conversion (10.5%) – composition or compounding (27%)
5
• Root, stem, base
– A root is a form that is not further analyzable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology.
3
Inflectional morphology
… suffix in English … in Chinese?
Morphology (word-formation)
compounding
word-formation (derivation)
derivation
affixation: prefix & suffix
Chapter Three & Four
WORD-FORMATION
1
Contents
• An overview • Three major processes
– compounding, derivation and conversinym, clipping, blending, words from proper names, back-formation, reduplication, neo-classical formation and miscellaneous
Chapter Three Word Formation
Chapter Three Word FormationVarious ways of forming words can be classified on the basis of frequency of usage, into major or minor processes.major processes.derivationcompoundingconversionminor processesAcronymyClippingBlendingback-formationwords from proper namesreduplicationneo-classical formationMiscellaneous(混合形式).A. Percentage of new words coined by the different word-formation processes after World War II1. The three major processes of word-formation:(a) Derivation or affixation (about 17.5 %):Prefixation: de escalate, anti hero;Suffixation: hawk ish, modern ize;(b) Compounding or composition (about 27%):raindrop, snow-white, baby-sit;(c)Conversion (about 10.5%):bottle (verb), buy (noun).Note that words formed by these processes account for 55% of the new vocabulary.2. The eight minor processes of word-formation:(a) Initialisms and acronyms (about 9%):U. N., TV, UNESCO, NATO;(b) Blending (about 6%): brunch, telex, airtel;(c) Clipping (about 2%): phone, flue, lab;(d) Words from proper names (about 2%): an Uncle Tom, xerox;(e) Back formation (about 1%): gangle, vacuumclean;(f) Reduplication (about 0.5%): walkie-talkie, go-go;(g) Neoclassical formations (about 4%): psychodelic, neurolinguistic;(h) Others (about 3%): pizzazz, gazump.Words formed by these minor processes account for 26.5% of the new vocabulary.The remaining 18.5% is from borrowing,e.g. discotheque, ombudsman and many others.B. Some basic concepts of word-formationBefore we deal with word-formation, we will first explain some of the terminology to be used in the study of word-formation.1. Word-formation rules:The rules of word-formation define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new words;e.g. the –able word-formation rules says, “-able is to be added to verbs to form an adjective meaning …fit to be‟, or to nouns to form an adjective with the sense showing the quality of.” And one of the noun compound formation is noun plus noun.However, any rule of word-formation is of limited productivity in the sense that not all the words which result from the application of the rule are acceptable.Thus readable, fashionable are acceptable, but writable, deskable are not acceptable. 2. Root, stem, base:The three are terms used in linguistics to designate that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed.A root is a form that is not further analysable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology. It is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. Thus in the word undesirables, the root is desire, to which first the suffix –able, then the prefix un- and finally the inflectional suffix –s have been added. In a compound word like greenhouse, there are two roots, green and house.A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. It is the part of word form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. Thus in the word undesirables, the stem is undesirable; but in the word desired, the stem is desire; in the word greenhouses the stem is greenhouse, even though the stem consists of two roots.A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; it may also be defined as “a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied.” Therefore, thi s means that any root or stem can be termed a base. But a base differs from both a root or a stem, because they have their own special features as we have discussed before.major processes1. DerivationA. Definition:Derivation or affixation is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix or combining form, to an already existing word.A combining form is a bound morpheme, which was originally a full word in Latin or Greek.e.g. auto (Gk autos self); hydro (Gk hydor water); tele (Gk tele far off).But they now occur only in derivatives.Derivation is subdivided into prefixation and suffixation.B. PrefixationPrefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix or combining form to the base.Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base, but do not generally change the word-class of the base. e.g. fair---unfair.However, in current English, prefixes do convert words to a different word-class in comparison with their original bases.e.g. be- adj.----v. becalm, belittlede- n.-----v. deform, debugen- n.-----v. enslave, endangerun- n.-----v. unleash, unearthanti- n.-----adj. anti-war, anti-craftinter- n.-----adj. inter-state, inter-laboratorypost- n.-----adj. postwar, postliberationpre- n.-----adj. prewar,preplantClassification of prefixes: (by their meaning)1) “negative” prefixes (un-, non-, in-, dis-, a-);2) “reversative or privative”(“非” “缺”) prefixes (un-, de-, dis-);3) “pejorative” prefixes (贬损) (mis-, mal-);4) Prefixes of size or degree (arch-, super-, out-, sub-, over-, under-, hyper-, ultra-, mini-)5) Prefixes of attitude (co-, counter-, anti-, pro-)6) “locative” prefixes (super-, sub-, inter-, trans-)7) Prefixes of time and order (fore-, pre-, post-, ex- re-)8) “number” prefixes (uni-/mono-, bi-/di-, multi-/poly-)There is also a miscellaneous category (auto-, neo-, pan-, proto-, semi-, vice-).Anti-, de-, mini-, non-, re-, super-, and un- are some of the most productive prefixes today, which should be closely observed.SuffixationSuffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base.e.g. boy---boyish.But there are exceptions:e.g. boy---boyhood.Classification of suffixes:Since suffixes usually change the word from one part of speech to another, it is convenient to classify them not only according to the word-class of the word they form (as noun-forming suffixes, adjective-forming suffixes, etc.), but also according to the kind of base to which they are typically added.e.g. a de-verbal suffix like –able or –er is one that typically added to a verb;a de-adjectival suffix like –ize is added to an adjective.The main groups of suffixes are:(a) Noun(-forming) suffixes:(b) Verb(-forming) suffixes:(c) Adjective(-forming) suffixes:(d) Adverb(-forming) suffixes:Noun(-forming) suffixes1) noun----noun suffixes (or de-nominal noun suffixes): e.g. -hood in brotherhood, -ship in friendship, -let in booklet, -dom in stardom.2) adjective----noun suffixes (or de-adjectival noun suffixes): e.g. -ness in kindness, -ist in loyalist, -ism in idealism and -ity in rapidity.3) verb----noun suffixes (or de-verbal noun suffixes): e.g. -er in writer, -ee in payee, -ation in exploitation and -ment in development.Verb-forming suffixes are very few in English. They are -ify (simplify); -ize (modernize) and -en (quicken).1) noun----adjective suffixes (or de-nominal adjective suffixes): e.g. -ful in useful, -less in careless, -y in silky and -ish in foolish.2) Other adjective (-forming) suffixes are -able in washable and fashionable; -ed in pointed and simpleminded; -al in cultural, -ic in atomic and -ous in ambitious. They are either de-verbal or de-nominal.e.g. -ly in happily,-ward(s) in backward(s),–wise in clockwise.2. CompoundingA. Definition:Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.It is a common device which has been productive at every period of English language. English now makes more use of compounding than at any previous time in its history. Today the largest number of new words are formed by compounding.Compounds are written in various ways, e.g.(a) solid: airtight, airmail;(b) hyphenated: air-conditioning;(c) open: air force, air raid.The general tendency nowadays is for compounds to be written “solid” as soon as they have gained permanent status; otherwise they are written open.B. Classification of CompoundsCompounds are classified according to parts of speech of the compounds, i.e. as noun compounds, adjective compounds and verb compounds, which are then subdivided by the syntactic relation of the compounding elements (this relation is indicated by syntactic paraphrase).1. Noun compounds:This is the commonest type, and new specimens are constantly being formed. Noun compounds are subclassified according to the syntactic relation of the compoundingelements:(a) Subject and verb:The verb may take the form of the base or that of the base plus –ing.e.g. headache “the head aches”, heartbeat “the heart beats”; revolving door “the door revolves”.(b) Verb and object:The verb may take the form of the base or that of the base+-ing.e.g. birthcontrol “to control birth”; housekeeping “to keep house”; and dressmaking “to make dresses”.(c) Verb and adverbial:Verbal noun in –ing +adverbial (consisting of a prepositional phrase)e.g. swimming pool “to swim in the pool or a pool for swimming”; typing paper “to type on paper”. It is a very productive type.(d) Subject and object:steamboat “steam powers the boat”;honeybee “the bee produces honey.”(e) Restrictive relation:the first element restricts the meaning of the second:e.g. raindrop “a drop of rain”; evening school “a school in the evening”; tablecloth “a cloth for table”; breakfast time “time for breakfast”.(f) Appositive relation:the first el ement is in apposition to the second one: e.g. a peasant girl “the girl is a peasant”; a pine tree “the tree is a pine”.When the first element of a noun compound is itself a compound, such a compound is called a string compound. e.g. test-tube baby “one conceived by artificial insemination, or developed elsewhere than in a mother‟s body.”Compound nouns can also be formed from phrasal verbs. This type is very common in contemporary English. Examples are: sit-in, dropout, phone-in, breakdown, setback and take-off.2. Adjective compounds:Adjective compounds are also sub-classified according to the syntactic relation of the compounding elements:(a) Subject and verb: The verb is in the form of past participle. Examples are thunder-struck (houses) “thunder struck the houses”; suntanned (skin) “sun tanned the skin”. This type is highly productive.(b) Verb and object: the verb is in the form of present participle, e.g. fault-finding “to find fault”; peaceloving “to love peace”. It is a productive type.(c) Verb and adverbial: The verb is in the form of present participle or past participle: e.g. hardworking; well-behaved.(d) Noun and adjective:The noun denoting respect. It is very productive type with certain adjectives that complemented by preposition+noun;e.g. taxfree “free from tax”; seasick “sick due to sailing on the sea”; fireproof “proof against fire”.The noun denoting the thing with which the adjective is compared (as+adjective+as+noun, adjective like noun); e.g. ocean green “as green as ocean”; crystal-clear “as clear as a crystal”; shoulder-high “as high as shoulders”.(e) Coordinating relationship:The two adjectives are in a coordinating relationship,e.g. bittersweet “sweet but bitter”; Sino-U.S. relations “relation between China and the U.S.”3. Verb compounds:Verb compounds fall into two main groups according to their method of formation: (a) Those formed by back-formation: Back-formation is a “reversal” of derivation,e.g. house-keep is formed by deleting –ing and –er from housekeeping and housekeeper, which entered the language much earlier.to vacuum clean (form vacuum cleaner); to babysit (from babysitting and babysitter); to windowshop (from window-shopping).(b) Those formed by conversion.In this case, the verb compounds are converted from noun compounds;e.g.to nickname to honeymoon to outlineto machine-gun to snowball, etc.These verb compounds are very often used in colloquial speech.What might be more useful for a non-native speaker to do is to become familiar with some of the productive types as indicated in this chapter, and when examples of a certain type are found in context, to associate them with other examples of the same type, so that his reading vocabulary will be enlarged.Compounds are very often used because of their brevity and vividness. e.g. “up-to-the-minute information” is more vivid than “the latest information.”3. ConversionA. definitionConversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.e.g. the verb attack (as in “The enemy attacked us at night.”) corresponds to the noun attack (as in “The enemy launched an attack on us at night.”)verb de-verbal nounSUFFIXATION: invade------invasionCONVERSION: attack-------attackOther terms for conversion are “functional shift” and “derivation by zero suffix.”Conversion as a result of the almost entire loss of inflection in modern English:The vocabulary of contemporary English is exceedingly rich in conversion pairs. As shown at the beginning of this chapter, the percentage of converted words in the vocabulary of Contemporary English is about 10.5%.As a word-formation process, conversion is extremely productive. This is so mainly because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs oradjectives and vice versa. Indeed, the free interchange of a word from one word-class to another is a significant feature of Modern English.Sometimes a word may undergo multiple conversion, which enables it to function as a member of several word.Notice how the word-class of round varies in accordance with its use in the following sentences:The second round was exciting. (n.)Any round plate will do. (adj.)Some drivers round corners too rapidly. (v.)The sound goes round and round. (ad.)He lives round the corner.The above examples tell us a very important fact: because word order is more fixed in Modern English than ever before, functional shifts within sentence structures are possible without causing any confusion in intelligibility.B. Types of conversion:There are various types of conversion but conversions from noun to verb and from verb to noun are the most productive.1. Noun----verb conversion:Today the large number of words formed by conversion is constituted by verbs from nouns. This noun to verb conversion may be subdivided into the following groups, based on A Grammar of Contemporary English by R. Quirk et al.(a) “to put in/on N”: The noun are usually locative nouns denoting a place, a container or a specified location;e.g. can v. as in “The workers canned apples.” bottle, floor, cage, corner and pocket.(b) “to give N, to provide N”:e.g. shelter as in “They shelter the orphans.” coat, wax, sugar, label, plaster and grease.(c) “to deprive of N; or to remove the object denoted by the noun from something”.e.g. weed as in “Bill weeded the garden.” core, dust, skin, gut and peel.(d) “To…with N”:More precisely, the meaning of the verb is “to use the referent of the noun as an instrument for whatever activity par ticularly associated with it”;e.g. brake, as in “John braked the car.”; finger as in “She fingered the soft silk.”screw, glue, elbow, knife, x-rays, head.(e) “to be/act as N with respect to…”:1) Verbs from human nouns:e.g. mother as in “She mothered the orphan.” nurse, boss, pilot, referee and usher.2) Verbs from animal nouns:e.g. parrot as in “Tom parroted what the boss had said.”ape (to imitate); monkey (to fool about); dog (to follow closely behind); wolf (to eat greedily).3) Verbs from inanimate nouns:e.g. shadow as in “The police shadowed the suspected spy.” (The police followed the suspected spy closely like a shadow.)balloon (to swell out like a balloon), flood, ghost (to act as a ghost), mushroom, and snowball (to grow quickly in size or importance).(f) “to make/change …into N”:e.g. cash as in“Please cash this check for me.” cripple (to make a cripple of; damage or weaken seriously), feature (to have a prominent part for), orphan, fool, and group. (g) “to send/ go by N”:e.g. mail as in “Will you please mail the parcel?” ship, telegraph, and telephone. Or bicycle as in “We bicycled to the Summer Palace.”motor, boat, ski, etc.(h) “to spend the period of time denoted by N”:e.g. summer a s in “We summered in Qingdao.”holiday, winter, weekend, vacation, etc.2. Verb----noun conversion:Nouns converted from verbs are not as numerous as verbs converted from nouns, because the English speaking people are inclined to employ derivation by means of de-verbal suffixes (as in arrangement from arrange).This verb to noun conversion may be subdivided into the following groups, based on A Grammar of Contemporary English by R. Quirk et al.(a) “state” (generally …state of mind‟ or …state of sensation‟) e.g. desire as in “He had a desire to be a scientist.” doubt, disgust, want, surprise.(b) “event/ activity” (from dynamic verbs):The converted noun indicate a single instance or occasion. e.g. The noun commute means “an act or instance of commuting” as in “his usual morning commute to work”. Examples of this kind of noun usually occur following verbs like give, make, have or take, and are preceded by the indefinite article:To give a cry, start, howl, laugh;To have a look, swim, ride, try, drink;To make a dash, dive, guess, search, an attempt;To take a peep, stroll, turn.Such expressions are informal and colloquial.(c) “object or result of V”:e.g. find n. “something found, esp. sth. valuable or pleasing” as in “This little restau rant is quite a find.”catch (of fish), answer, cough, import, reject.(d) “agent of V”:e.g. bore as in “He is a great bore.”cheat, spy, coach, help and rebel.(e) “ instrument of V”:e.g. cover as in “The cloth is good cover for the table.”cure, wrap and polish.(f) “place of V”:e.g. divide as in “This is the divide between the two rivers.”turn, rise, return and dump.3. Adjective----verb conversion: Verbs converted from adjectives fall into two groups:(a) Intransitive verbs meaning “to be, become, the quality denoted by the adjective,” such as pale, slim, sour, mellow, dim (out) and idle (away).(b) Transitive verbs meaning “to cause someone or something to be, become, the quality denoted by the adjective,” such as bare, blunt, busy (oneself), free, right, smooth (out) and warm. Many verbs may belong to both these groups, e.g. calm (down), clear, cool, dry, dirty, empty, narrow, slow (down) and sober (up).4. Adjective----noun conversion:the adjective to noun conversion is classified into two groups: partial conversion and complete conversion.(a) Partial conversion:Some adjectives are used as nouns when preceded by the definite article such as the poor, the wounded; yet these converted nouns take on only some of the feature of the noun; i.e. they do not take plural and genitive inflections, nor can they be preceded by determiners like a, this, my, etc.Therefore, such adjective to noun conversion is partial. This partial conversion may be subdivided into following groups:1) “Adjectives (including participles) denoting a quality or a state common to a group of people may be used without an accompanying noun to denoting such people as a group.”e.g. This is a school for the deaf and the blind.The poor were oppressed by the rich during pre-liberation days.2) Adjective ending in -sh, -se and -ch denotepeoples of a nation when they are preceded by the definite article: e.g.In former days the English and the Scotch were often at war.3) Adjectives denoting a quality in the abstract may be used as nouns, preceded by the definite article.e.g. Mary has a strong dislike for the sentimental.4) Adverbial superlatives are sometimes preceded by a definite article and used substantively. This usage is regarded as another case of partial conversion; the same is true of adverbial superlatives preceded by the preposition at.e.g. I will give you a definite answer on Tuesday at the latest.5) Instead of being used to denote a group of peoples, some nouns converted from participles, when preceded by definite article, can refer to a single person, such as the accused, the deceased, the departed, the deserted, and the condemned. (these nouns are sometimes also used to refer to a group or class of people.)(b) Complete conversion:The conversion of adjective to noun is complete when the converted form takes on all the features of a noun.Take the adjective native for example; one can say: a native, two natives, the native‟s language, and a returned native.Complete conversion of adjectives to noun is not very productive.5. Other conversions:Tom went home early. (n.---ad.)I will take a through train. (prep.---adj.)My father was the then president. (ad.---adj.)The department head pooh-poohed our plan. (interj---v.)He knows all the ins and outs of the whole business. (ad.---n.)Is Joan‟s new baby a he? (pron.---n.)His talk contains too many ifs and buts. (conj.---n.)She feels very under-the weather. (phrase---adj.)This book is a must for the students of physics. (aux. v.---n.)Notice that the above conversion are not very common.The Minor Process of Word-FormationApart from the three major types of word-formation, there are also minor types of word-formation, a number of which have attained some importance in contemporary English.1. Acronymy----Initialisms and AcronymsA. InitialismsInitialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; an intialism is pronounced letter by letter.e.g. BBC (for British Broadcasting Corporation) is pronounced /`bi:bi:`si:/; VIP (for a very important person) is likewise pronounced /vi:ai`pi:/.three types of initialisms:1. The letters represent full words. This is main type. e.g. CIA=the Central Intelligence Agency of the U.S. ISBN=International Standard Book Number.2. “The letters represent elements in a compound or just part of a word” (Quirk et al 1972). e.g. ID=Identification (card).3. A letter represents the complete form of the first (or the first two) word, while the second word (or the third word) is in the full form. e.g. H-bomb=hydrogen bomb.B. AcronymsAcronyms are the words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than sequences of letters.e.g NATO=the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is pronounced /`neitu/, not /`en`ei`ti:`u/.UNESCO/ju`nesku/ the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.Both initialisms and acronyms have become extremely popular since World War II, especially within the past few years.2. ClippingThe process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone, gym from gymnastics and taxi from taxicab.Clippings may be divided into four main types:A. Back clippings:The deletion may occur at end of the word. This is the most common type of clipping. e.g. ad (=advertisement), auto (=automobile), etcB. Front clippings:The deletion occurs at the beginning of the word. e.g. chute (=parachute), plane (=airplane), scope (=telescope; microscope).C. Front and back clippings (not a common type of clipping):The deletion occurs at both ends of a word.e.g. flu (=influenza), fridge (=refrigerator), etc.D. Phrase clippings:This involves the shortening of a phrase.e.g. perm (=permanent wave), pop (=popular music or record), etc.The above two types of word-formation---acronyms and clipping are processes of shortening. They show a typical characteristic of the vocabulary of contemporary English: the tendency to shorten the English words, reflecting the tense, fast-paced and competitive modern life.3. BlendingBlending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.e.g. newscast (news+broadcast),brunch (breakfast+lunch), etc.Blending is a process of both compounding and abbreviation. Like acronyms, new blends are freely produced in contemporary English.Structurally blends may be divided into four types:A. The first part of the first word+the last part of the second word. This is most productive type:e.g. boat+hotel=botel n. ship serving as hotel.smoke+fog=smog n. fog intensified by smoke.stagnation+inflation=stagflation n. persistent inflation with high unemployment.B. The first part of the first word+the first part of the second word:e.g. communication+satellite=comsat n. communications services involving an artificial satellite.science+fiction=sci-fi n. of, relating to, or being science fiction.C. Whole form of the first word+last part of the second word:e.g. air+hotel=airtel n. hotel located at or close to an airport.slim+gymnastics=slimnastics n. exercises designed to reduce one‟s weight.D. First part of the first word+whole form of the second word:e.g. medical+care=medicare n. a government program of medical care esp. for the aged. The frequent use of blends by newspapers and magazines, the coinage of blends for the names of new inventions, and the close relationship of some blends to daily life have contributed to the popularization of this type of word-formation, but only a few have established themselves in the language. Most are short-lived novelties.4. Back-formationBack-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.e.g. typewrite was formed from the noun typewriter by removing the supposed derivation suffix -er, and the verb edit formed from editor by dropping the suffix -or.Back-formation is therefore a process of shortening, too. The majority of back-formedwords are verbs. Back-formation has a long and recognized standing as one of the Traditional sources of new words.5. Words From Proper NamesAnother minor type of word-formation is the coinage of common words from proper names. The transition from proper names to common words is a gradual one. They come from all sources, from names of scientists, politicians and statesmen to trade marks, and place names. Some have originated from characters in literature, TV films and movies, but some also come from book titles.A. Words from the names of scientistse.g. the terms for the chief units of electric energy---watt, volt, ohm and ampere are from the names of four distinguished 18th century scientists: an Englishman, James Watt; an Italian, Alessandro V olta; a German, Georg Ohm; and a Frenchman, Andre Ampere. The verb pasteurize comes from the name of Louis Pasteur (1822---1895), the famous French chemist and the father of modern bacteriology.B. Words from the names of politicians and statesmene.g. McCarthyism was derived from the name of a U.S. Senator J. R. McCarthy (1909---1957), means “policy of hunting out (suspected) Communists and removing them esp. from Government d epartments”. McCarthy was closely associated with this notorious policy.C. Words from the names of placese.g. china n. fine semi-transparent or white earthenware, porcelain, originally imported from China; champagne n. a sparkling white wine made in the region of Champagne, France.D. Words from trademarkse.g. xerox, xeroxer and xeroxable were all derived from the trademark---Xerox.E. Words from literaturee.g. catch-22 means “a problematic situation for which the only solution is denied by a circumsta nce inherent in the problem or by a rule.” which came from the title of a novel (1961) by the American writer Joseph Heller.6. ReduplicationReduplication is a minor type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition (1) of one word like go-go; (2) of two almost identical words with a change in the vowels such as pingpong; (3) of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants, as in willy-nilly “willingly or unwillingly”.Other examples: tick-tick (of a watch); zigzag (a line which turns right and left alternatively at sharp angles); fiddle-faddle (trifling matters); yo-yo (a stupid or foolish person); no-no (sth. that is unacceptable or forbidden).7. Neoclassical FormationNeoclassical formation denotes the process by which words are formed from elements derived from Latin and Greek (as in telephone).The majority of neoclassical formations are scientific and technical.e.g. astrochemistry n. “the study of chemical composition of heavenly bodies and the。
现代英语词汇学概论3-word-formationPPT课件
flatfoot
(a policeman)
blue blood
(the quality of being a nobleman by birth)
blue ribbon
(an honor given to the winner of the first prize)
Note: we cannot infer the meaning from the meaning of
compound? 3. The classification of compounding?
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6
What is compounding?
Compounding / composition: a wordformation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit. e.g. flowerpot= flower + pot machine-independent = machine + independent back
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The relative criteria of a compound
1. Orthographic criterion:
Compounds are written in three ways, that is, solid, hyphenated and open.
E.g. flowerpot
E.g. black list blackboard blue bottle
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3. Semantic criterion:
Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning which may be related to but cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts.
全新版大英综合教程3课文原文和翻译
unit 1 Mr. Doherty Builds His Dream LifeIn America many people have a romantic idea of life in the countryside. Many living in towns dream of starting up their own farm, of living off the land. Few get round to putting their dreams into practice. This is perhaps just as well, as the life of a farmer is far from easy, as Jim Doherty discovered when he set out to combine being a writer with running a farm. Nevertheless, as he explains, he has no regrets and remains enthusiastic about his decision to change his way of life.在美国，不少人对乡村生活怀有浪漫的情感。
许多居住在城镇的人梦想着自己办个农场，梦想着靠土地为生。
很少有人真去把梦想变为现实。
或许这也没有什么不好，因为，正如吉姆·多尔蒂当初开始其写作和农场经营双重生涯时所体验到的那样，农耕生活远非轻松自在。
但他写道，自己并不后悔，对自己作出的改变生活方式的决定仍热情不减。
Mr. Doherty Builds His Dream LifeJim Doherty1 There are two things I have always wanted to do -- write and live on a farm. Today I'm doing both. I am not in E. B. White's class as a writer or in my neighbors' league as a farmer, but I'm getting by. And after years of frustration with city and suburban living, my wife Sandy and I have finally found contentment here in the country. 多尔蒂先生创建自己的理想生活吉姆·多尔蒂有两件事是我一直想做的――写作与务农。
大学词汇学Chapter3 word formation
2. resegregation
super1. super- : in the sense of "to a degree beyond what is usual, superior in quality" is one of the prefixes currently enjoying popularity. 2. It came into fashion by way of scientific terminology (supersonic speed, supercurrent...) 3. Today also invaded the jargon of advertisements, films, politics and industrial production.(superhero, superstar, superspy, supermarket...)
e.g: -ly in happily
(附加于形容词后的名词词缀) (附加于动词后的名词词缀)
deverbal noun suffixes
e.g: -er in writer
2. Verb ( -forming ) suffixes
e.g: -ify in simplify
3. Adjective ( -forming ) suffixes
denominal adjective suffixes
(附加于名词后的形容词词缀) e.g: -ful in useful other adjective ( -forming ) suffixes e.g: -able in washable
4. Adverb ( -forming ) suffixes
3. to form verbs from nouns, meaning to release from or to deprive of(unleash, ubhorse)
(词汇学)Word_Formation
There are three major processes of word formation: derivation, compounding and conversion.
<Ⅰ>. Derivation: 〔派生
Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.
<2> vt﹢object:
pickpocket, reading-material,haircut,letter-writing,
chopstick, pastime, <3> Subject﹢object:
gas-light〔汽灯："gas produces light," sugar-cane〔甘蔗："cane produces sugar,"
7. "time and order"prefixes <fore-, pre-, post-, ex-, > eg: forecast <v,n> 预报, foresee <v> 预见, forehead <n> 前额 preview <v> 预习, pre-read <v> 预先阅读, prepay <v> 预付, postwar <adj> 战后的, postgraduate <n> 研究生, postscript <n> 附言, ex-president <n> 前任总统, ex-monitor <n> 前任班长, ex-wife <n> 前妻,
Chapter 3 Word formation
Chapter 3 Word formation( the three major process of word-formation)1.Explain :Word-formation rules:Word-formation rules define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new words.Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes.2.Root,stem and base. （词根、词干和词基）Analyze the word denationalized into root,base and stem1)Root: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,and it conveys the main lexical meaningof the word.Free root: A root which can stand itself and can be used seperately to form a new word. A word consisting of one free root or one morhpeme is a simple word.e.g., man,talk,red,etc. A free root is a free morpheme.Bound root: A root which cannot stand itself and cannot be used seperately,but as an attachment to be added to a word to fo rm a new word. such as “tain,ceive”.Bound roots must be usedtogether with other elements to form a word, e.g. “con+tain” = “contain”2)Stem: A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme (曲折詞素)ina word with inflectional morphemes.e.g. 'worker' in 'workers' is a stem.3)Base(词基）:A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added;it may also be definedas ''a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied.''This means that any root or stem can be termed a base.Such as,desirable is a base in undesirable.4) The differences between root,stem,base:A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,no further analysis.Such as nation is a root ininternational.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectionalmorphemes,can be further analyszed,it sometimes could be a root. e.g. desire is a stem in desired.A base is a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied,it could be a root or a stem.Such asinternation is a base in international.pounding Composition or Compounding (27%) （复合法）Definition: Compounding consists of combining two or more words into one which now expressesa single idea and functions as a separate lexical pounding is the most productiveword-formation process in contemporary English.4.what are the relative criteria of a commound?Orthographic criterion(书写标准) :Compounds are written in three ways,e.g. solid:airmail;hyphenated:air-conditioning; open: air force, air raid.Phonological criterion(语音标准) :Semantic criterion(语义标准)5.Affixation or Derivation (17.5%) （派生法或词缀法）@It is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element,such as a prefix,suffix,or combining form,to an already existing word. e.g. :tele- --telephone, telescope6.What is the difference between prefixation and suffixation?Prefixation: the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change theword-class of the stem but change its meaning.Suffixation --Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems (the word class). Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis.7.How are the marjor living prefixes classified?1)''nagative ''否定prefixes:un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.2)''reversative相反or privative否定的前缀''prefixes:un-,de-dis etc.3)''pejorative变坏的, 轻蔑的''prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.4)''degree or size ''prefixes:arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.5)''attitude态度''prefixes:co-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.6)''locative位置格''prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.7)''time and order ''prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.8)''number ''prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.8.How can you form deverbal nouns,denominal nouns,deadjective verbs,and denominal adjectivesby suffixation?Deverbal nouns:來自動詞的名詞a. Denoting people -- -ant （assistant）, -ee (trainee), -ent (respondent), -er(-or)b. Denoting action, result, process, state, ect. -- -age (linkage), -al (dismissal), -ance (attendance),-ation(-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence (existence), -ing (savings), -mentDenominal nouns:來自名詞的名詞a.Concrete -- -eer (engineer), -er (teenager), -ess (hostess), -ette (cigarette), -let (booklet)b. Abstract -- -age (wastage), -dom (处于…状态)(officialdom), -ery (slavery), -ery (-ry), -hood(childhood), -ing (farming), - ism（…主义）(terrorism), -ship（状态）(sportsmanship) Deadjective verbs:來自形容詞的動詞-ity (popularity), -ness (happiness)Denominal adjectives:來自名字的形容詞ese (Chinese), -an (Australian), -ist (主义) (socialist)Denominal suffixes -- -ed (wooded), -ful (successful), -ish (foolish), -less (priceless), -like(lady-like), -ly (friendly), -y (smoky)-al(-ial, -ical) (cultural, residential), -esque (picturesque), -ic (economic), -ous(-eous, -ious)(coutageous)-ic and –ical can be affixed to the stem in some cases, but differ in meaning.Historic (important in history) historical (of history)Classic (great, memorable) classical (of Latin or Greek)Comic (of comedy) comical (funny)Economic (in the economy) economical (money-saving)Electric (powered by electricity) electrical (of electricity)Deverbal suffixes -- -able (-ible) (washable), -ive(-ative, -sive) (active, decisive)Adverb suffixes -- -ly (calmly), -ward(s) (homewards), -wise (clockwise)Verb suffixes -- -ate(originate), -en (darken), -(i)fy (beautify), -ize (ise) (modernize)9.Conversion or Functional shift (10.5%) （转成法或功能转换法）It's a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the additon of an affix.radio n. -- to radio v.cry v. -- cry n.10.what is the difference between conversion and suffixation?Suffixation@: It's the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base,and usually changing the word-class of the base.e.g. boy n. + -ish -- boyish adj. boy n.+ hood -- boyhood n.11.In a convrsion pair, how can you determine which of the two is the base and which the derivedword?Wirter---a deverbal noun with er suffixSpy –a deverbal noun without suffixDerivation by zero suffix12.Illustrate the axiom,the actural grammatical classification of any word is depent upon its usei.e. the second round was exciting(n)any round plate will do (adj)some drivers round coners too rapidly(v.)the sound goes round and round13.why is the conversion from noun to verb the most productive process of conversion?1.first in contemporary English,there is tendencey of “a preponderance (优势)of nouns over verbs.2.there are only a few verb-forming affixes in english . they are be-,en-,ify,ize and en is nowscarcely productive, while ize is the ohly highly productively one. More over, new verbs formed by other word-formation processes are also very few , except by back-fromation,which is,however , not a very productive word-formation process iteself. We might therefore more andmore new verbs to be coined by means of conversion14.what are the marjor semantic types(语义)under noun to verb conversion1.to put in/on N: the nouns are usually locative nouns denoting a place ,a contianer or a speciallocation. the workers canned apples=the workers put apples in cans2.to give N, to provide NThey sheltered the orphans认为不太重要, 不想往下写15.why is “the poor” an example of partial conversionsome adjectives are used as nouns when preceded by the definite article such as the poor,thewounded:yet these conveted nouns take only some of the features of noun, i.e. they do not take plural(复数) and genitive（所有格）inflections, nor can they be preceded by determiners like a , this ,my .such adjective—noun conversion is particalChapter 3Morphological structure of English wordsObjectives: Discuss morphemes, their classification and identification;Explain the relationship between morphemes and word-formationTeaching focus:Definition of morphemesDefinition of allomorphsTypes of Types of morphemesfree morphemebound morphemeDefinitions of root, stem and baseOn the morphemic level,Word, according to the number and type of morpheme they, can be classified into the below itema.the simple words: those consisting of a single morpheme,such as man, work, kindb.derived words: those which are the result of a derivational process, such words usually consist of afree morpheme and one(or more than one)bound morpheme, such as fruitless,fruitful,unfruitful, fruitfulness,pound wors: those which are composed of two or more free morpheme, e.g: deep structure,specesuit,forget-me-not,maid-of-all-work,and jack of all trades.1. MorphemeWhat is a morphemeIt is the minimal meaningful unit of English language, possesses both sound and meaning. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.语素是最小的有意义的单位.它是语言中最小的构词单位2. Morph and allomorphThe definition of morphs:The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are termed 'morphs'.语素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素.Morphs are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.形素是口语中最小的意义载体.What is an allomorphAn allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme.语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式.For exampleWhen the plural marker {s} is added to cat, dog, and horse, it is pronounced differently as /-s, -z, -iz/ and thus has three phonological forms; the three forms are just the variants of the samemorpheme {s}, i.e. the allomorphs of morpheme {s}.3. Classifications of morphemesFree vs. bound morphemes in terms of their capacity of occurring aloneDerivational vs. inflectional morphemesapplying to affixes onlyContent / lexical vs. grammatical morpheme on a semantic and syntactic basisFree vs. bound morphemes自由语素与粘着语素Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.自由语素是能独立运用的语素,它有完整的意义,在句中充当一个自由的语法单位.E.g., man, wind, open, tourMorphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function.粘着语素不能独立成词,只能依附于其他语素上以构成词或担当一定的语法功能.Free morphemes are all roots /free roots, which are capable of being used as words or asword-building elements to form new words.自由语素都是词根, 也叫自由词根, 能用作词或作为构成新词的构词要素.Bound morphemes consist of either roots (bound roots) or affixes.粘着语素包括词根(粘着词根)和词缀.E.g., bound root: -dict-, -ced-affix: -ion, -ist, -icA multitude of words made up of merely bound morphemes, eg:-ced- 是词根,'接近',ante- 是前缀,'在…前',-ent 是后缀,'人,物',Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes派生语素与屈折语素What are derivational and inflectional morphemesDerivational morphemes are used to derive new words when they are added to another morpheme. In English derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes.派生语素附着于其它语素可派生出新词.英语中派生词和合成词都是由这样的语素构成的. Inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes.屈折语素作为语法标记表示词的语法意义,屈折语素只限于词缀.What's the difference between themInflectionalDoesn't change meaning or part of speech of the stem. (work—works)Indicates syntactic relations between different words in a sentence. ( grammatical meaning)Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.Occurs at margins of words. (radio—radios)DerivationalChanges meaning or part of speech of the stem.( like--dislike, sleep—asleep)Indicates semantic relations within the word.(specific lexical meaning,e.g., un-)Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemesOccurs before any inflectional suffixes added.Content / lexical vs. grammatical morphemesLexical 词汇/ content实义morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words (blackbird is coined on the basis of 2 lexical morphemes: black and bird.), and derivational morphemes such as –ship, -ize.Grammatical morphemes function primarily as grammatical markers. They encompass both inflectional affixes(-books) and free morphemes ( in, and, do, have, they…functional words)3.4 Identifying MorphemesHow to identify morphemesThey should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution.e.g.,mono-morphemic: skydouble-morphemic: chill + y, boy + ishtriple-morphemic: un+dress+ed, care+less+nessfour-morphemic: un+fruit+ful+nessover-four-morphemic: un+gentle+man+li+nessIn what situation do morphemes mismatch between form and meaning1) Inconsistent in form and meaning:singer ( one who)er clearer ( the comparative degree)eraser (one object)2) Meaningless in isolation but meaningful in some wordscran-huckle- berryboysen-3) Difficult to define the meaning-ceive in conceive/perceive/receive3.5 Morpheme and Word-formationIn word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.在构词法中, 语素被分为词根,词干,词基和词缀.AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes.词缀都是粘着语素,依附在词根上构成新词或表示词的语法意义.Two types of affixes:Inflectional affixes and Derivational affixes屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. 表示词的语法意义的是屈折词缀.They express the following meanings:Plurality名词复数The genitive case名词所有格The comparative and superlative degrees形容词/副词比较级,最高级The verbal endings动词词尾变化e.g. -s in chairs, pens;-es in boxes, tomatoes;-en in oxene.g. 's in boy's,children'se.g. -er in words like smaller; -est in words like smallest.a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person singular present tense.b. -ing in words like eating, shows the present participle or gerund.c. -(e)d in words like worked shows the past tense or past participle.Derivational affixes or derivational morphemesThey can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root.e.g., unjust, rewrite.As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.(2) Suffixes are affixes after the rootBy the addition of the suffix, the word is usually changed from one part of speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.Root, stem, base词根,词干,词基A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.A base refers to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem.词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式.词根,词干,词基词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分.词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式.它与词根有区别,因为它是可以从派生角度进行分析的形式,在上面可以加上派生词缀.但是词根则不容许做进一步的分析.词基与词干也是不同的,因为派生词缀和屈折词缀都可以加在词基上,而只有屈折词缀可以加在词干上.Task: Analyse the word in terms of root, stem and base.e.g., (root/base) (derivational suffix)desire able(derivational prefix) ( base)un desirable (a.)(stem/base) (inflectional suffix)undesirable (n.) s (root/stem/base) (inflectional suffix)desire (v.) d1. desire (v.): 是词根(不可再分解),是词干(可以加屈折词缀,如过去时态-ed),是词基.2. desirable (adj.): 不是词根(可再分解);不是词干(不可以加屈折词缀),是词基(既可以加词缀,又能再分解下去).3. undesirable (n.): 不是词根(可再分解);是词干(可以加屈折词缀,如名词复数-s),也是词基.。
英语词汇学chapter3wordformation(1)
The percentage of firmly
established new words since World
War II
1. The three major processes of word-formation: 2. a) Compounding or composition (about 27%): raindrop, snow-white, baby-sit; (b) Derivation or affixation (about 17.5 %): Prefixation: deescalate（逐步缓和，逐渐降级）,
and less about them. ③
③ The encyclopedia provides a comprehensive survey of formal education and lifelong learning.
④ Given China's long history, the new gender balance is something recent.
(h) Others (about 3%): pizzazz(时髦派头), gazump(索高价).
Words formed by these minor processes account for 26.5% of the new vocabulary. The remaining 18.5% is from borrowing, e.g. discotheque,
1) “negative” prefixes (un-, non-, in-, dis-, a-); 2) “reversative or privative”(“非” “缺”)
prefixes (un-, de-, dis-); 3) “pejorative” prefixes (贬损) (mis-, mal-);
chapter-3-Word-Formation
3.1 Affixation/Derivation
Task 1 Form negatives with each of the following words by using one of these prefixes dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, non-, un-. non-smoker incapable impractical illegal disobey inconvenient insecurity irrelevant immature disability unofficially
3.1 Affixation/Derivation
Task 4 Form adjectives from the following nouns and complete the table below. -able un-ible -ful -ent -icunding/Composition
co-, extra-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, super-
3.1 Affixation/Derivation
1. Prefixation 4) locative prefixes extra- ‘outside’ as in extra-curricular fore- ‘front part’ as in forearm, forehead inter- ‘between, among’ as in interpersonal intra- ‘within’ as in intraparty trans- ‘across’ as in transcontinental
functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word’. (Quirk
Chapter3WordFormation
Chapter 3 W ord FormationI.Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket.B 1.The smallest functioning unit in the composition of words is called ________.A. phraseB. morphemeC. morphsD. rootD 2.Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word, which are known as _______.A. morphsB. monomorphemic wordsC. phonemesD. allomorphsA 3.Morphemes can be classified into ________ and _________.A. free morphemes, bound morphemesB. free morphemes, affixC. affix, bound morphemesD. bound root, affixA 4. Free morphemes and free roots are _______.A. identical C. the former includes the latterB. different D. the latter includes the formerA 5. ―Bird‖,―earth‖,―nation‖ belong to __________.A. free rootsB. bound morphemesC. derivational affixesD. bound rootA 6.Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are known as _________A. bound morphemesB. free morphemesC. allomorphsD. morphemesD 7. The bound morphemes include two types: ________ and _________.A. prefix, suffixB. free root, bound rootC. affix, suffixD. bound root, affixD 8. ―Nature‖in the word ―denaturalization‖ is not ________.A. free rootB. free morphemesC. stemD. bound rootB 9.In the word ―contradiction‖, the morpheme―-dict‖ is _________.A. free rootB. bound rootC. free morphemesD. affixC 10.We can put affixes into two groups: ________ and ________ affixes.A. bound, freeB. root, stemC. inflectional, derivationalD. blending, clippingD 11. ―Ex-‖in the word ―ex-prisoner‖ is _________.A. free rootB. bound rootC. inflectional affixD. derivational affixD 12.Which of the following is right?A. Root and stem are identical.B. Root includes stem.C. Root and stem are completely different.D. Stem includes root.C 13. In the word ―likes‖ and ―works‖, the morpheme―-s‖ isA. free rootB. bound rootC. inflectional affixD. derivational affixA 14. The word ―subsea‖ includes_______ ―-sub‖ and _______ ―sea‖.A. prefix, free rootB. suffix, free rootC. prefix, bound rootD. suffix, bound rootA 15. The most productive word formation is _______.A. affixationB. compoundingC. conversionD. acronymyA 16. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on _______.A. word-formationB. prefixationC. suffixationD. compoundingB 17. _____ is the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.A. prefixationB. DerivationC. SuffixationD. CompoundingD18. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subclasses: ________ and _________.A. clipping, blendingB. compounding, conversionC. conversion, derivationD. prefixation, suffixationD19. the prefix ―pseudo‖ is _______.A. a negative prefixB. a reversative prefixC. a locative prefixD. an a pejorative prefixC20. The ―de-‖ in decompose is _______.A. a negative prefixB. a pejorative prefixC. a reversative prefixD. an orientation prefixA21. The chief function of prefixation is to ________A. change meanings of the stem.B. change the word-class of the stem.C. change grammatical functionD. all the aboveD22. The ―auto‖ in ―autobiography‖ is ______.A. a negative prefixB. a locative prefixC. a reversative prefixD. a miscellaneous prefixB23. The chief function of suffixation is to ______.A.change meanings of the stemB.change the word class of the stemC.change the lexical meaningD.all the aboveC 24. The word ―courageous‖ is created by _______.A. noun suffixesB. adverb suffixesC. adjective suffixesD. verb suffixesD 25. The meanings of ―comic‖ and ―comical‖ are ______.A. sameB. identicalC. similarD. differentD 26. For the word ―political‖, its negative form is ―_______‖.A. apoliticalB. ilpoliticalC. inpoliticalD. impoliticalD 27. The differences between compounds and free phrases show in _____ aspects.A. phonetic featuresB. semantic featuresC. grammatical featuresD. all the aboveB 28. _______ is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.A. SuffixationB. CompositionC. ConversionD. ClippingA29. ―Law-abiding‖ belongs to _______.A. adjective compoundB. noun compoundC. verb compoundD. none of the aboveB30. ―Sit-in‖ belongs to ______.A. adjective compoundB. noun compoundC. verb compoundD. none of the aboveB31. ―up-bringing‖ belongs to ______.A. adjective compoundB. noun compoundC. verb compoundD. none of the aboveC32. V erb compounds are created either through _______ or ________.A. affixation/ conversionB. clipping/ affixationC. conversion/ backformationD. back-formation/ borrowingA33. In compounds, the word stress usually occurs on _______ whereas in noun phrase _______ is generally stressed if there is only one stress.A. the first element/ the second elementB. the second element/ the first elementC. the first element/ the first elementD. the second element/ the second elementB 34. Most compounds consist of only ______ stems.A. threeB. twoC. fourD. fiveB35. Words mainly involved in conversion are _______.A. nouns, verbs and adverbsB. nouns, adjectives and verbsC. nouns, prepositions and verbsD. adjective, adverbs and verbsD36. The derivational process, in which an item is converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix, is called ______.A. full conversionB. partial conversionC. semantic shiftD. zero derivationB 37. The ―house‖ in the ―the peasant housed him‖ belongs to the conversion ________.A. between noun and adjectiveB. between noun and verbC. between verb and adjectiveD. none of the aboveB 38. Nouns converted from adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns and achieve a full noun status, thus known as _______.A. partial conversionB. full conversionC. functional shiftD. grammatical shiftD 39. Nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with ________.A. plural formsB. single formsC. adjectivesD. definite artic lesC 40. The conversion of two syllable nouns into verbs involves a change of _______.A. spellingB. pronunciationC. stressD. functionD41. Words produced by conversion are primarily _______.A. nounsB. adjectivesC. verbsD. all the aboveA 42. The most productive conversion is the conversion that takes place _______.A. between nouns and verbsB. between nouns and adjectivesC. between verbs and adjectivesD. none of the aboveB43. The overwhelming majority of blends are ______.A. verbsB. nounsC. adjectivesD. adverbsA44. Back-formation is therefore the method of creating words by _______ the supposed suffixes.A. removingB. shorteningC. addingD. writingB45. Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of ______.A. prefixationB. suffixationC. acronymyD. conversionB46. Words formed by acronymy can be divided into initialisms and acronyms depending on _____.A. the grammatical functionB. the pronunciation of the wordsC. the spelling wayD. none of the aboveD47. Word formation excludes _______.A. affixation and compoundingB. conversion and shorteningC. clipping, acronymy and blendingD. repetition and alliterationII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.T 1. Creation of new words is an important way of vocabulary expansion.F 2. Word is the minimal meaningful unit of a language.F 3. The morphemes which are realized by only one morph are called allomorphs.T 4. Free morphemes are morphemes which alone can be used as words.T 5. There are different ways of classifying morphemes.T 6. Free morphemes are known as free roots.T 7. Inflectional affixes are grammatical markers.T 8. The root ―-ced‖ means ―approach or go to.‖F 9. What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes is a stem.T 10. A form to which an affix of any kind can be added is called a stem.F 11. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on semantic change.T 12. There are always exception while the word-formation rules are appliedT 13. Prefixes do not generally change part of speech whereas suffixes do.F 14. The ―hyper‖ in ―hyperactive‖ belongs to orientation prefixed.F 15. Compounding is the process creating new words by combining affixes and bases.F 16. Half-converted adjective are used as common nouns while full-converted ones still retain adjective features.T 17. Acronyms are words of initial letters which are pronounced as common words.T 18. The conversion between nouns and verbs may involve a change of stress.F 19. The word ―flu‖ is formed by back-formation.T 20. Words from proper names are another source of English vocabulary.T 21. The most productive ways of word-formation are affixation, compounding and conversion. T 22. Shortening includes clipping and blending.T 23. Prefixation and suffixation are two sub branches of affixation.F 24. Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.T pounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.T 26. A limited number of verb compounds are created either through conversion or backformation.F 27. V erb compounds in the way of back-formation are formed mainly by dropping prefixes.T 28. Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense.T 29. Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.F 30. Clipping, a way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and adding a new part to the original.F 31. Words, formed through acronymy are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the spelling of the words.T 32. Backformaion is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.III. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions.1. Morphemes are a_______ units realized in speech by discrete units known as m_______. abstract, morphs2. ―Man, car, anger‖ are independent of other morphemes, which are known as r________. free morpheme/root3. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into groups: i_______ and d_______affixes. Inflectional, derivational4. Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationship are called i_______. inflectional morphemes5. S_______ can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Stem6. Morphemes fall into different classes by different criteria. Now people tend to group morphemes into f________ and b_________. free morphemes, bound morphemes7. Derivational affixes can be further divided into p________ and s________. prefixes,suffixes8. A r_______, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.root9. Affixation, also called d______, is one of the word formations. devivation10. According to suffixation theory, ―villager‖ is called denominal noun and ―employer‖ is called d______ noun. deverbal11. Prefixes do not generally change w________ of the stem but only modify its meaning. word class12. Not all the words that are produced by applying the word-forming rule are a_______. acceptable13. An alternative for conversion is f________. functional shift14. Such words as ―the richer‖, ―the poor‖, ―the most corrupt‖ are all examples of f______. partial conversion15. A_______ is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special phrases and technical terms. Aronymy16. The words ―autocide‖ and ―telex‖ are formed by b_______. blending17. Point out how the following words are formed.prefixation: disobey, postwar, amoral, antinuclear, maltreat …suffixation: changeable, exploitation, swimmer, employer, contradictor …compounding: daydreaming, meeting-room, record-breaking, stockholder …acronymy: G-man, SALT, BBC …clipping: pop…blending: botel, sci-fi, telex, smog…back formation: donate …conversion: shadow (v.), pocket (v.) …word from proper name: ampere, watergateIV. Answer the following questions.1. What are the differences between root and stem?A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in ―iron‖ or of two root morphemes as in a compound like ―handcuff‖. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in ―mouthful‖. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.2. How do you distinguished compounds from free phrases? Give examples to support your point.Three major criteria:a. phonetic criterion – stress pattern. In a compound, the stress usually falls on the first element whereas in a free phrase the stress occurs on the second element. For example: (omitted)b. semantic criterion. The meaning of a compound is generally different from the combination of the two elements whereas that of a free phrase is not. For example: (omitted)c. grammatical criterion. Each compound is a grammatical unit which is inseparable, so generally no changes should occur within it. For example, (omitted)V. Analyze and comment on the following.1. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes. UnhappilyIdealistic2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words. Point out the types of the morphemes.ConsistentlyReminderImperialisticANSWER:1.(1) Each of the two words consists of three morphemes: unhappily (un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic)(2)―Happy‖ and ―ideal‖ are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.(3)Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as freegrammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.2. (1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes: consistently (consist+ent+ly) , remainder (re+mind+er) , imperialistic (imperial+ist+ic) .(2) Of the nine morphemes, only ―consist‖,‖mind‖and ‖imperial‖ are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.(3) All the rest –ent,--ly,re--,--er,--ist,--ic are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.VI. Fill the blanks1. Study the following words and identify: a.types of morphemes underlined; b. types of bound morphemes underlined.(1)windy ( ) suffix(2)manly ( ) free morpheme(3)works ( ) inflectional affix(4)maltreat ( ) prefix(5)beautiful ( ) free morpheme(6)usually ( ) suffix(7)predict ( ) bound root(8)hardest ( ) inflectional affix2. S tudy the following words and identify: 1)types of idioms; 2) types of word meaning;3) types of word formation; 4) types of bound morpheme underlined(1) heart and soul( ) adverb idiom/idiom adverbial in nature(2) father—male parent ( ) conceptual meaning(3) mother—female parent ( ) conceptual meaning(4) city—bred ( ) n+v-ed(5) lip—reading to lip—read ( ) backformation(6) headache ( ) n+v(7) antecedent ( ) bound root(8) preview ( ) prefix(9) receive ( ) bound root(10) called ( ) inflectional affixVII. Change the construction of the following sentences by converting the verbs into nouns according to the model.Eg: Will you please label your luggage?Will you please put labels on your luggage?1.He nailed a lid on a box.2.They surprised us with a visit.3.Mrs. Smith coaches students for English examination.4.I am completely disgusted with the food at the restaurant.5.William will referee the football match.6.He was crippled in an accident.VIII. Study the following sentences and fill in the blanks with the proper forms of the words given in the brackets.1.The head of a large company has many _____. (responsible)2.The increase in production depends on the increase of ________. (produce)3.The lectures given by the professor are meaningless to anyone outside his _______.(special)4.The students are convinced of their teacher’s _____ (loyal) to the teaching cause.5.It is such a complicated ________ (philosophy) problem that I can’t understand it at all.6.The young artist wrote to the Art School of Harvard University for _______ (admit) to theMA programme.7.They finally failed in ________ (adhere) to their religious beliefs.8.As the society develops, there will be _______ (marriage) between people of differentcultures and nationalites.9.In modern society, large-scale technology brings ________ (centre) of industrialproduction.10.We found the plan Mr. Smith came up with was quite ______. (practice)。
Word bank of Chapter 3 Biological Molecules
Word bank of Chapter 3Biological Molecules1.acidic [ə‘sidik] 酸的，酸性的2.acquiring[ə’kwaɪəriŋ]习得,获得3.activation energy [,ækti’veiʃən] 活化能4.adhesive [əd’hi:siv] 可黏着的, 黏性的5.adjacent [ə’dʒeisənt] 邻近的6.alcoholic fermentation [,fə:men’teiʃən]酒精发酵7.alien invasion [‘eiljən] [in’veiʒən] 外星人入侵8.align [ə’la in] 使成一线; 排整齐; 校准9.alter [‘ɔ:ltə] 改变, 更改10.Alzheimer’s阿兹海默（氏）症11.amylase[‘æm ileiz]淀粉酶12.anchor..to..[’æŋkə] (把…)系住, (使)固定13.anorexia [ænə’reksiə]厌食症14.antibody [‘ænti,bɔdi] 〈生〉抗体15.aquatic organism [ə’kwætik]水生生物16.aqueous [‘eikwiəs] 水的,水成的17.avocado [ævə’kɑ:dəu] 鳄梨树18.backbone [‘bæk‘bəun] 脊柱19.basic [‘beisik] 碱性的alkali [‘ælkəlai] 碱20.bead [bi:d] 水珠21.Benedict’s solution A solution of sodium citrate,sodium carbonate, and copper sulfate that changes from blue to yellow or red in the presence ofreducing sugars, such as glucose. Also calledBenedict's reagent.biochemical reaction生物化学反应23.biolite 生物结石24.biological [,baiə’lɔdʒikəl]生物学的25.biological catalyst [‘kætəlist]生物催化剂, 触媒26.Biuret test[baiju’ret]双缩连试验, 双缩脲试验27.boost [bu:st] 向上推起, 提升28.branched chains 分岔的链29.brazil nut 巴西坚果30.bulimia [bʊ’lɪmiə]暴食症31.canola oil芥花油32.carbon atom [‘ætəm] 碳原子33.carbon skeleton碳骼, 碳架(子)34.cartilage[ka:tilidʒ]软骨35.cellulose [‘seljʊləʊs]纤维素36.chemical formula [‘fɔ:mjulə] 化学式37.cholesterol [kɔ’lestərɔl] 胆固醇38.clogging of arteries 动脉阻塞39.clotting of blood凝血40.cohesive [kəu’hi:siv]产生结合力的;产生内聚力41.coil [kɔil] 将…卷[盘]成圈或螺旋形42.collagen[‘kɔlədʒən] 胶原蛋白43.coloration [kʌlə’reiʃən] 染色，着色mercial baked goods商业焙烤食品45.conclusively[kən’klu:sɪvli]不可推翻地,确切地46.constituent [kən’stɪtjuənt]组成部分,成分47.control tube对比管48.copper oxide （一）氧化亚铜49.copper sulphate [‘kɔpə] [‘sʌlfeit]硫酸铜50.coronary heart disease [‘kɒrənəri]冠状动脉性心脏病51.corrosive [kə’rəusiv] 腐蚀性的; 侵蚀性的52.cracker [‘krækə] 薄脆饼干53.crane [krein] 鹤, 起重机, 吊车54.criss-cross mesh十字形网55.crooked [‘krukid] 畸形的, 弯曲的, 歪的56.detergent 洗涤剂57.dextrose [‘dekstrəus] 右旋糖58.diabetes [,daiə’bi:ti:z] <医>糖尿病59.diffraction [di’frækʃən] 衍射,宽龟裂状的60.digestive tract [dai’dʒestiv] 消化道61.disaccharide [dai’sækəraid] 二糖，双糖62.dissociate [di’səuʃieit] 分离,游离,分裂63.distinctive [di’st iŋkt iv] 有特色的, 与众不同的64.ease [i:z] (使)减轻, 舒缓65.eating disorder饮食性异常66.elasticity [ilæs’tisiti] 弹力,弹性67.electron [i’lektrɔn,-trɑ:n] 电子68.end-product制成品69.enzyme replacement therapy酶素置换疗法70.enzyme-catalysed reaction 酶催化反应71.ethanol-emulsion test [i’mʌlʃən]乙醇乳剂试验72.extract [iks’trækt] (费力地)拔出,抽出;提取,榨出73.fad [fæd] 流行的时尚、爱好、狂热等74.fibril [‘faibril] 小纤维75.fibrinogen [fai’brinədʒən] 纤维蛋白原76.filament [‘filəmənt] 细丝(如电灯泡内的灯丝)77.finely [‘fainli]adv.细微地78.flavouring[‘fleɪvərɪŋ]香味剂79.fluidity [flu(:)’iditi] 流动性,流质,变移性,流度80.foetal [fi’tl] (似)胎儿的81.formation [fɔ:’meiʃən] 形成, 构成82.fructose [‘fr uktəus] 左旋糖83.fungal[‘fʌŋgəl]真菌的84.galactose [ɡə’læktəus] 半乳糖85.Gaucher’s高歇氏病，葡糖脑苷脂酶缺乏症86.genetically determined sequence遗传决定的顺序87.germinating seeds [‘dʒə:mineiti ŋ]发芽的种子88.glycerol [‘glɪsərɒl]甘油89.glycogen [‘ɡlaikəudʒen] 肝糖90.gut内脏, 肠91.heat capacity热容量92.herbivore [’hə:bivɔ:]食草动物93.hieroglyphs[,haɪərə’glɪf]象形文字94.hormone [’hɔ:məun]〈生化〉(刺激生长的)荷尔蒙, 激素95.hydrogenation [,haidrədʒə’neiʃən]加氢,氢化(作用)96.idiot [’idiət] 傻子, 笨蛋97.implicate 牵涉98.induced fit model合模型, 诱导填入模型99.inert 无自动力的，迟钝的100.inflammation [,ɪnflə’meiʃən] 〈医〉炎症101.initiate [I’niʃieit] 开始, 着手102.insulin [‘ɪnsjʊlɪn] 胰岛素103.integral 完整的，不可缺的104.isolate [‘aisəleit] 使隔离, 使孤立, 使脱离105.keratin [‘kerətin] 角蛋白ctose[‘læktəʊs] 乳糖107.leavened bread [‘levənd]膨松面包(加酵母的) 108.levulose [’levjuləus] 果糖109.linear chains [‘liniə] 线状链110.lipase 脂肪酶111.lock-and-key model锁与钥匙模型112.mackerel [‘mækrəl] 鲭113.mad-cow disease 疯牛病114.maltose[‘mɔ:ltəʊz]麦芽糖115.manipulate [mə’nipjuleit] 熟练控制[操作] 116.margarine [,mɑ:dʒə’ri:n] 人造黄油117.masquerade [,mæskə’reɪd]伪装118.mathematical 数理的，数学上的，精确的119.mechanics [mi’kæniks]力学;机械学,过程;方法120.metabolic pathway[,metə’bɒlɪk]代谢途径121.methane [‘meθe in] <化>甲烷,沼气122.microbiology [,maikrəubai’ɔlədʒi] 微生物学123.micro-organism [‘ɔ:ɡənizəm]微生物124.modify 修改，修饰，调整125.molasses [mə’læsiz] 糖浆126.molecular biology分子生物学127.monomer [‘mɔnəmə]单体，单分子128.monosaccharide [,mɔnəu’sækəraid] 单糖129.monounsaturated单不饱和性脂肪130.mussel [‘mʌsl] 贻贝,蚌类131.nucleic acid [‘nju:kliik ‘æsid] ]核酸132.obesity [əu’bisiti] 肥胖133.obsession [əb’seʃən] 困扰, 无法摆脱的思想134.oily fish油性鱼类135.ongoing [‘ɔn,ɡəuiŋ]继续进行的136.onus [‘əunəs]负担,负荷137.optimal 优的，最理想的138.optimum 最适宜的，最有利的139.palatable [‘pælətəbl] 可口的, 美味的,合意的,认同的140.peristalsis [,peri’stælsɪs]蠕动141.PH scale 酸碱值标度142.phospholipids 磷脂143.phosphorus [‘fɔsfərəs] n. 磷144.plastid [‘plæstid] 质体,成形原体145.polymer [‘pɔləmə] <化>聚合物(体)146.polypeptide 多肽147.polysaccharide [pɔli’sækəraid] 多醣,聚糖,多聚糖148.polyunsaturated多个不饱和的149.postulate 假定，假设150.precipitate [pri’sipiteit] 沉淀151.preoccupation [pri,ɔkju’peiʃən]全神贯注入神152.prion[’praɪɒn]朊病毒153.processed foods [‘prəʊsest]加工食品154.prolong [prə’lɔŋ]延长; 拉长; 拖延155.property [‘prɔpəti] 性质, 特性, 性能156.protease 蛋白酶157.purified[‘pjʊərɪfaɪd]净化的158.purportedly [pə’pɔ:tidli] 据称159.reactant 反应物160.readily 乐意地,容易地,快捷地,轻而易举地161.reducing sugar还原(性)糖162.safflower [‘sæflaʊə]红花，藏红花油163.saliva [sə’laivə] 唾液, 口水164.savvy[‘sævi]机智,有见识的165.sedentary 定居的，不迁徙的166.sickle cell anaemia[‘sɪkl ,sel,ə’ni:miə]镰状细胞血症167.sketetal [‘skelɪtəl]骨骼的168.solvent [‘sɔlvənt] 〈化〉溶剂169.spawn [spɔ:n] (鱼、蛙等)大量产(卵)170.specialised structure [‘speʃə,laizd] 特化的结构171.specific [spi’sifik] 明确的,详尽的,特定的172.spontaneously[spɒn’teɪniəs]自然地,本能地173.stablise [‘steɪbɪlaɪz]使稳定化174.stain 使染色175.starvation [stɑ:’veiʃən] 挨饿, 饥饿; 饿死176.steroid [‘stiərɔid]类固醇177.subdivide [,sʌbdi‘vaid]细分178.substrate [‘sʌbstreit] 酶作用物,培养基179.substrate 酶作用物，培养基180.sucrose [‘su:krəʊz]蔗糖181.sugar cane甘蔗182.sulphur [‘sʌlfə] 硫，硫磺183.surface tension表面张力184.sweetener食糖,果糖;糖精;糖浆；甜味剂185.taq DNA polymerase Taq酶,耐热性DNA聚合酶186.trans fat反式脂肪酸, 反式脂肪187.triglyceride 三酸甘油脂188.turgor膨压189.undone 已松的190.unwound 未卷绕的191.urea[’jʊəriə]尿素192.urease[‘juərieis]尿素酶，脲酶193.vertebrate animals [‘və:təbrit]脊椎动物194.water droplet水滴195.yeast cells酵母细胞。
Chapter 3 Morphological Structure and Word-Formation
3.2 Allomorphs词素/形位变体
• Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs形素. • Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word.. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.
allomorphs
• • Eg. plurality{-s} • /iz/ • • Prefix {in-] • cats /s/ bags /z/ matches
/im/ improper /ir/ irregular /il/ illogical
3.3 Types of morphemes
Chapter 3 Morphological Structure and WordFormation
Definition
• Morphology is a branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
• re-collect-ion; • ideal-ist-ic, • ante-ced-ent
• collect, ideal, ced: root meaning • Ced, cede, ceed, cess: (L.) go, yield eg. antecedent: someone or something that goes before or precedes; exceed: to go beyond, surpass; recess: a going back • Affix: re-; -ion; -ist; -ic; ante (before)-; -ent (person or thing)