欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结
欧洲文化入门复习资料
一．细节知识点（一）Greek ＆Roman1.drama●Aeschylus埃斯基洛斯：Prometheus Bound被束缚的普罗米修斯,Persians波斯人，Agamennon●Sophcles索发克里斯：（tragic art）Oedipus the king, Electra，Antigone●Euripides欧里庇得斯：“problem plays”，Andromache，Medea，Trojan Women●Aristophanes阿里斯多芬尼斯：Frogs，Clouds，Wasps，Birds2.Historian●H erodotus：*“father of history”* from Greek to Persians *full ofanecdotes and dialogues ,interesting●T hucydides: *younger than Herodotus *Athens to Sparta and Athensto Syracuse希拉库萨 *style is imagination and power *the greatesthistorian that ever lived3.philosophy and science●P ythagoras毕达哥拉斯： *bold thinker *believe everything isnumbers* scientific mathematics----point，line ，magnitude震级，surface，body，first proportion●H eracleitus赫拉克里克：*fire is the primary element of universe*sayings: all is flux，nothing stationary/you cannot step twice intothe same river/fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you/ the sunis new every day.*believe mingling of opposites ,opposites produce harmony(二) Bibletranslation●Latin version：383-405AD by St .Jerome●English version：1382 John Wycliff(三)Middle ages/ Medieval1. AD 476 Roman power was gone2. after 1054 Church was divided into Roman Catholic and Eastern OrthodoxChurch3.The Crusades: 1096－1291 last for about 200 years4.learning：● Charlemagne查理曼大帝：*western and central Europe*father of Europe .Emperor of Romans in 800*Carolingian Renaissance加洛林*encourage Christian religion and ancient learning by setting monasteryschools● Alfred the Great阿尔弗雷德大帝：*ruler of Anglo Saxon of Wessex*Encourage teacher and scholars , Wessex center of learning*Anglo Saxon chronicles英国编年史● St .Thomas Aquinas*Italian philosopher ,scholasticism经院哲学*Summa Contra Centiles , Summa Theologiae 《神学大全》*building a society of “God’s rule””God’s will”，Pope is“Christ’splenipotentiary基督的全权代表” above secular rulers● Roger Bacon罗杰培根*a British monk ,one of the earliest advocates of experimental scientificresearch and observation*works :Opus maius ,encyclopedia of the sciences of his time5．Literature●Beowulf :an Anglo Saxon epic● Song of Roland ，La Chanson de Gestes: French● Dante：the divine of comedy神曲 greatest poet of Italy●Geoffrey Chaucer 乔叟：English poet ：canterbury tales坎特伯雷故事集，（first short story teller, first modern poet in English literature ）（四）Renaissance1.started in Florence and Venice， Italy2.heart of Renaissance philosophy is greatness of man ，humanism3.masterpieces :● Giovanni Boccaccio薄伽丘：Decameron十日谈（the greatest achievementof prose fiction 散文小说in the middle ages）● Francesco Petrarch彼德拉克：*discover Cicero’s Oration Oro Arochia,a Roman defense of poetry*Works： Canzoniers（lyrical）, Africa，Metrical Epistles，On Contempt forthe Worldly Life，On Solitude，Ecologues， The Letters●Giotto乔托：*forerunner of Renaissance，led the way to humanism，realistic depiction of space*works: Flight into Egypt ,Betrayal of Juda s●Giorgione乔尔乔捏：Tempesta , Sleeping Venus（use of colour schemes to unify picture and most revolutionaryresult in this sphere)●Leonardo da Vinci:*painter, sculptor, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer, inventor,anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer.*12 paintings 5000 books ,Renaissance man in the true sense of word.*Last Supper(most famous religious pictures), Mona Lisa(most portrait)●Michelangelo Buonarroti:* an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, poet, and engineer* David ，Sistine Chapel ，Dying Slave ,Moses●Raphael：Madonna（Virgin Mary）各种圣母画，school of Athens● Rabelais拉伯雷： French ，Gargantua and Pantagruel《巨人传》● Pleiade 七星诗社：French ,leader is Pirre de Ronsard(Sonnet PourHelene) ，发扬保卫法兰西语言●Cervantes塞万提斯：Spanish，Don Quixote 1062● Erasmus：Dutch， Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest, teacher, andtheologian，Greek edition of New Testament ,Praise of Folly《愚人颂》●Durer : German ,follower of Martin Lutherthe four horsemen of apocalypse 天启四骑士knight ，death and the devil●Thomas more：英国人，Utopia乌托邦，conclusion●Shakespeare：英国人Twelfth night ，As you like it ，Hamlet，Othello，King Lear ，Macbeth，Antony and Cleopatra，Sonnets, King Henry 5，6二 .名词解释1.RenaissanceRenaissance is a period of western civilization between 14-17th century.The word Renaissance means revival .it also means the revival of interestin ancient Greek and Roman culture，which started in Florence andVenice ，Italy . the heart of~is humanism.2 . Reformation~ was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political movement ,which began with Martin Luther’s 95 theses in 1517. TheReformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church.3．Middle ages ：~is also called Medieval ,”the year of faith”* or the thousand-year period following the fall of the western roman empire in the 5th century .it camebetween ancient times and modern times .During this period Germanickingdom grew into nations such as England ,French ,Spain, Italy, Germany.4 . Feudalism~is a system of holding land in exchange for military service .the word~was derived from the Latin “feudum” , a grant of land.5 Catholic~Means” universal”. ~church was a highly centralized and disciplinedinternational religious organization .in the middle ages ,almost everyEuropeans belonged to it.6. old testament~is one of the two parts of the Bible ,which is about the God and the laws of God. Testament means agreement—the agreement between God and man.7. Pentateuch 摩西五书The oldest first five parts of the Bible including Genesis ,Exodus，Leviticus, Numbers， Deuteronomy8. doric ：one of Greek architecture styles，~is also called masculine style .it’s sturdy 坚定的，powerful，severelooking ，showing sense of proportions andnumbers.Ionic：feminine style graceful and elegant，showing wealth of ornament装饰三.问答1. What happened in Western Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire?After the Roman Empire lost its predominance优势, a great many Germanic Kingdoms began to grow into the nations know as England, France, Italy, andGermany in its place. These nations of Western Europe were in the scene of frequent wars and invasions. The political unity had given way to widespread destruction and confusion. Hunger and disease killed many lives and village fell into ruin and great areas of land lay waste. There was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church. Christianity was almost the all and the one of Medieval lives in western Europe and took lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds years.2. What were the cultural characteristics of the period from 500 to 1000? Above all, the cultural characters of this period were the heritage and achievement of Roman culture and the emergence of Hebrew and Gothic culture.3.What made Italy the birthplace of the Renaissance?Because of its geographical position, foreign trade developed early in Italy. This brought Italy into contact with other cultures and gave rise to urban economy and helped Italy accumulate wealth which was an essential factor for the flowering of art and literature.For two centuries beginning from the late 15th century, Florence was the golden city which gave birth to a whole generation of poets, scholars, artists and sculptors. There was in Florence a revival of interest in classical learning and rising of humanist ideas.And to spread the new ideas, libraries and academies were founded.In the 15th century printing was invented and helped to spread humanist ideas.4. How did Italian Renaissance art and architecture break away from medi eval traditions?The Italian Renaissance art and architecture radically broke away from the medieval methods of representing the visible world. Compared with the latter, the former has t he following distinct features:⑴Art broke away from the domination of church and artist who used to be craftsmen commissioned by the church became a separate strata doing noble and creati ve work⑵Themes of painting and architecture changed from purely celestial realm focusingon the stories of the Bible, of God and Mary to an appreciation of all aspects of n ature and man;⑶The artists studied the ruins of Roman and Greek temples and put many of the principles of ancient civilization into their works;⑷Artists introduced in their works scientific theories of anatomy and perspective.。
第4课《欧洲文化的形成》知识点总结
第4课欧洲文化的形成知识点一、古典希腊文化与罗马文化P21-22（一）希腊文化1、范围：古代希腊的中心区域在巴尔干半岛南部和爱琴海中的部分岛屿。
文化范围包括希腊半岛、小亚细亚半岛西岸和爱琴海中的许多小岛，起源于爱琴文明(BC2000-BC1200)。
2、时间：公元前5世纪至公元前4世纪上半叶被称作“古典时代”，这是古代希腊文化高度发展的时期。
3、原因：①政治：城邦制度和民主政治的鼎盛，公民阶层活跃；②经济：生产力进步，奴隶制经济发达；③自然地理环境④文化：海洋文明中形成的平等、独立、自由、开拓、探究的意识，吸纳其他地区的优秀文化成果。
⑤个人：先哲们勇于探索、善于思辨；各城邦执政者重视文化教育4、文化成就：（1）哲学：产生于希腊人对宇宙起源和人生意义等自然和社会问题的知识追求。
大约在BC7世纪，有人开始怀疑宗教对世界和人生的解释，他们提出了一种新的思考方式。
（2）特点：古希腊哲学家力图用理性的、科学的、逻辑缜密的思维方式认识世界和解释世界。
注重研究人与自然；哲学与自然科学紧密联系。
人文主义色彩浓厚，运用理性；有科学的萌芽。
（3）代表人物：苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里士多德4）文学：①《荷马史诗》史诗中的诸神和英雄的故事成为后世西方文学创作的源泉。
②古希腊文学的最高成就就是雅典城邦时期的戏剧，悲剧与喜剧是这一时期戏剧的杰出代表。
③雕塑和建筑：《掷铁饼者》④史学：希罗多德的《历史》开创叙事体的撰史体裁；修昔底德著有《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》⑤文学：现代欧美国家的字母文字源自古希腊文和拉丁文。
如英文当中，有大约50%的词或出自古希腊文，或出自拉丁文古希腊文和拉丁文赋予欧美语言大量的词汇，深刻影响了欧美人的观念。
⑥古希腊的民主政治：雅典民主制（典型）⑦体育：奥林匹克发源地⑧神话：BC7C前，古希腊人认为自然界和人类都是神创造的，人的一切活动都是鬼使神差的结果。
宙斯是众神之王、人类之王，人们按神谕安排事情。
（二）古罗马文化1、范围：古罗马从公元前9世纪初在意大利半岛中部兴起。
欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结
欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结1.希腊罗马Homer Author of epics Sappho Lyric poet三大悲剧家：Aeschylus Tragic dramatist Sophocles Tragic dramatist Euripides Tragic dramatist喜剧家：Aristophanes Comedy writer历史学家：Herodotus wrote about wars between Greeks and Persians Father of history Thucydides wrote about wars between Athens and Sparta and Athens and Syracuse the greatest historian that have ever lived哲学和科学：Pythagoras All things were numbers founder of scientific mathematics Heracleitue Fire is the primary element Democritus Materialist，one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory Socrates Dissect of oneself，virtue was high worth of life，dialectical method Plato Man have knowledge because of the existence of certain general ideasAristotle Direct observation，theory follow fact，idea and matter together made concrete individual realities Euclid a textbook of geometry Archimedes when a body is immersed in water its loss of weight is equal to the weight of the water displaced “Give me a place to stand a nd I…ll move the World”Others Diogenes （the Cynics）Pyrrhon（the Sceptics）Epicurus （the Epicureans）Zeno（the Stoics）4th century B.C.后半叶希腊在Alexander，king of Macedon的领导下，5th century B.C.达到顶峰，146 B.C.被罗马攻克2.基督教和圣经Jews—以前叫Hebrews，3800B.C.穿过中东沙漠，1300B.C.Moses带领Hebrews离开埃及，开始他们的Exodus，他在Sinai 山定了ten commandments in the name of God，40年后Hebrews定居Pelestine，known as Canaan，Hebrew人的历史口头传送记入the old Testament，6th century B.C.，他们在Babylon形成synagogue（忧太集会）来发扬他们的教义。
“欧洲文化入门”课程学习指南
“欧洲文化入门”课程学习指南一、课程基础：欧洲文化入门是全校外语类选修课程，本课程面向全校文理学生开设，是主要以提高学生的文化素养为主的课程。
二、适应对象：大学英语完成三级课程学习的本科学生。
三、教学目的：本课程教学目标为：了解欧洲文化的最基本知识，开阔视野，培养兴趣，促进英语学习。
本课程力图在介绍文化知识的同时，激发学生学习英语的兴趣，从而提高语言能力，以达到充分体现素质教育，全面提高学生的跨文化交际能力，培养学生的综合文化素质，扩展国际视野。
四、内容提要：本课程的主要内容包括：希腊罗马文化、基督教及其《圣经》、中世纪、文艺复兴和宗教改革、十七世纪、启蒙运动、浪漫主义、马克思主义与达尔文学说、现实主义、现代主义及其它。
由于学时所限，本学期本门课只集中讲述前五个大题的内容。
若学生对本门课感兴趣，想继续学习后五个大题的内容可选修大外应用提高阶段的选修课—欧洲文化入门（下）。
本课程以欧洲文化为语境，培养学生人文知识的底蕴，使学生对西方文化最基本的方面有一定的认识和了解，从而激发语言学习的兴趣、带动英语学习。
五、自主学习授课模式：基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式是为了帮助学生达到大学英语应用提高阶段教学要求所设计的一种新型英语教学模式。
强调个性化教学与自主学习，以及教师可通过课堂进行辅导，传授知识和技能的特点，使学生可在教师的指导下，根据自己的特点、水平、时间，选择合适的学习内容，借助计算机的帮助，迅速提高自己的英语综合实用能力，达到最佳学习效果。
1、教学模式的构成图一、基于计算机和课堂的英语多媒体教学模式2、基于计算机的英语学习过程大学外语应用提高教学阶段各门课程采用“以传统教学模式为主，以网络自主学习模式为辅”的教学模式。
如下图：图二、基于计算机的英语学习过程六、自主学习学习方法：依据建构主义学习理论，在教学中采用自主学习、讨论学习等教学方法，采用学生为主体进行自主学习和训练及教师为主导进行讲授相结合的教学方法。
欧洲知识点总结笔记
欧洲知识点总结笔记一、地理1. 欧洲地理位置：欧洲位于亚洲大陆之西，北濒北冰洋、北海和巴伦支海，东濒乌拉尔山脉、乌拉尔河和黑海，南抵地中海，西界大西洋。
2. 欧洲地貌：欧洲地貌复杂，包括平原、高原和山地。
首都西部地区以平原为主，北部为高原地貌，南部为山地地貌。
3. 欧洲气候：欧洲气候主要分为大陆性气候和海洋性气候两种，北部地区气候寒冷，南部地区气候温暖。
二、历史1. 古希腊罗马文明：古希腊罗马文明是西方文明的两大源泉，对欧洲乃至全世界的政治、经济和文化产生了深远影响。
2. 中世纪封建制度：中世纪欧洲出现了封建制度，世袭贵族统治和农奴制度，对欧洲的政治和社会影响深远。
3. 文艺复兴：文艺复兴是欧洲历史上重要的文化运动，促进了人文主义思想的兴起，对欧洲文化产生了深远影响。
4. 宗教改革：16世纪，马丁·路德发起宗教改革，使基督教教会分裂，导致了欧洲的宗教战争。
5. 工业革命：18世纪末至19世纪中叶，欧洲发生了工业革命，从而引发了现代资本主义经济的崛起。
6. 殖民扩张：欧洲国家在16世纪至20世纪进行了大规模的殖民扩张，包括亚洲、非洲、美洲等地区。
7. 两次世界大战：20世纪发生了两次世界大战，深刻改变了欧洲的地缘政治格局和国际秩序。
三、政治1. 欧盟：欧洲联盟是由欧洲国家建立的政治经济联盟，旨在推动欧洲一体化进程，共同维护欧洲和平与发展。
2. 欧洲议会：欧洲议会是欧盟的立法机构，由欧盟成员国的议员组成，负责制定和修改欧盟的法律和政策。
3. 欧洲联合国安全理事会：欧洲联合国安全理事会是欧盟的安全机构，负责处理欧洲的安全事务。
四、经济1. 欧洲经济一体化：欧洲国家通过建立共同市场、货币联盟等方式实现了经济一体化，推动了欧洲的经济发展。
2. 欧元区：欧元区是使用欧元作为共同货币的欧洲国家的经济合作组织，包括19个成员国。
3. 欧洲金融危机：2008年，欧洲发生了金融危机，导致了许多欧洲国家的经济困难，欧盟采取了一系列措施来应对金融危机。
《欧洲文化入门》知识点笔记
00230Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.
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00The world s first vast interior space.NLu
N,{ Colosseum('Yt珐) is an enormous.2)Yvsb_q_gRb
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00; Father of History ! Herodotus ! war(between Greeks and Persians)
00This war is called Peleponicion wars. ZSWTY嬒d 3
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00; The greatest historian that ever lived. ( geggO'YvS[) ! Thucydides ! war (Sparta Athens and Syracuse)
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00210The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (Wl_ g ^Jvh)
00220From 146 B.C. Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire.
欧洲文化知识点
欧洲文化知识点欧洲是一个拥有悠久历史和丰富文化的大陆。
从古希腊罗马文明到中世纪的封建制度，再到文艺复兴和启蒙时代的思想变革，欧洲文化一直在不断演变和发展。
本文将介绍一些关于欧洲文化的重要知识点。
一、古希腊文化古希腊文化对整个欧洲文化产生了深远的影响。
古希腊是欧洲第一个重要的文明中心，其政治制度、哲学思想、文学艺术等方面都对后世产生了巨大影响。
1. 政治制度：古希腊是世界上第一个实行民主制度的国家，雅典民主制度成为后世政治制度的重要范本。
2. 哲学思想：古希腊哲学家们提出了许多重要的思想，如苏格拉底的批判精神、柏拉图的理念论、亚里士多德的逻辑学等，为后世哲学的发展奠定了基础。
3. 文学艺术：古希腊文学以史诗《荷马史诗》和悲剧为代表，塑造了许多经典的文学形象，如奥德修斯和安提戈涅。
古希腊雕塑和建筑也是世界艺术史上的重要组成部分。
二、罗马文化罗马文化是古代欧洲最重要的文化之一，其政治制度、法律体系和建筑艺术对后世产生了深远的影响。
1. 政治制度：罗马共和制和罗马帝国时期的君主制度为后世政治制度提供了重要的参考。
罗马法律体系也对后世法律的发展产生了重要影响。
2. 建筑艺术：罗马建筑工程宏伟壮丽，如斗兽场、巴西利卡和万神殿等，这些建筑成为了后世建筑的典范。
3. 文学艺术：罗马文学以维吾尔的《埃涅阿斯纪》和西塞罗的演讲文集为代表，对后世文学产生了重要影响。
罗马雕塑和壁画也是其文化的重要组成部分。
三、中世纪文化中世纪是欧洲历史上一个重要的时期，封建制度和基督教信仰在这个时期占据主导地位，对欧洲文化产生了深远影响。
1. 封建制度：中世纪欧洲的封建制度是一种农奴制度，贵族统治下的农民没有自由权利。
封建制度的特点是等级森严、权力分散。
2. 基督教文化：中世纪欧洲的文化基本上是基督教文化，教会在政治、社会和文化领域都具有重要影响力。
教会的建筑艺术和宗教画是中世纪文化的重要组成部分。
3. 文学艺术：中世纪文学以骑士文学和宗教文学为主，如《亚瑟王传奇》和《圣经》等。
欧洲文明十五讲笔记
欧洲文明十五讲笔记欧洲文明是一个多层次、多元化的主题，无法在短笔记中完全涵盖。
然而，我可以为你提供一些关于欧洲文明的重要概念和历史事件的简要介绍。
以下是关于欧洲文明的十五个讲座的笔记：1. 古希腊文明：古希腊是欧洲文明的起源之一，它对政治、哲学、艺术和体育等领域产生了深远影响。
2. 罗马帝国：罗马帝国是古代欧洲最大的帝国之一，其法律制度、行政管理和基础设施建设对后世有着巨大影响。
3. 封建社会：中世纪欧洲的封建制度以领主与农民之间的关系为基础，这种制度在农业、经济和社会结构上塑造了整个欧洲。
4. 文艺复兴：文艺复兴是欧洲历史上的一个重要时期，它标志着对古希腊和古罗马文化的重新发现，推动了艺术、科学和人文学科的进步。
5. 宗教改革：宗教改革运动由马丁·路德等人发起，分裂了基督教会，导致欧洲宗教和政治格局的巨大变化。
6. 科学革命：17世纪的科学革命推动了对自然界的新认识，如伽利略的天文学观察和牛顿的力学理论，对现代科学方法的发展产生了重要影响。
7. 启蒙运动：启蒙运动是18世纪的一场思想运动，追求理性、自由和进步，对政治、哲学和社会制度产生了深远影响。
8. 工业革命：工业革命在18和19世纪改变了欧洲社会的经济结构和方式。
机械化生产和大规模工厂的兴起使得工业迅速发展，城市化和社会阶级分化也随之而来。
9. 殖民主义：欧洲国家在16至20世纪期间进行了大规模的殖民扩张，将其势力范围扩展到亚洲、非洲和美洲。
这导致了全球贸易的发展，但也引发了不少冲突和后果。
10. 两次世界大战：20世纪的两次世界大战对欧洲产生了巨大影响。
第一次世界大战导致了帝国主义体系的瓦解，而第二次世界大战则为欧洲带来了毁灭性的战争和纳粹主义崛起。
11. 欧盟的建立：为了避免未来的冲突，欧洲国家在二战后决定加强经济合作，并于1957年签署了《罗马条约》建立了欧洲经济共同体（如今的欧盟），以促进和平与繁荣。
12. 冷战和东西方对立：第二次世界大战结束后，欧洲被分为东西两个阵营，冷战期间欧洲成为美苏两个超级大国之间的竞争和对抗的前线。
欧洲文化入门考试内容归纳中文版
《欧洲文化入门》本作者绪论《欧洲文化入门》由于其内容庞杂，琐碎，因而是一门学习起来比较困难的课程。
其实大家大可不必担心，只要我们潜下心去，找出里面的规律和线索，这门课并不难攻克。
我们要牢记文化的五分法：一、社会历史(包括政治、经济、宗教、历史) 二、哲学三、文学四、科学五、艺术(包括绘画、雕塑、建筑和音乐)，以记忆每个时代的各要点为主，理解纵向的变迁为辅，后者主要的作用时帮助我们更好的记住前者。
《欧洲文化入门》的考试大致包括以下几种题型：四选一，填空，判断，简答题，名词解释，论述题。
选择题：这种题型可考查考生的记忆、理解、判断、推理分析，综合比较，鉴别评价等多种能力，评分客观，故常被应用。
在答题时，如果能瞬时准确地把正确答案找出来最好，假如没有把握，就应采用排除法，即应从排除最明显的错误开始，把接近正确答案的备选项留下，再分析比较强以逐一否定最终选定正确答案。
填空题：这种题型常用于考核考生准确记忆的“再现”能力，在答题时，无论有几个空，回答都应明确、肯定，不能含糊其辞，填空题看似容易实则难，最好的应对办法是对英语语言知识中最基本的知识、概念、原理等要牢记。
名词解释：这种题型一般针对英语专业自考本科段课程中的基本概念、专业名词进行命题，主要考核考生的识记、理解能力。
在答题时，答案要简明、概括、准确，如分值较大，可简要扩展。
简答题：这种题型一般围绕基本概论、原理及其联系进行命题，着重考核考生对概念、史实、原理的掌握、辨别和理解能力。
在答题时，既不能像名词解释那样简单，也不能像论述题那样长篇大论，答案要有层次性，列出要点，并加以简要扩展就可以。
论述题：这种题型一般从试卷编制的全局出发，能从体现考试大纲中的重点内容和基本问题的角度来命题，着重考核考生分析、解决实际问题的能力，考核考生综合应用能力和创见性。
在答题时，要仔细审题，列出答案要点，然后对要点逐一展开叙述，此时考生应发挥自己的真知灼见，要在深度，广度上下功。
欧洲文化入门知识总括
《欧洲文化入门》知识总括Introduction1、There are many elements constituting European Culture.2、There are two major elements：Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.3、The richness of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.Unit 11、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.2、The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labor.3、Olympus mount，Revived in 1896（当代奥运会）4、Ancient Greek epics were created by Homer.5、They events of Homer‘s own time. （F）（They are not about events of Homer‘s own time，probably in the period 1200-1100 B.C.）6、The Homer‘s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.7、Agamemnon，Hector，Achilles are in Iliad.8、Odysseus and Penelope are in Odyssey.9、Odyssey（对其作品产生影响）—→James Joyoe‘s Ulysses（描述一天的生活）; in the 20th century.10、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.11、三大悲剧大师①Aeschylus《Prometheus Bound》—→模仿式作品Shelly《Prometheus Unbound》②Sophocles（之首）《Oedipus the King》—→Freud‘s “the Oedipus complex”（恋母情结）—→David Herbert Lawrence’s《Sons and lovers》（劳伦斯）③EuripidesA.《Trojan Women》B. He is the first writer of “problem plays”.Perfection----IbsenClimax----Bernard ShawC. Elizabeth Browning called him “Euripides the human”D. Realism can be traced back to the Ancient Greece.To be specific，Euripides.12、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes. 18页Aristophanes writes about nature. —→浪漫主义湖畔派（The lakers）Wordsworth）13、History （Historical writing）※“Father of History”—→Herodotus —→war（between Greeks and Persians）This war is called Peloponnesian wars.只是陈述史实，并没有得出理论。
王佐良《欧洲文化入门》笔记和课后习题详解
目录分析
1.1复习笔记
1.2课后习题 详解
2.1复习笔记
2.2课后习题 详解
3.1复习笔记
3.2课后习题 详解
4.1复习笔记
4.2课后习题 详解
5.1复习笔记
5.2课后习题 详解
6.1复习笔记
6.2课后习题 详解
第7章浪漫主义
第8章马克思主义和达尔文主义
9.1复习笔记
9.2课后习题 详解
10.1复习笔 记
10.2课后习 题详解
作者介绍
这是《王佐良《欧洲文化入门》笔记和课后习题详解》的读书笔记模板，暂无该书作者的介绍。
读书笔记
这是《王佐良《欧洲文化入门》笔记和课后习题详解》的读书笔记模板，可以替换为自己的心得。
精彩摘录
这是《王佐良《欧洲文化入门》笔记和课后习题详解》的读书笔记模板，可以替换为自己的精彩内容摘录。
王佐良《欧洲文化入门》笔记和课 后习题详解
读书笔记模板
01 思维导图
03 目录分析 05 读书笔记
目录
02 内容摘要 作者介绍 06 精彩摘录
思维导图
关键字分析思维导图
王佐良
章节
文化
精华
现实主义
内容
浪漫主义
习题
知识
笔记 笔记
时代
文化
复习
圣经
习题
罗马
第章
达尔文主义
内容摘要
本书具有以下几个方面的特点：1．梳理章节脉络，浓缩内容精华。每章的复习笔记以该教材为主并结合其他 教材对本章的重难点知识进行了整理，并参考了国内名校名师讲授该教材的课堂笔记，因此，本书的内容几乎浓 缩了经典教材的知识精华。2．中英双语对照，凸显难点要点。本书章节笔记采用了中英文对照的形式，强化对重 要难点知识的理解和运用。3．解析课后习题，提供详尽答案。本书对王佐良主编的《欧洲文化入门》课后思考题 进行了详细的分析和解答，并对相关重要知识点进行了延伸和归纳。
欧洲文化入门重要信息点
Introduction1、There are many elements constituting European Culture.2、There are two major elements: Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.The richness of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.Divison One Greek Culture and Roman Culture1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens Sparta.2、The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labour.3、Ancient Greece’s epics was created by Homer.4、The Homer’s epics con sisted of Iliad and Odyssey.5、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.6、Three masters in tragedy三大悲剧大师①AeschylusPrometheus Bound—→Shelly Prometheus Unbound②Sophocles(之首)Oedipus the King—→ Freud’s “the Oedipus complex” (恋母情结) —→ David Herbert Lawrence’s Sons and lovers③EuripidesA．Trojan WomenB．He is the first writer of “problem plays”(社会问题剧)C．Elizabeth Browning called him “Euripides human”(一个纯粹的人)D．Realism can be traced back to the Ancient Greece. To be specific, Euripides.7、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes.Aristophanes writes about nature.Swift says of him “As for comic Aristophanes, The dog too witty and too profane is.”8、History (Historical writing)“Father of History” —→ Herodotus —→ wa r(between Greeks and Persians)This war is called Peleponicion wars.“The greatest historian that ever lived.” —→ Thucydides —→ war (Sparta, Athens and Syracuse)9、① Euclid’s Elements解析几何It was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.② ArchimedesHis work not only in geometry几何学,but also in arithmetic算术, machanics 机械, and hydrostatics.流体静力学Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.（Archimedes）10、The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (罗马征服希腊的标志)From 146 B.C., Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire. Greek that of the eastern half.Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.11、The dividing range in the Roman history refers to 27 B.C.12、The year 27 B.C. Divided the Roman history into two periods: republic and empire.13、The idea of Republic can be traced back to Plato’s republic.14、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed by the Roman legions(罗马军团)15、In the Roman history, there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was known as Pax Romana.(神圣罗马帝国)16、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed by the Roman legions, it was known as Pax Romana17、The Roman Law protected the rights of plebeians (平民).18、The important contribution made by the Romans to the European culture was the Roman Law.19、After 395,the empire was divided into East (the Byzantine Empire) and West.20、Cicero西赛罗his legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction拉丁语用词described as Ciceronian.西赛罗式的an enormous influence(巨大影响) on the development of European prose.21、Virgil: Aeneid 阿尼德22、The pantheon was built in 27 B.C.The wor ld’s first vast interior space.世界上第一所最大的室内场所23、The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.古希腊民主的表现形式24、The embodiment of Greek democracy is citizen-assembly. 古希腊民主的具体形式25. Many of Plato’s ideas were later absorbed into Christian thought.How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop?(1)、Three founders1、Pythagoras① All things were numbers.② Scientific mathematics.③ Theory of proportion.比例的理论2、Heracleitue① Fire is the primary elements of the universe.火是万物之源② The theory of the mingling of opposites produced harmony.矛盾的对立统一3、Democritus① the atomic theory.第一个原子理论开拓者② materialism.唯物主义(2)、Three thinkers1、Socrates① He hadn’t works. We can know him from Plato’s dialogues.② The dialectical method was established by Socrates.2、Plato①The Academy is the first school in the world, it was established by Plato.②He has four works. Dialogues, Apology, Symposium and Republic.3、Aristotle①The Lyceum is the second school in the world, it was established by Aristotle.②Aristotle is a humanist.(2)、Five contending schools1、The Sophists诡辩派①Under the leadership of Protagoras.②The representative of work is On the God.诸神论③His doctrine is “man is the measure of all things”.2、The Cynics犬儒派①Under the leadership of Diogenes.②The word “cynic” means “dog” in English.③He proclaimed his brotherhood. And he had no patience with the rich and powerful.3、The Sceptics置疑学派①Under the leadership of Pyrrhon.②His thought is not all knowledge was attainable, and doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.4、The Epicureans享乐派①Under the leadership of Epicurus.②Pleasure to be the highest good in life but not sensual enjoyment.Pleasure could be attained by the practice of virtue.Epicurus was a materialist. He believed that the world consisted of atoms.5、The Stoics斯多哥派①Under the leadership of Zeno.②His thought is duty is the most important thing in life.One should endure hardship and misfortune with courage.Developed into Stoics’ duty.He was also a materialist.What’s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas(system)？1、For one thing, Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact.This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective thinking.2、For another, he thought that “form” and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Here, too, he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world3、Aristotle thought happ iness was men’s aim in life，but not happiness in the vulgar sense, but something that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason, goodness and contemplation.What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development? There has been an enduring excitement about classical Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere.Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italyand other European countries.1、Spirit of innovation创新精神The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy; They first wrote history as opposed to mere annals; They speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life, without being bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.2、Supreme Achievement至高无上的成就The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour: Philosophy, science, epic poetry, comedy, historical writing, architecture, etc.3、Lasting effect持续的影响①Countless writers have quoted, borrowed from and otherwise used Homer’s epics, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides, Aristophanes’s comedies, Plato’s Dialogues,ect.②In the early part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics经典之作: Byron’s Isles of Greece, Shelley’s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn.③In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’s modernist masterpiece Ulysses.Division Two The Bible and Christianity1、Christianity is by far the most influential in the West.2、Judeo-Christian tradition constitutes one of the two major components of European culture: Judaism and Christianity.3、The Jewish tradition, which gave birth to Christianity. (犹太教是基督教的前身)Both originated in Palestine, which was known as Canaan.4、The ancestors of the Jews — the Hebrews.5、The Hebrews history was recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible.6、The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament.7、The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God.8、The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ.9、The word “Testament” means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man.10、The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are the first five books, called Pentateuch.摩西五经11、The Fall of Man was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.12、Noah’s Ark was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Ol d Testament, The Bible.13、The content of historical Books: 1200B.C. 586 B.C.Dealing with history of the Hebrew people from their entry into Palestine around 1200 B.C., till the fall of Palestine into hands of Assyrians and Chaldeans in 586 B.C.14、The History Books① The development of system of landed nobles.② The development of monarchy. 君主专制③ Establishment of the two Kingdoms. 两大王国的初步形成④ The settlement in the highlands⑤ Age of great prosperity under Saul, David and Solomon.15、Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity.16、The Birth of Jesus was recorded in Matthew (马塞福音书)17、The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff. What difference between Christianity and the other religions?Christianity based itself on two forceful beliefs which separate it from all other religions.1、One is that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that God sent him to earth to live as humans live, suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem mankind.2、The other is that God gave his only begotten son, so that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.(加尔文主义也有这样的观点)What is the great significance of the translations of the bible?1、It is generally accepted that the English Bible and Shakespeare are two great reservoirs of Modern English.2、Miltion’s Paradise Lost , Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Byron’s Cain, up to the contemporary Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck’s East of Eden. Division Three The Middle Ages1、the Middle agesIn European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.The middle ages is so called because it was the transitional period(过渡时期) between ancient times and modern times. To be specific, from the 5th century to 15th century.2、In 476 A.D. a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 西罗马476灭，东罗马1653年灭3、Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量). The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.4、5、The Catholic Church made Latin the official language and helped to preserve and pass on the heritage (传统) of the Roman Empire.6、The word “catholic” meant “universal”.(广泛的，无处不在的)7、St. Jerome, who translated into Latin both Old and New Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals. Vulgate (拉丁语圣经)8、Augustine —→ “Confession” and “The City of God”9、The most important of all courses was Jerusalem. (耶路撒冷)10、Crusades went on about 200 years. There were altogether eight chief Crusades.11、The crusades ended up with the victory of Moslems.(穆斯林)By 1291 the Moslems (穆斯林) had taken over the last Christian stronghold. They won the crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the Crusaders had fought to control.12、Carolingian RenaissanceCarolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. The most interesting facet (一面) of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle (有见解) of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate (吸收) the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.13、National Epics(民族史诗运动)The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in a ncient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.14、Chaucer (乔叟) 的诗歌特点：① power of observation (观察)② piercing irony (敏锐的讽刺) ③ sense of humour ④ warm humanity (温暖的人性)15、Gothic①The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe.② It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history.③ The Gothic was an outgrowth (丰富与发展) of the Romanesque.（罗马式）16、The Canterbury Tales:① The Canterbury Tales was written by Chaucer.②Chaucer introduced French and Italy writing the English native alliterative verse.③Both Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales are the best representative of the middle English.17 In the middle ages, what cultures began to merge？Classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged (文化融合). It paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.Why is the middle ages is called Age of Faith (信仰的年代)？1、During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.2、The Christian church continued to gain widespread power and influence.3、In the Late middle ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of years.4、It shaped people’s lives. That is why the middle ages is also called the “Age ofFaith”.How did Feudalism develop in Europe in middle ages?1、feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding — a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.2、In order to seek the protection of large land-owners, the people of small farms or land gave their farms and land to large land-owners, but they still had freedom, they were called freemen.3、While the people from towns and cities did not possess farms or land. They had nothing but their freedom to be given to large land-owners, and then they lost their freedom for protection. They were called serfs.4、In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs was call vassals.5、There came a form of local and decentralized (分散) government.6、As a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.What positive influence does the Crusades exert on the European Culture?(What is the great significance of the Crusades?)1、The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. (拉近了东西方的交流)2、During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine, kings at home found opportunities to strengthen themselves. Thus among other things, Crusades helped to break down feudalism, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. (取而代之的是君主专制)3、Besides, through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems, the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire for wealth or power began to overshadow their religious ideals.4、The Crusades also resulted in renewing people’s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century, universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals (阿拉伯数字), algebra (代数), and Arab medicine (医学) were introduced to the West.5、As trade increased, village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade in western Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments.How did literature develop in the middle ages?1、The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It wasthe starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.2、Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy: (但丁与神曲)① His masterpiece, The Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.②The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed (预示) the spirit of Renaissance.③ Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin. (只用意大利语创作)3、Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales: (乔叟与坎特布雷集)① The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work.②Most of the tales are written in verse (诗) which reflects(反映) Chaucer’s innovation (改革) by introducing into the native alliterative verse (压头韵) the French and Italian styles.③ Chaucer is thus to be , regarded as the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.短篇写作第一人④ Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales were representative of the Middle ages.Division Four Renaissance and Reformation1、RenaissanceGenerally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The word “Renaissance” means revival (复兴), specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance, in essence (从实质上讲), was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts (试图) to get rid of conservatism (保守主义思想) in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie (资产阶级), to lift the restrictions (禁忌) in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.(权利威信)Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century.Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture (雕塑) and architecture. 最早开始于painting2、In Renaissance literature of Italy, Petrarch (彼得拉克) was the representative poet.3、Intellectuals became closely tied up with the rising bourgeoisie.(人文主义兴起的重要原因Humanistic ideas to develop)4、At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of man.(以人为本—人文主义的核心)5、Last Supper adapted from the New Testament of the Bible.6、Michelangelo—— David—— Sistine Chapel (from the First book of the Bible, the Genesis )—— Dying Slave (垂死的奴隶)—— Moses (摩西)7、Raphael was best known for his Madonna. (圣母玛利亚)He painted his Madonnas in different postures against different backgrounds.8、One of the famous paintings besides the Madonnas is School of Athens (雅典学派). Plato and Aristotle engaged in argument.9、Titian—— The Venus of Urbino (断臂的维纳斯)Man with the Glove (带手套的人) ☆10、John Wyclif —— translation of the Bible into English for the first time.11、Martin Luther —— translation of the whole Bible with the vernacular language.12、The reformation get its victory first in England.13、ReformationThe Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political (社会政治) movement. It began as Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg his 95 thesis. This movement which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues.宗教改革的实质是：反对罗马天主教，直接形式是用母语翻译圣经14、CalvinismCalvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. Presbyterian government (长老会). Only those specially elected by God can be saved (上帝的选民) . This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path (有助于资本主义的兴起)。
欧洲文明史课堂笔记
目录第一章欧洲文明的摇篮——希腊 (6)一、爱琴文明 (6)（一）、古希腊独特的地理环境（对文明的影响）和居民 (6)（二）、克里特文明 (6)（三）、迈锡尼文明（一度辉煌，由城邦构成，特洛伊战争后衰落。
） (6)二、荷马史诗及其时代 (7)三、独特的城市国家 (7)（一）、希腊人的城邦 (7)（二）、僭主政治 (7)（三）、大殖民运动 (7)（四）希腊城邦形成的条件（自然/内在/外在/民族） (7)（五）希腊城邦发展的历史轨迹（荷马、古风、古典、希腊化） (7)（六）希腊城邦的政治体制顺序（王政、贵族、僭主、民主） (8)四、被抑制了的文明——斯巴达 (8)（一）、传说中的来库古建制 (8)（二）、斯巴达的阶级关系和社会生活 (8)（三）、伯罗奔尼撒同盟 (9)五、希腊的代表—雅典 (9)（一）、传说中的提修斯改革和平民与贵族的矛盾 (9)（二）、梭伦改革 (9)（三）、庇西特拉图的僭主政治 (9)（四）、克利斯提尼改革（内容/影响） (9)（五）、希波战争（影响） (10)（六）、伯里克利（改革）时代的雅典民主制 (10)1、雅典民主政治的特点： (10)2、雅典民主制度的影响 (10)［如何看待古代雅典的民主政治，联系当今社会主义民主，雅典民主有何启示］ (11)（七）、古典时代雅典的社会生活 (11)六、最终的崩溃和马其顿的崛起 (11)（一）、伯罗奔尼撒战争 (11)（二）、腓力二世与马其顿的崛起 (11)（三）、亚历山大帝国和希腊化文明 (11)七、希腊文化 (12)［希腊文化高度发达的原因］ (12)（一）、希腊神话（一个民族最早的精神文明产物） (12)希腊神话的特点 (12)希腊神话的影响 (12)（二）、体现现实主义的希腊文学、艺术和史学 (13)1、文学家（诗歌：荷马；寓言：伊索） (13)戏剧（悲剧：埃斯库罗斯/索福克利斯/欧利比得斯；喜剧：阿里斯托芬） (13)修辞学和辩论术（伊索克拉底/德莫斯提尼） (14)2、艺术（绘画；建筑：柱式结构/帕特农神庙） (14)雕刻家（菲迪亚斯/米隆/波留克列特斯） (15)3、史学家（希罗多德/修昔底德/色诺芬） (15)（三）、追求理性的哲学和科学 (16)1、哲学（泰勒斯/赫拉克利特/德谟克利特/苏格拉底/柏拉图/亚里士多德） (16)2、科学（毕达哥拉斯/希波克拉底） (17)（四）、希腊化时代的文化（拉奥也群像/亚历山大灯塔/米洛的维纳斯/太阳神巨像/欧几里德/阿基米德） (17)第二章古代西方的统治者—罗马 (19)一、罗马的王政时代 (19)（一）、意大利的地理环境与古代居民（拉丁人/萨宾人/伊达拉里亚人） (19)（二）、罗马城的建立 (19)（三）、罗马的王政时代 (19)（四）、塞尔维乌斯改革 (20)二、罗马共和国 (20)（一）、罗马的共和体制（执政官，元老院，公民大会，保民官） (20)（二）、平民与贵族的斗争 (20)（三）、罗马人的征服事业 (20)罗马军事政府成功的原因： (21)三、共和向帝制的转变 (21)（一）、马略改革和苏拉独裁 (21)（二）、“前三头”政治（克拉苏/庞培/恺撒）与凯撒独裁 (21)（三）、“后三头”政治（屋大维、雷必达、安东尼） (22)四、元首政治与罗马和平 (22)（一）、屋大维建立元首制 (22)（二）、罗马和平时期帝国的政治经济 (22)五、罗马帝国的衰落和西罗马帝国的灭亡 (22)（一）、三世纪危机 (22)（二）、戴克里先和君士坦丁的复兴努力 (23)（三）、基督教合法地位的确立 (23)基督教 (23)耶稣 (23)保罗 (23)彼得 (24)君士坦丁《米兰赦令》 (24)（四）、西罗马帝国的灭亡（被日耳曼族打败）及原因 (24)六、罗马的奴隶制度（重要线索/影响） (24)七、罗马人的文化遗产 (25)（一）、对希腊文化的继承与发展 (25)1、文学（剧作家：安德罗尼库斯/普劳图斯；作家：维吉尔/贺拉西/奥维德） (25)2、史学：波利比阿、李维、凯撒 (25)3、哲学：斯多各派和新柏拉图派 (25)（二）、重视实用技术（农业/建筑—万神殿/竞技场/高架引水桥/国道） (26)（三）、罗马法的发展与完善（十二铜表法/市民法和万民法/民法大全） (26)一、早期拜占庭帝国 (28)（一）、查士丁尼“一个国家、一种宗教、一套法律“的努力 (28)（二）、外患频仍、内乱不已 (28)二、拜占庭的鼎盛与衰落 (28)（一）军区制改革 (28)（二）、拜占庭的动荡命运 (28)第四章中世纪的西欧 (28)一、中世纪的开端 (29)（一）、克洛维建立法兰克王国 (29)（二）、加洛林帝国与查理大帝 (29)（三）、三分法兰克 (29)二、西欧各国的封建政治 (30)诺曼人 (30)骑士 (30)（一）封建制度的形成与封建经济的发展 (30)（二）、法国政治与王权的扩张 (30)1、卡佩王朝（三级会议） (30)2、百年战争后（圣女贞德） (31)3、波旁王朝（佩剑贵族/穿袍贵族） (31)（三）、英国政治与王权的消长 (31)1、诺曼底王朝 (32)2、金雀花王朝 (32)3、国会 (32)4、都铎王朝（红白玫瑰战争） (32)（四）、虚妄的国度——神圣罗马帝国 (33)奥托一世 (33)三、西欧的基督教世界 (33)中世纪前期的政治格局和封建制度 (33)基督教的政治统治 (33)基督教的军事统治 (34)基督教的文化统治 (34)（一）、西欧基督教化与基督教的封建化 (34)格列高利一世 (34)格列高利七世 (34)亨利四世 (34)（二）、教皇权力的膨胀与政教之争（卡诺莎觐见/英诺森三世） (35)（三）、十字军东侵（基督教的军事统治） (35)骑士团 (35)条顿骑士团 (35)（四）中世纪后期封建制度的衰落（原因/腓力四世/卜尼法斯八世） (36)（五）、阿维农之囚与教会大分裂（教权被世俗政权操控） (36)（六）、西欧的基督教文化（《罗兰之歌》/哥特教堂/经院哲学/大学/奥古斯丁/城堡） (36)第五章近代欧洲的兴起 (38)（一）、“巨人的时代”——文艺复兴 (38)1、意大利最早出现文艺复兴的背景 (38)2、巨人辈出的伟大时代 (38)文学（文坛三杰——但丁，彼得拉克，薄伽丘） (38)艺术达芬奇（乔托/米开朗基罗/拉菲尔/达芬奇） (39)政治思想（马基雅维利） (39)天文（哥白尼/德意志/伽利略） (39)文艺复兴的衰落： (39)3、文艺复兴的意义 (40)（二）、地理大发现——冒险、开拓、进取精神的胜利 (40)1、动因 (40)2、条件 (40)3、过程 (40)4、影响 (40)（三）、宗教改革——近代宗教精神的产生 (41)1、背景（为什么欧洲有宗教改革？为什么在德国兴起？） (41)2、经过 (41)3、意义 (41)（四）、早期殖民——野蛮的扩张 (41)（五）、重商主义——疯狂的贪欲 (42)（六）圈地运动 (42)二、俄国的兴起 (42)三、欧洲封建制度的衰落 (42)第六章资产阶级统治的确立和巩固 (44)一、启蒙运动 (44)（一）、背景 (44)（二）、代表人物（孟德斯鸠/伏尔泰/卢梭） (44)二、欧洲资产阶级统治的确立和巩固 (44)（一）、尼德兰革命 (44)1、历史背景： (44)2、经过： (44)3、意义： (45)（二）、英国革命 (45)1、革命前的英国 (45)2、过程（三阶段） (45)3、意义 (45)4、资产阶级统治的巩固——君主立宪制的确立（三阶段） (46)（三）、法国大革命 (46)1、革命前的法国： (46)2、过程（三阶段） (46)3、意义： (47)4、资产阶级统治的巩固——拿破仑帝国 (47)三、德国的崛起 (47)（二）、俾斯麦与三次王朝战争（完成德国的统一，普丹/普奥/普法） (48)（三）、德意志帝国的扩张 (48)第七章近代欧洲国际关系 (49)一、威斯特伐利亚体系 (49)二、维也纳体系 (49)三、“东方问题” (49)四、法德矛盾 (49)五、同盟国的形成（1882，德、奥匈、意三国） (49)法德危机和近东危机：德俄恶化，重新改变了欧洲政局。
欧洲文化入门考点总结
欧洲文化入门考点总结[中文版]《欧洲文化入门》由于其内容庞杂，琐碎，因而是一门学习起来比较困难的课程。
我们要牢记文化的五分法：一、社会历史(包括政治、经济、宗教、历史) 二、哲学三、文学四、科学五、艺术(包括绘画、雕塑、建筑和音乐)，以记忆每个时代的各要点为主，理解纵向的变迁为辅，后者主要的作用时帮助我们更好的记住前者。
第一章希腊罗马文化希腊罗马文化可以说是欧洲文明的起源,所以这一章节应该是比较重要的章节.我们先看希腊的发展.希腊文明分为几个时期,她形成于公元前800-500年,经历了古典时代(也就是公元前500到公元前336年)和希腊化时代(也就是公元前336年到公元前31年).希腊文明达到顶峰是公元前5世纪.公元前146年,希腊被罗马攻克.希腊文明也就被罗马文明所取代.这段历史的重要大事有:1,公元前12世纪,随着特洛伊人的入侵,荷马史诗描述的正是希腊人与特洛伊人之间的战争(《以利亚特》和《奥得赛》).这里要注意的是,荷马史诗描述的时代并非荷马生活的时代.荷马生活在公元前700年.2,公元前6世纪,希腊世界开始有了全面改变,为后来的古典时代打开了通途.其中两个重要的城邦国家是雅典和斯巴达.雅典发展起一个完全不同类型的社会,公元前594年,梭伦成为雅典的首席执行官,他的贡献在于,在组织上为以后建立著名的雅典民主奠定了基础.雅典之所以在当时拥有卓越的地位,是因为它在打败庞大的波斯帝国这场重大战争中起了最主要的作用.历史之父希罗多德在他的历史书中进行了详尽的描述.3,由于雅典的不断扩张引起了斯巴达的恐慌,因而在公元前431年爆发了伯罗奔尼撒战争.战争最终以雅典的失败而告终.修昔底得这位历史上最伟大的历史学家在其作品中,详尽描写了这一战争.4,伯罗奔尼撒战争后,斯巴达专横跋扈,底比斯和雅典为求相互保护而结成新的联盟.公元前371年,马其顿国王腓力二世打败了底比斯和雅典联军,他的闻名世界的儿子亚历山大大帝统治了希腊.至此,古典时代结束,希腊化时代即将开始.古典时代的希腊造就了一批哲学家和剧作家.哲学家主要以苏格拉底,柏拉图和亚里士多德为代表.苏格拉底提出自由辩论的重要性.柏拉图的目标是要实现一个既能维持贵族特权,又可为贫苦阶级接受的社会,并构件了唯心主义的根基.亚力士多德寻求自然界和人类社会各个方面的秩序.剧作家有埃斯库罗斯,阿里斯托芬,索福克勒斯.这一时期希腊也造就了像阿基米德和欧几里得这样的数学家,以及像希罗多德和修昔底得这样伟大的历史学家.希腊的艺术和建筑在神庙上得到最高体现.著名的雅典卫城的圣地帕台侬神庙就是卫雅典娜女神建造的.接下来我们从希腊文明走向罗马文明.希腊化时代与罗马时代前期相互交融,最终过渡到罗马时代.罗马时代经历了早期共和国(公元前509-公元前264年),后期共和国(公元前265-公元前27年),早期帝国(公元前27年-公元284年)和后期帝国(284-476年).公元前500年,罗马开始了独立城邦的生涯.经过三次布诺战争,罗马渐渐地满足了它的征服欲.战争中尤里乌斯恺撒声名鹊起.公元前27年,元老院授予屋大维"奥古斯都"和"大元帅"的尊称,罗马早期帝国形成.在此后的两个世纪中,罗马帝国的疆域达到最大范围,其文化处于极盛时期.这段历史时期被成为"罗马和平".但罗马的伟大也就仅至于此.罗马的伟大时代随着公元180年马可奥勒留的去世而告终.公元395年,罗马帝国彻底分裂为东罗马帝国和西罗马帝国.公元476年,西罗马帝国陷落.公元1453年,东罗马帝国被土耳其人占领.说到罗马的文化,它基本源于希腊,但罗马人在思想意识方面也有重大贡献.罗马人对欧洲文化所作的最重要的贡献是它所创立的罗马法律.在政治文化方面,罗马出现了以下比较重要的人物:1. 恺撒他是古代罗马政治家,军事家.他在文学方面也颇有建树.传世之作有《高卢战记》,《内战记》.对于他,我们要记住一句名言:也就是"I came, I saw, I conquered."2.西赛罗他是古罗马政治家,哲学家和最重要的演说家.主要成就在演说词和书信.3. 卢克来修他是罗马共和国末期主要诗人之一,提倡唯物论,无神论和原子论.作品有哲理诗《物性论》.4. 维吉尔他是罗马文学中最重要的作家.代表作品是《阿尼德》.在建筑,艺术方面,罗马人也做出了突出的贡献.如:圆形大剧场和建于公元前27年的罗马万神殿以及女狼雕塑等.以上是对希腊罗马文化的综述,下面我们来一起看两个问答题.1. How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop 希腊哲学是如何发展起来的回答这个问题,我们要掌握 1. 三个哲学奠基人及其理论:毕达哥拉斯,赫拉克里特,德谟克里特.2. 三位思想家及其理论:苏格拉底,柏拉图和亚力士多德.3. 其它思辩流派,如诡辩派,犬儒派等.这样才能完善这个问题.具体的答案我们可在练习册上找到.2. What's the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas (system) 柏拉图和亚力士多德的哲学体系有何区别回答这个问题,首先要阐述柏拉图的哲学体系包含什么,亚力士多德的哲学体系包含什么.然后再进行对比.他们两个最主要的一个区别在于亚力士多德强调理论联系实际,而柏拉图强调万物依赖主观思维.这是必须提到的一点.具体的答案见练习册.以上是对第一章希腊罗马文化的讲解.刚才我们谈到要研究欧洲发展的历史,除了要研究希腊和罗马文化历史这条线索之外,精神宗教形成线索,即犹太教和基督教历史也很重要. 在第二章中我们要看一下基督教和圣经的发展及其内容.第二章基督教和圣经这一章的重点是:犹太教与基督教的关系,基督教的教义核心,旧约的摩西五经,十诫,列王记,罗马帝国衰亡的原因,基督教与罗马帝国政府的关系的发展,基督教教士对维系和发展西方文明的贡献,圣经对西方的影响或贡献.在学习这一章中,大家应努力将2-4章关于基督教的知识连成线,从而理解和记忆欧洲文化的另一个重要源头的发展脉络――犹太教和基督教,彻底认清圣经在欧洲文化中的核心作用. 基督教是在西方最具影响力的宗教.犹太教是世界各地犹太人信仰的宗教.是基督教的前身.这一教派的经典《旧约》记载了犹太人的历史.犹太人以前叫Hebrews希伯莱人,在大约公元前3800前在中东一带沙漠流浪.约在公元前1300前,他们逐渐在伽南地区定居下来,并形成了小王国.基督教与犹太教关系密切.它与犹太教同发源于巴勒斯坦.基督教的核心是耶稣基督,其教义是:一,耶稣基督是上帝的儿子,上帝派他到人间来,跟人类一起受苦受难,最终拯救人类.二,基督是上帝唯一的儿子,任何信仰基督的人最终得到永生.耶稣基督生活在第一个罗马帝国.他教导人们热爱上帝,信仰上帝.由于他获得越来越多的人的爱戴,当时的统治者就收买了他十二个门徒中的犹大,在耶稣与他的弟子去往巴勒斯坦的路上,将他钉死在十字架上.由于耶稣的门徒圣保罗和圣彼得拒绝把罗马皇帝作为上帝来敬奉,而宣称只有真正的上帝才能受到崇拜,所以基督教一开始就被认为是一个具有反叛性的宗教受到包括罗马皇帝尼禄,多米提安在内的皇帝的迫害的宗教.尽管如此,基督教还是越来越受到人们的信奉,并开始从早期穷人信奉的宗教演变为各个阶层的人都能接受的宗教.成为一支显著的社会力量.统治者对它的态度也开始转变.公元305年,戴克里先放弃了摧毁基督教的企图.不久,君士坦丁一世由于相信上帝帮助他赢得战争而在313年发布"米兰赦令"宣布人人都有宗教信仰的自由,从此基督教取得了合法地位.392年,迪奥多西一世宣布基督教为罗马国教,而其它宗教不合法.至此,基督教从一个受压迫的对象转变为统治阶级的统治武器.基督教的主要经典是《圣经》.《圣经》由《新约》和《旧约》两部分构成.在前面已经谈到《旧约》是希伯莱人的文献.《旧约》共39部,写了从1000B.C.---100A.D.的事情,最重要的前五本是《摩西五书》,包括《创世纪》, 《出埃及记》, 《利未记》, 《民数记》, 《申命记》.《新约》成于基督教兴起之后,共27卷,其中前四卷福音书《马太福音》,《马可福音》《路加福音》《约翰福音》内容包括了有关耶稣言行的传说,耶稣使徒的传说.接下来我们看一下《圣经》的翻译:现存的最早的《旧约》希腊版本被成为旧约圣经.传说是应埃及王之请,由72位犹太学者在72日之内译成.现存最早的《圣经》拉丁文全译本是瓦尔盖特译本,是公元383-405年由圣杰罗姆所译,是罗马天主教认为唯一可信的拉丁语译本.其它英文译本及欧洲其它语种译本大都以瓦尔盖特译本为基础.当1500's发明印刷术时,拉丁圣经是第一部被全文印刷的作品. 继拉丁文译本之后,出现了现代语言的译本.第一部英文全文译本是1382年由约翰威克利夫在瓦尔盖特拉丁文译本基础上译成.之后,出现了英国宗教改革家丁道儿的英文译本.他的译本是直接根据希伯莱和希腊原文译成.后来出现的《大圣经》The Great Bible 就部分参照丁道儿的译本.1539年在亨利八世命令所有英国教堂中都必须供奉《大圣经》.但最重要的也是最具影响力的圣经译本是最初发表于1611年的官方版圣经或詹姆斯王圣经. 它的翻译是在詹姆斯国王的命令下由54为圣经学者翻译而成,语言简洁,使用高雅的安各鲁萨克森语言.这一译本被认为是英语语言中最伟大的作品.圣经修订本The Revised Version 出现在1885,1901年出现了标准美语版本圣经修订本.1979年,新版詹姆斯王圣经出版.对圣经的翻译有重大意义,英语圣经和莎士比亚的作品被成为现代英语的两大源头.后世的文学深受圣经的影响.如:Miltion's Paradise Lost (失乐园), Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, Byron's Cain, up to the contemporary (同时期的) Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck's East of Eden. They are not influenced without the effect of the Bible.以上是对希腊罗马文化的综述,下面我们来一起看一个问答题.1. How was Christianity spread to Europe and became the official religion基督教是如何传到欧洲并成为统治性宗教？其实这个问题我们在综述总已经谈到.只要搞清基督教发展的历史阶段,每一阶段的社会状况,它为什么会从被迫害变成成为统治阶级的工具,统治阶级又是如何一步步将它从摈弃,迫害变为合法,变为国教的就可以了.这其中的重要人物是戴克里先,君士坦丁一世,迪奥多西一世.下面我们进行第三章,中世纪the Middle Ages.第三章中世纪The Middle Ages本章重点:封建土地制和分封制,天主教会的影响(包括教会组织,教会学术和哲学,教会艺术,教会影响),三种文化的融合,民族文学. 在学习这一章中,很多题目的内容相互交叠,互有异同,请反复研读,只需将骨干内容搞清楚,相似的题目的核心答案往往是一致的. 下面我们一起来看一下中世纪的内容.中世纪开始于476年日耳曼人将西罗马帝国的灭亡.这一年也被认为是欧洲古代奴隶制社会历史的终结.从这时起,直到17世纪中叶英国资产阶级革命爆发,是欧洲历史上的中世纪.中世纪是欧洲封建制度形成,发展和衰亡的历史.欧洲历史的中世纪大致可分为三个时期.公元5-11世纪为初期,是封建社会形成时期;公元12-15是中世纪的中期,也是它的全盛时期;公元16-17世纪是中世纪的末期,是封建社会衰落瓦解和资本主义兴起的时期.中世纪的最初几个世纪是在混战的状况中.在日耳曼人建立的王国中,以六世纪法兰克王国最强大.公元8世纪末和九世纪初,法兰克国王查理曼大帝建立了强大的帝国.查理曼国王在1800年被教皇加冕,授予"罗马皇帝"之称.查理曼大帝应该说是中世纪早期最重要的人物了.从11世纪起,西方随着经济的迅速发展,国家君主国崛起,新的知识水平的出现,扩张主义盛行――首先是地方的十字军东侵,然后是向海外推进,在数世纪内导致全球性霸权.而东罗马帝国经过长久的挣扎之后,注定了1453年的灭亡.中世纪的封建土地所有制feudalism是欧洲各地区的主要的政治制度.封建制度是一种政体,在这一政体中,那些拥有地产的人也拥有政权,因此,封建主和封臣之间的契约代替了国家权利.大多数时间里掌握国家政权的是那些封臣们而不是国王.这些强有力的封建领主(vassals)在把他们的封地分成更小的封地(fiefs),分给他们的追随者们.当时最基本的经济组织是封建庄园(manor),农奴依附在庄园领主的土地上,被迫无偿为他们劳动.公元1054年,基督教教会分裂为罗马天主教(the Roman Catholic Church)和东正教(the Eastern Orthodox).罗马天主教将拉丁语作为正式语言.中世纪时期,几乎所有欧洲人都信奉罗马天主教.因此,中世纪也被成为"信仰时代"(Age of Faith).天主教会有严格的等级之分.教皇(Pope)享有绝对的权威,以下以此为大主教(Archbishop),主教(bishop),牧师(Priest)和天主教会现有成员,教会有严密的组织和纪律.隐修院制度产生于这一时期,并培养了大批的修道士,比如,将圣经全文译成英文的圣杰罗姆以及于公元529年创立本尼狄克法则的圣本尼狄克.基督教思想一个最重要的领袖人物是公元5世纪的奥古斯丁.他对基督教神学思想产生了深远的影响.《忏悔录》和《上帝之城》是他的两部不朽的著作.基督教在欧洲封建社会的政治生活中起着十分重要的作用.原来在罗马帝国时期为奴隶主统治服务的基督教到了中世纪自然地变做封建主统治的重要工具,成为封建制度的精神支柱.基督教世界排斥异己,并且好战成性.其中当属十字军东侵(the Crusades)最为著名.尤其是对圣地巴勒斯坦几次入侵.虽然最后以失败告终,但却促进了东西方文化的交流,为君主政体的形成准备了条件.在学术和科学方面,中世纪的欧洲知识为即将道来的西方新兴世界作一些铺垫.查理曼大帝(Charlemagne)和他的卡罗林复兴(Carolingian Renaissance),阿尔弗莱德大帝(Alfred the Great)和他的学术中心,还有意大利神学家阿奎那(St. Thomas Aquinas)的经验哲学(Scholasticism)和托马斯主义,英国哲学家,科学家培根(Roger Bacon)的实践的重要意义,无一不对文化的保存与发展做出了巨大的贡献.在文学创作方面,出现了长篇的史诗(Epic).日耳曼人的一支盎格鲁萨克逊人的史诗《贝欧伍尔夫》是流传至今的早期英雄史诗最完整的一部.而《罗兰之歌》则是法国史诗中最著名的. 中世纪还产生了两位伟大的诗人――但丁和乔叟.意大利著名诗人但丁的《神曲》是世界文学史上的划时代的作品,表达了即将到来的文艺复兴时期的人文主义思想.英国诗人乔叟被称为英国文学史上第一位短篇小说家和第一位现代诗人,他最著名的作品是坎特伯雷故事集. 中世纪的建筑与艺术主要是罗马式的和哥特式的,他们都是古典艺术的延伸.以上是对中世纪内容的综述,下面我们来解答一道问答题.1. What were the power and influence of the Roman Catholic church in the Medieval times (the Catholic Church ) 罗马天主教在中世纪的影响地位如何回答这个问题我们从以下几个方面:1) 罗马天主教从教皇到教士的严格的层级制度和组织.2) 罗马天主教在经济上和政治上的统治地位,宗教裁判所的作用.3) 人们对罗马天主教信仰度,也就是为什么中世纪被叫做"信仰时代".4) 罗马天主教在文化艺术上的影响地位.比如哥特式建筑,罗马式建筑等.5) 十字军东侵所造成的影响.接下来共同学习一下第四章,文艺复兴和宗教改革.这也是欧洲文化入门中相当重要的一个章节.第四章文艺复兴与宗教改革本章重点有:科学背景,意大利文艺复兴的背景,意大利文艺复兴的文学和文艺大师,16世纪宗教改革,宗教改革领袖,英西法德荷诸国的文学人物及作品.这个时期是欧洲封建社会逐渐解体,资本主义生产方式在封建社会母体内蕴育的时期,也是欧洲从中世纪封建社会向资本主义过渡的历史转折时期.从十四世纪开始,欧洲封建社会陆续出现了资本主义关系的萌芽;十五世纪末,随着新航路的开辟和地理大发现,世界市场形成了,这就进一步推动了资本主义的发展.但,这时新兴的资产阶级在政治上还是软弱的,因而他们的反封建的斗争主要表现在思想文化方面.这一时期资产阶级反封建的思想斗争主要采取了两种方式:宗教改革和文艺复兴.文艺复兴是从十四世纪到十七世纪初先在意大利产生,然后在欧洲其它许多国家相继发展起来的一次资产阶级性质的思想文化运动.它是资产阶级借助于古代文化以反对封建制度和宗教势力的一次斗争.这一时期,古希腊,罗马文化重新受到重视,当时新兴资产阶级的思想家们打着"回到希腊去"的旗号,声称要把久被淹没的古典文化"复兴"起来,"文艺复兴"由此而得名.而实际上,资产阶级的目的不是重建奴隶制旧文化,而是要摆脱封建思想的桎梏,建立适应资本主义生产关系的新的意识形态.人文主义是文艺复兴时期资产阶级反封建斗争的思想武器,也是这一时期资产阶级进步文学的中心思想.与天主教会的宗教世界观针锋相对的是,人文主义提出人是宇宙的中心,对"人"的肯定,成了资产阶级思想的核心.宗教改革是资产阶级在宗教外衣下进行的一次反封建斗争.天主教会是中世纪西欧封建制度的精神支柱,一切反动势力的总代表.宗教改革是从教会营垒内部进行的针锋相对的斗争,它始于1517年马丁路德(Martin Luther)在维登堡大学宣布的宗教改革纲领,并迅速遍及欧洲大陆.宗教改革者反对以罗马教皇为首的罗马天主教的绝对权威,主张对宗教教义,仪式和等级制度进行改革,并提出将《圣经》翻译成各国文字,以使平民可以不通过教会而直接与上帝进行交流.宗教改革运动的另一领袖加尔文(John Calvin)宣扬预定论,主张人生来就有原罪,只有极少数人可以成为上帝的选民.因此人们必须不断地辛勤工作,从而获得拯救.宗教改革动摇了中世纪以来罗马天主教的统治,解放了人们的思想.那以后,基督教分裂为旧教(the Roman Catholic)与新教(the Protestant).同时,宗教改革也是一次社会改革运动,它反对罗马天主教对各国政治,经济的干涉.这一主张适应了新兴资产阶级的要求.下面我们来看一下文艺复兴在各国文学艺术上的体现.首先我们来看意大利.作为文艺复兴的发源地,意大利率先在文学艺术上取得了很大成就.这一时期,文学方面的杰出代表卜加丘(Boccaccio)和彼特拉克(Petrarch).卜加丘(Boccaccio)的代表作《十日谈》(Decameron)在欧洲文学史上具有重要意义,他发展了中古短篇故事的传统,为意大利散文奠定了基础.彼特拉克在诗歌方面做出了巨大贡献.他擅长并写下了大量的十四行诗和抒情诗.十四行诗成为欧洲的重要诗体,彼特拉克被称为现代诗歌之父.在艺术方面,文艺复兴早期的意大利艺术家有乔托(Giotto),布鲁内莱斯基(Brunelleschi),多纳泰洛(Donatello)和乔尔乔内(Giorgione)等.乔托(Giotto)是意大利现实主义绘画传统的奠基人,他的名作是《逃往埃及》(Flight into Egypt).布鲁内莱斯基(Brunelleschi)是一位建筑师,他的代表作弗洛伦萨大教堂圆顶.多纳泰洛(Donatello)的雕塑达到了解剖学的精确,代表作有青铜铜像《大卫》(David)《加塔梅拉塔骑马像》(The Gattamelata Equestrian).画家乔尔乔内(Giorgione)的画结构平衡,色彩和谐.他的名作是《睡着的维纳斯女神》(Sleeping Venus)开创了西方绘画中历久不衰的一个题材:裸体躺卧着的女神像.意大利文艺复兴在16世纪达到全盛时期,文艺的中心从弗洛伦萨转移到米兰和罗马.全盛时期产生了四位巨匠,他们是达芬奇(da Vinci)米开朗基罗(Michelangelo)拉斐尔(Raphael)和提香(Titian).达芬奇的传世之作《最后的晚餐》(the Last Supper),《蒙娜丽莎》(Mona Lisa),雕塑家米开朗基罗的大理石造像《大卫》,《即将死去的奴隶》,拉斐尔的圣母画,提香则是最多产的画家,建立了在帆布上涂油彩的传统,被誉为现代画之父.在意大利文艺复兴的影响下,15世纪末,法国人文主义开始研究古希腊文化和哲学,出现了龙沙(Ronsard)拉伯雷(Rabelais),蒙田(Montaigne)等伟大作家.拉伯雷的长篇小说《巨人传》(Gargantua and Pantagruel)以龙沙为代表的七星诗社(Pleiade)为法国的语言发展做出了很大贡献.龙沙诗法国第一个近代抒情诗人,他对19世纪法国浪漫主义有着很大的影响.人文主义作家蒙田以他的《散文集》而闻名于世,他是近代欧洲散文体裁的创始人.西班牙人文主义发展较迟,直到16,17世纪之间,西班牙文学才进入"黄金时代".文艺复兴时期西班牙小说的最高成就是塞万提斯,他的代表作《唐吉珂德》宣告了骑士传奇的终结.《唐吉珂德》是流浪汉小说的典范之作,被誉为欧洲现代小说之父.北部领导荷兰尼德兰人文主义运动的人物是埃拉丝姆斯(Erasmus),他的《愚蠢颂》(The Praise of Folly)是部讽刺作品,揭露僧侣生活的虚伪.这一时期的画家是博鲁盖尔(Bruegel)以风景画著称,名作有《雪中猎人》(The Return of the Hunters).他的乡村风景画对后来的画家米勒(Millet)有很大影响.在德国,马丁路德是宗教改革的领袖,他用德国人民的语言翻译了《圣经》,使平民和农民能引用《圣经》的语言作为斗争的武器,对于德国语言的统一发生过作用,并奠定了德国文学语言的基础.在艺术方面,版画家丢勒(Durer)的木雕和荷尔拜因(Holbein)的肖像成就很高.英国文学是文艺复兴时期欧洲文学的顶峰.早在14世纪,英国就产生了人文主义作家杰弗利乔叟(Geoffery Chaucer),作为承上启下的人物,乔叟我们在中世纪文学中已经谈到.到16世纪后半期到17世纪初,英国在伊丽莎白一世在位时,人文主义文学发展到了繁荣时期.这一时期的文学巨匠不仅在英国文学中占有很重要的地位而且在世界文学中也举足轻重.他们是威廉莎士比亚,托马斯莫尔,弗兰西斯培根,埃德蒙斯宾赛.莫尔是早期人文主义作家,他的主要著作《乌托邦》描绘了一个理想社会.成为后来描写理想社会文学的开端,也是空想社会主义的最初著作之一.16世纪后期,英国文艺复兴运动达到高潮,人文主义文学空前发达.诗歌,小说,戏剧等都得到了很大发展.诗歌以斯宾赛的成就最高.他的代表作是长诗《仙后》.斯宾赛被成为"诗人的诗人".十六世纪文学中成就最大的是戏剧.而其中文学成就最高的是莎士比亚,他也代表了欧洲文艺复兴的最高成就.在他的作品中,资产阶级人文主义思想表述得最为充分,艺术性也最高.他的重要悲剧,戏剧和历史剧有《哈姆雷特》,《麦克白》,《奥赛罗》,《李尔王》,《威尼斯商人》,《第十二夜》,《皆大欢喜》,《罗米欧与朱丽叶》,《安东尼和克里奥帕特拉》,《亨利四世》,《亨利五世》等.他的诗歌成就也很高,这主要表现在他的《十四行诗》中.文艺复兴时期,科技也取得了重大进展.除了地理大发现以外,哥白尼发表了太阳中心说,并著有《天体运行论》,他被成为是西方现代天文学之父.安德勒斯维萨留斯(Andreas Vesalius)著有《论人体的结构》,他是西方现代解剖学的奠基人.此外还有在创办出版社的意大利学者和印刷商奥尔德斯马努蒂尔乌斯(Aldus Manutius),西方政治学之父马基雅维里及其著作《君主论》.总之,文艺复兴是欧洲从中世纪封建社会向近代资本主义转变时期的反封建,反教会神权的一场伟大的思想解放运动.在这一时期,欧洲哲学,文学,艺术,科学等各方面都取得了极大的成就. 以上是对第四章的综述,下面我们来解答一下论述题.。
《欧洲文化入门》外国百科知识梳理
欧洲文化入门第一章特洛伊战争：特洛伊战争是以争夺世上海伦（Helen）为起因，以阿伽门农（Agamemnon）及阿喀琉斯（Achilles）为首的希腊军进攻以帕里斯及赫克托尔为首的的十年攻城战。
然而根据《世界通史》的论述，特洛伊地处交通要道，商业发达，经济繁荣，人民生活富裕。
亚细亚各君主结成联军，推举阿伽门农为统帅。
他们对地中海沿岸最富有的地区早就垂涎三尺，一心想占为己有，于是以海伦为借口发动战争，这才是特洛伊战争的真正目的。
民主制城邦：指全民行使权利的城邦，但全民仅指成年男性公民，而且公民权也是从父辈那里世袭而来。
荷马：古希腊盲诗人。
相传记述了公元前12～前11世纪特洛伊战争，以及关于海上冒险故事的古希腊长篇叙事代表作——史诗《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》，即是他根据民间流传的短歌综合编写而成。
他生活的年代，当在公元前10～9、8世纪之间。
他的杰作《荷马史诗》，在很长时间里影响了西方的宗教、文化和伦理观。
伊利亚特：相传是由盲诗人荷马所作。
是重要的古希腊文学作品，也是整个西方的经典之一。
《伊利亚特》全诗共15,693行，分为24卷，主要内容是讲述了在阿伽门农的率领下，古希腊南部各城邦联合征战特洛伊的故事。
它通过对特洛伊战争的描写，歌颂英勇善战、维护集体利益、为集体建立功勋的英雄。
奥德赛：又译《奥德修纪》，是古希腊最重要的两部史诗之一《奥德赛》延续了《伊利亚特》的故事情节，相传为盲诗人荷马所作。
这部史诗是西方文学的奠基之作，是除《吉尔伽美什史诗》和《伊利亚特》外现存最古老的西方文学作品。
讲述了奥德修斯在特洛伊战争结束后返回家乡绮色佳岛的故事，书中讲述了奥德修斯在漫长的海上航行中的种种冒险经历，以及最终如何与忠实的妻子泊涅罗泊重新团聚的故事。
荷马史诗：《荷马史诗》相传是由古希腊盲诗人荷马创作的两部长篇史诗——《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》的统称，是他根据民间流传的短歌综合编写而成。
《荷马史诗》以扬抑格六音部写成，集古希腊口述文学之大成，是古希腊最伟大的作品，也是西方文学中最伟大的作品。
欧洲文化入门 第二章 考点 复习要点
I. General IntroductionIn European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages，also called Medieval times（476-1450）. It is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times.In the latter part of the fourth century the Huns（匈奴人） swept into Europe from central Asia, robbing and killing as they came along, and large-numbers of the half civilized Germanic tribes such as the Visigoths, the Franks, the Angles and Saxons, and the Vandals fled（逃避） their homelands in northern Europe and were pushed to cross the Danube river*（多瑙河） into the territory（领土） of the Roman Empire. In A. D. 476 a Germanic general killed the last Roman emperor（君主） and took control of the government. While the Eastern Roman Empire continued, the power of ancient Rome was gone. In its place mushroomed a great many Germanic kingdoms, which in a few hundred years were to grow into the nations known as England. France, Spain, Italy, and Germany. Between the fifth and eleventh centuries, western Europe was the scene of frequent wars and invasions（战争和侵略）. The political unity had given way to widespread destruction and confusion. Hunger and disease killed many lives; towns and villages fell into ruin and great areas of land lay waste.During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church. It continued to gain widespread power and influence- In the Late Middle Ages,almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church.It is also known as the medieval period（1000）, and as the Dark Ages（476-1000）. As during the Middle times there wasno central government to keep the order, and the Christian church shaped people ’ s ideas and lives by taking the lead in politics, law, art, and learning of Europe, it is also called “ Age of Faith .”Whatever names we may give to this span of time, this is a period in which classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged（传承、融合）. And it is this fusion and blending of different ideas and practices 'that paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.II . Manor and Church1. FeudalismFeudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word "feudalism" was derived from the Latin "feudum", a grant of land.a. Growth of FeudalismWhen the Western Roman Empire grew weak, people lived in constant danger of attacks from invaders and robbers. They had to find ways to protect their families and homes. Owners of small farms sought protection from large landowners, by giving them land and services; In return the large landowners promised to protect the landless peasants and their families. Besides, war had destroyed lots of towns, trade and business had declined, more and more townspeople fled to the countryside to seek protection from those powerful landowners. In this way, the large landowners came to own more and more and while the peas ants ended up giving the lords not only their land but their freedom as well. Most of them became serfs（农奴）, bound to the land where they had been born. Only very fewpeasants were freemen, they were usually the workers who made the ploughs, shod the horses, and made harnesses for oxen and horses.Then in 732 Charles Martel, a Prankish ruler gave his soldiers estates known as fiefs as a reward for their service. They, granted the right to govern large sections of land as fiefs to great lords. These lords known as vassals in turn promised to fight for the king. And they themselves further granted parts of their fiefs to lesser vassals. Thus, a complicated system of government developed. After 800, the kings in Europe were usually very weak. Without a strong central government the kingdoms of Western Europe were divided into thousands of feudal manors or farming communities, each as big as an ancient polis. Some nobles grew more powerful than the king, and became independent rulers. They had the right to collect taxes and to make their own laws. Many of them coined their own money and raised their own armies. Therefore feudalism was also a system of government a form of local and decentralized government.b. The ManorThe centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords. Some lords owned only one manor; others owned many. They lived in a manor house. The manor（庄园主的住宅） house originally consisted of one big room with a high ceiling and astraw-covered floor. There nobles（贵族） met with vassals（奴仆）, carried the laws and said their prayer. By the twelfth （第十二）century manor houses were made of stone and designed as fortresses（堡垒）. They came to be called castles（城堡）. Medieval Europe was dotted with castles. For instance in Germany alone [here were as many as 1 0 000 castles.Near the manor stood a small village of wood and dirt cottages with thatched roof. The village was surrounded by forests, meadows, pastures,and fields. Most village had a church, mill（作坊）, bread oven（烤炉）, and wine press. At the centre of the manor stood the church.c. Knighthood and Code of Chivalry（骑士！）Almost all nobles were knights in the Medieval days. But no one was born a knight ― knighthood had to be earned. The training was both long and hard. A noble began his education as a page at the age of seven. He was taught to say his prayers, learned good manners and ran errands for the ladies. At about fourteen, the page(学习骑士，接收训练期间做侍从，可以被训练为骑士) became a squire(地主，乡绅) or assistant to a knight （骑士） who became his master.学习骑士在十四岁的时候成为乡绅或者作为自己导师（也是骑士）的助手。
欧洲文化入门全译文辅导与核心考点精华pdf
欧洲文化入门全译文辅导与核心考点精华
如果你想了解欧洲文化，本文将为你提供全面的辅导和精华考点
内容。
首先，我们来认识一下欧洲文化的概述。
欧洲是一个千姿百态的
大陆，有丰富多彩的文化传统和独特的历史背景。
在欧洲文化中，古
希腊和罗马文化是最为重要的两个方面，这两种文化传统影响了整个
欧洲文化的发展。
此外，基督教和伊斯兰教的传播也对欧洲文化造成
了深远的影响，这些影响经过了数百年的融合和演变，逐渐形成了现
代欧洲文化的特点。
接下来，我们来了解一些欧洲文化的核心考点。
首先，语言是欧
洲文化中非常重要的一部分，欧洲地区有很多使用不同语言的国家，
而这些语言之间的联系非常紧密，其中有一些语言甚至是共通的。
其次，欧洲文学也是欧洲文化的重要组成部分，欧洲有许多知名的文学
作品和文学家，他们的作品在欧洲甚至全世界都有广泛的影响。
此外，欧洲文化中还包括了音乐、艺术、建筑、哲学等多个方面，这些方面
都有着欧洲独特的风格和传统。
最后，我们来了解一些欧洲文化入门全译文辅导的内容，这些内
容都是非常重要的考点。
首先，欧洲地理和历史背景是必须掌握的知识，这些知识可以帮助我们更好地理解欧洲文化的发展和演变。
其次，欧洲语言的学习也是非常重要的，这些语言包括英语、法语、德语、
意大利语等多种语言，学会其中一种语言可以帮助我们更好地理解欧
洲文化和进行交流。
此外，文学方面的知识也是必须掌握的，了解欧洲文学的名著和名家是非常重要的。
总的来说，欧洲文化入门全译文辅导是非常重要的，希望本文可以为你提供全面的指导和参考，帮助你更好地了解和掌握欧洲文化的精髓。
高三历史欧洲文化知识点
高三历史欧洲文化知识点欧洲文化是世界上最为璀璨多样的文化之一，广泛涵盖了艺术、哲学、科学、历史等多个领域。
对于高三历史学生来说，了解欧洲文化的知识点，不仅可以拓宽视野，提升学习兴趣，还能有效提高历史考试的分数。
本文将为你详细介绍高三历史欧洲文化的重要知识点。
1. 文艺复兴时期文艺复兴是欧洲历史上一次重要的文化运动，起源于15世纪的意大利，并逐渐传播至整个欧洲。
文艺复兴时期的文化特点是对古典文化的研究和追求，以及对艺术的重视。
知名画家达·芬奇和拉斐尔等人的杰作便是文艺复兴时期的典型代表。
2. 启蒙运动启蒙运动是欧洲18世纪以来一场寻求自由、理性和改革的思想运动。
该运动呼吁人们用理性思维来对待社会问题，同时强调教育和知识的重要性。
启蒙运动的代表人物有伏尔泰、卢梭以及康德等。
3. 工业革命工业革命是欧洲18世纪末19世纪初发生的一场以机械工业为中心的生产力迅速发展和社会变革的革命。
工业革命不仅彻底改变了欧洲社会的面貌，也对全球产生了深远的影响。
工业革命标志着现代工业文明的兴起，推动了科技、交通、通信等领域的快速发展。
4. 自然主义运动自然主义是19世纪末20世纪初欧洲文学艺术的一个重要流派，它追求真实和客观，试图以科学的方式描绘自然和社会的现象。
自然主义运动对文学、绘画和戏剧产生了深远的影响，知名作家如埃米尔·左拉和托尔斯泰都是自然主义的代表。
5. 第一次世界大战第一次世界大战是20世纪初爆发的一场全球规模的战争，欧洲各国深受其影响。
这场战争导致了众多士兵和平民的伤亡，同时也对欧洲的政治、经济和文化产生了重要影响。
第一次世界大战的爆发标志着旧有的国际秩序的瓦解，对整个欧洲产生了巨大的冲击。
6. 文化多样性欧洲是一个文化多样性极高的大洲，拥有丰富多样的民族、语言和文化。
从北欧的维京文化，到地中海地区的古希腊、古罗马文化，再到东欧的斯拉夫文化，每一个地区都有自己独特的艺术、音乐、建筑等文化表达形式。
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欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结1.希腊罗马Homer Author of epics Sappho Lyric poet三大悲剧家：Aeschylus Tragic dramatist Sophocles Tragic dramatist Euripides Tragic dramatist喜剧家：Aristophanes Comedy writer历史学家：Herodotus wrote about wars between Greeks and Persians Father of history Thucydides wrote about wars between Athens and Sparta and Athens and Syracuse the greatest historian that have ever lived哲学和科学：Pythagoras All things were numbers founder of scientific mathematics Heracleitue Fire is the primary element Democritus Materialist， one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory Socrates Dissect of oneself，virtue was high worth of life， dialectical method Plato Man have knowledge because of the existence of certain general ideasAristotle Direct observation，theory follow fact， idea and matter together made concrete individual realities Euclid a textbook of geometry Archimedes when a body is immersed in water its loss of weight is equal to the weight of the water displaced “Give me a place to stand and I‘ll move the World”Others Diogenes （the Cynics）Pyrrhon（the Sceptics） Epicurus （the Epicureans） Zeno（the Stoics）4th century B.C.后半叶希腊在Alexander， king of Macedon的领导下，5th century B.C.达到顶峰，146B.C.被罗马攻克2.基督教和圣经Jews—以前叫Hebrews，3800B.C.穿过中东沙漠，1300B.C.Moses带领Hebrews离开埃及，开始他们的Exodus，他在Sinai山定了ten commandments in the name of God，40年后Hebrews 定居Pelestine， known as Canaan，Hebrew人的历史口头传送记入the old Testament， 6th century B.C.，他们在Babylon形成synagogue（忧太集会）来发扬他们的教义。
Jesus Christ生活在第一个罗马帝国Augustus，Emperor Constantine 1于313年宣布基督教合法，Emperor Theodosius于392年宣布基督教为国教。
Hebrew人的历史口头传送记入the old Testament，旧约包含39本书，写了从1000B.C.——100A.D.的事情，最重要的前五本是Pentateuch，旧约主要由Hebrew写成，the New Testment主要是Greek的形式，包含14本书，最古老的Latin Bible叫Vulgate，在1382年被John Wycliff翻译成了英语，Greek Bible 叫Septuagint3.中世纪开始于476年西罗马帝国的衰败5-11世纪a period in which classical， Hebrew and Gothic heritage merged 1054，教堂分裂为the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church 反击Moslems，开始了Crusades Charles Martel给士兵们estates known as fiefs in 732 St. Thomas Aquinas（Scholasticism）写了 Summa Theologica，这本书sums up all the knowledge of medieval theology他认为feudal hierarchy（层次，等级） of society is God‘s rule The power of feudal rulers is God’s will Pope is Christ‘s Plenipotentiary Charlemagne and Alfred the Great encouragedlearning by setting up monastery schools. They copied various ancient books and translated the Latin works into the venacular Roger Bacon and Experimental Science one of the earliest advocates of scientific research， called for careful observation Dante（但丁）神曲 one of the landmarks of world literature Chaucer first modern poet in English literature4.文艺复兴与宗教改革14th and 17th Century Starting in Florence and Venice Boccaccio the greatest achievement of prose fiction in中世纪Petrarch Sonnet， father of modern poetry文艺复兴早期的艺术家：Giotto forerunner of renaissance Brunelleschi showed a systematic use of perspective Donatello one of the first artists engaged in anatomy Giorgione made happy use of colour schemes to unify his pictures意大利文艺复兴全盛时期的四位艺术家：Da Vinci Michelangelo Raphael Known for his Titian Oil color the most prolific of the great Venetian painters of Western WorldPre-Luther Religious Reformers John Wycliffe chief forerunner of the reformation， took up the translation of the Bible into English for the first time in 1382 Jan Hus Czech Religious leader John Calvin 基督教教义one of the most influential theological works Calvinism Rabelais 拉伯雷 french writer Ronsard Pleiade七星诗社代表人法国第一个近代抒情诗人Montaigne 蒙田散文集 French Writer Cervantes father of modern European novel spain Thomas More British writer Shakespeare 作品包括>点击下载>点击下载>点击下载>> crowned literature of England 代表欧洲文艺复兴的最高成就Copernicus The father of modern astronomy 现代天文学之父Vesalius marked the beginning of a new era in the study of anatomy （解剖学） founder of modern medicine Aldus Manutius foremost printer in Italy Machiavelli Father of political science Vosari 1492， Columbus发现了America 1487，Dias发现了the cape of good hope 1497，da Gama发现了the route to India round the Cape of Good Hope5. 17世纪Copernicus 天体运行论 Although he did not belong to the 17th century he was the forerunner of modern medicine Kepler Kepler‘s Law （the three laws of planetary motion）德国 the three laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton’s discovery of the laws of gravitation Galileo 意大利acceleration in dynamics， the law of inertia，the law of falling bodies动力加速度，惯性定律，落体定律Newton 英国Leibniz Distinguishes three levels of understanding： self-conscious（自我意识）conscious（意识）unconscious/subconscious （潜意识）他和牛顿都是caculus的创始人Milton Areopagitica，English revolution Bacon Knowledge is power 英国反对deductive method，创立了inductive method 认为哲学应该与神学分开Hobbes 利维坦 Materialist （knowledge come from experience） Social Contract 英国认为最好的统治方式是monarchy Locke 政治论Materialist views （ideas derived from sensation or from reflection） Social Contract英国在英国革命中有两个领袖，Cromwell 和John Milton Cromwell theman of action John Milton the man of thought 在英国文学史上ranks with Shakespear and Chaucer Descartes 笛卡尔Cartesian Doubt I think therefore I am 法国 it is generally believed that modern philosophy begins with Bacon in England and Descartes in France Corneille 高乃依熙得法国第一部古典主义悲剧，表现责任与爱情的冲突Racine the greatest tragic dramatist of French neoclassical theatre 表现情感和理性的冲突Moliere 达尔杜夫愤世嫉俗吝啬鬼the best representative dramatist of French Classical comedies很多科学器械在被发明：microscope，telescope， thermometer， barometer， pendulum 1689，the Bill of Rights建立了the Parliament 至高无上的权利法国最著名的建筑：Palace of Versailles Garden Front East Front of the Louvre 英国最著名建筑：St. Paul‘s Cathedral6.启蒙运动the age of reason 18th century intellectual movement starting from France the most important forerunners of the enlightenment were two 17th century Englishmen John Locke andIssac Newton.Locke‘s materialist theory and Newton’s theory of gravitationMajor force of the enlightenment is French Philosophes18世纪两大著名运动：The American War of Independence（1776）ended British colonial rule over the U.S.独立宣言The French Revolution （1789）ended the French Monarchy and the first French Republic was born in 1792人权宣言French Philosophy and Literature Montesquieu Separation of powers法国启蒙运动的先驱Voltaire most famous of his novels Rousseau one of the greatest figures of French enlightenment Diderot English Literature Pope spokesman in verse of the Age of Reason， translation of Homer， good at heroic couplet 擅长英雄双韵体Defoe one of the greatest fiction writer of the 18th century England 鲁滨逊漂流记Swift the foremost satirist in the English language and one of the satiric masters of all time Henry Fielding Father of the English novelSamuel Richardson The founder of English domestic novel Samuel Johnson editor of 18世纪英国文学最著名的期刊The Tatler 和The Spectator，Addison 和 Steele经常在上面写文章German Literature and Philosophy Lessing German dramastist German classicism Goethe Apprenticeship/Travels> the Greatest German Poets Schiller a founder of modern German literature Kant Waterhead of modern philosophy Propose the nebular hypothesis History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens> reason>The Musical Enlightenment J.S.Bach Christianity Major musicians of the musical Enlightenment Handel 亨德尔being his crowning masterpiece Bach and Handel showed the world Baroque musical architecture at its imposing best The Baroque period was followed by the Classical Period， roughly between 1750 and 1820 Haydn Classical period Viennese school Mozart Beethoven occupy a Pivotal position，leaning in much of his work towards the Romantic Movement in Music7. 浪漫主义 Romanticism late 18th and early 19th century starting from the ideas of Rouseau in France and from the Storm and Stress Movement in Germany The enlightenment brought about two revolutions and they caused Romanticism to rise：the French Revolution and the Industrial revolution New economic ideas were put forward by Adam Smith in his book ，which laid the theoretical groundwork for capitalism. Romanticism in Germany The Storm and Stress Movement prepared the way for European Romanticism Goethe combined Romanticism with Classicism It was Love and Intrigue that made Schiller the best dramatist for the Storm and Stress The Jena School：Schlegel Brothers，Novalis and Tieck Heine：海涅在1836年发表>，宣告浪漫主义在德国文学中的统治地位的结束Romanticism in England Blake：The Lakers：Wordsworth and Coleridge Byron： is considered his masterpiece the fact that the poet died for the Greek causes made him more respected his poem expressed an ardent love of liberty and a fiercehatred of tyranny Shelley noted for his lyrics Keats famous for his sonnets Walter Scott Romanticism in France Chateaubriand ：Victor Hugo：法国浪漫主义文学的最重要的作家。