语用学ppt课件

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3）Classification （Grice 1961）：
Implicature
Conventional implicature Conversational implicature
（规约含义）
(会话含义)
Generalized implicature （一般会话含义）
Particularized implicature （特殊会话含义）
B： some. In fact, he passed all of them.
？ When is it possible to cancel a SI?
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1) Topic: when the cancellation of implicature is an acceptable discouse move 2) Method: two experiments
---R- principle(Speaker based): the minimization of linguistic form （上限原则，推导下限含义）
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John has three children. (a) +> John has at least three children. (b) +> John has at most three children.
2）Definition ：
What is implicated Contextual meaning 指语言在使用时所产生与语境相关的附加意 义。（熊学亮 1997）
熊学亮. 含义分类标准评析.[J]. 外语教学与研 究.1997: 1-8
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3）Classification （Grice 1961,1975）：
Different words for
every meaning
---the force of diversification(hearer’s economy)
（ 多样化力量）
Horn’s Q-principle and R-principle
--- Q- principle(Hearer based): the maximization of informational content (下限原则，推导上限含义)
（转引 项成东 2006 ；Horn 1972）
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➢构成荷恩等级关系的常见等级词：
1）不定代词,如<al,l some>等; 2）数词,如<,three, two, one>等; 3）情态词,如<necessarily,possibly>, <mus,t should, may>等; 4）连接词,如<and, or>等;频度副词,如<always, often, sometimes>等; 5）程度形容词,如<ho,t warm >等; 6）动词,如<know, believe>, <love, like>或<start, finish>等
3) A typology of meaning
At- issue content Projective meaning Conversational implicature
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At-issue content
“ At-issue content (Potts, 2005) is the descriptive meaning contributed by an assertion, the one that can be directly denied by our interlocutor because it is truth-conditional”
➢ ---The oil has run out. ---Oh, there is a garage around the corner.
Generalized implicature: CP ; stereotypes
➢---What on earth has happened to the roast beef? ---The dog is looking happy.
.Βιβλιοθήκη Baidu
Levinson’s theory of conversational implicature
Q-principle : what isn’t said, isn’t.
(话语信息)
I-principle: what is expressed simply is stereotypically
exemplified. （常规关系）
M-principle: What is said in an abnormal way is not normal.
(有标记话语)
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(4)Not all of the students went to the party. +>Some of the students went to the party. (5)John smiled at the secretary. +>John smiled at the female secretary. (6)James caused the car to stop. +>James caused the car to stop in an abnormal way.
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可取消等级含义特征：S1+ connector + S2
1）连接词（connecter） 2）S1与S2皆具有等级词项，如不定代词，<all, some>等。 3）S2蕴含S1，S1为弱项表达，S2为强项表达
？
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John passed some of his exams. In fact, he passed all of them. John passed some of his exams. In fact, it’s amazing he passed all of them. A: How many exams did John pass？
Particularized implicature: context; against CP
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Neo-Gricean pragmatic theories of conversational implicature
Horn scales (何恩等级理论)
Horn’s Q-principle and R-principle（1984）
meaning what is said what is implicated
conventionally conversationally
generalized particularized
Huang Yan. Pragmatics [M]. Beijing: Foreign
Language Teaching And Research. 2009.
会话含义的可取消性： 语境取消与明确取消
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1) It is cold in here, but I don’t want you to close the door. 2) Bob ate some of the cake ( said when it was found that no cake was left on the table)
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Q-implicature I- implicature M-implicature
Q-implicature
Q-scalar Implicature（等级含义） Q-clausal implicature（小句含义） Q-alternate implicature
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Q-scalar implicature
Horn scales
typical generalized conversational implicature
Q-scalar：<x,y> y +> Q-scalar ~(negation)X
Eg: <identical, similar> The two impressionist paintings are similar. +> The two impressionist paintings are not identical.
A: Who has two car？ B: I have two cars. C: in fact, I have three cars
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Projective meaning
Projective meaning (Simons et al., 2010) it survives as an utterance implication even when the utterance occurs under the syntactic scope of an entailment-canceling operator. Projective meaning does not address the current Question Under Discussion (QUD)(Roberts, 1996), it comprises both presuppositions as well as CIs (which, unlike presuppositions, are not backgrounded and which convey a sidecomment by the speaker).
How to cancel (scalar) implicature?
陈慧珍 廖曦仪 白黎
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Contents
Introduction
Proposal Experiment & summary
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Implicature
1）Firstly put forward by H. P. Grice(1961,1975)
Huang Yan. Pragmatics [M]. Beijing: Foreign
Language Teaching And Research. 2009.
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Definition
狭义：等级含义是指人们通过使用构成荷恩等级(Horn scale)¹关系 的典型等级词项,借助于等级推理的方法而推导出来的含义。这种 等级推理就是强项蕴含弱项,弱项否定强项。 广义：等级含义则是指人们通过构建临时语境等级关系或某种临时 概念(ad hoc concept)为参照点,利用世界知识推导出来的含义。
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➢ P there for q --- He is Chinese; +>>therefore he know how to use
chopsticks
Conventional implicature: attached to particular lexical items or linguistic constructions
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Horn’s theory of conversational implicature
one word for more
Zipf---least effort(省力原则或经济原则)
meaning
---the force of unification(speaker’s economy)
（单一化力量）
项成东 等级含义的研究综述 [J]. 当代语言学. 2006(4): 334-344
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等级含义特征：
--可取消性(cancelability) --不可分离性(non-detachability) --可推导性 (calculability） --非规约性(non-conventionality)
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‘‘I think that all conversational implicatures are cancelable’’ ‘‘[. . .] a putative conversational implicature that p is explicitly cancelable if, to the form of words the utterance of which putatively implicates that p, it is admissible to add but not p, or I do not mean to imply that p, and it is contextually cancelable if one can find situations in which the utterance of the form of words would simply not carry the implicature’’ (Grice, 1989:44).
(mere instantiations of Zipfian economy 最低力原则)
Levinson
Q-principle I-principle M-principle
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Horn scales
➢ 公式：<S, W > (S指强项, W指弱项) ➢条件：
1)在一个任意的句子框架A内必须实现A(S)蕴含A(W); 2)S, W词汇性质相同; 3)S, W涉及的是相同的语义关系或来自相同的语义场。