胡壮麟语言学教程第二章专业术语解释
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胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformativefunction,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phaticcommunion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,thepresent),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,yingdown rules for language use.8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels ofare composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable theirusers to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at themoment of communication.12.phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.13.metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particularstudies.14.macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such aspsychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches ofmacrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,etpetence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16.performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18.parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).19.Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.20.Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations areinvolved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.21.Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.22.Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broadtranscription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.23.Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some placeto divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.24.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.25.Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When/t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/. 26.Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping ofthe air can be perceived.27.Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actualrelationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.28.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in thevocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.29.Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme fromanother.plementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the sameenvironment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.31.IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the InternationalPhonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.32.Suprasegmental:suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than singlesound segments.The principal supra-segmental features are syllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.33.morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,aunit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering themeaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.pound oly morphemic words w hich consist wholly of free morphemes,such asclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.35.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectionalaffixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.36.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).37.derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.38.root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.39.allomorph:any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme isbut it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ inclasses.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.40.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.41.bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is addedto,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.42.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.43.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)44.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided withsemantic interpretation.45.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articlesand pronouns.46.lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action andquality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.47.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.48.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining theinitial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.49.loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,insome cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.50.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fullyborrowed.51.leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.52.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavilymodified headword.53.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.54.back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting animagined affix from a long form already in the language.55.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is morespecifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.56.dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so thatthe sounds become less alike,or different.57.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation ofthe origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous58.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts ofspeech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.59.prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of thetruth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connectionbetween them.60.Proposition:what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do withreference.61.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.62.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of oneelement change to match those of another that precedes or follows.63.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a“recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistionelement”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.64.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding wordsprovide an appropriate context for it.65.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its morefrequent usage in language.66.inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone hassaid,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinarysense,e.g.in a specific context.67.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understandeach word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies theunderstanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde tomake friends,influence people,convey information and so on.71.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,wherea bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.72.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.73.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,eachgoverned by its own principles and operating independently of others.74.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionallye.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.75.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property ofpropositions that they have truth values.76.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguisticstructure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).77.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures representedin the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.78.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.79.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.80.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.82.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”83.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determinesthought.84.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.85.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about bynothing less than women’s place in society.86.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look atstructural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.87.sociolinguistics of society:one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understandsociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.88.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’socialstarts and phonological variations.89.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to aconstative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.90.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.91.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means ofsyntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.92.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’sintention.93.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequenceof,or the change brought about by the utterance.94.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandableto the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.95.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Maryis running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.96.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.。
胡壮麟语言学 重点名词解释
语言学重点名词解释refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.refers that there is no logical connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for(meaning and sounds).means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.system must be learned by each speaker.people what they should say and not say.in which languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time在那一刻、时、块的情况（当代、古代）历时in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time and treated historically.(在过程中都有什么变化、区别、有大时间变化)2个共时即为历时occur in the world’s languages.are sounds produced by obstructing the flow of air in the oral cavity。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》名词解释
LINGUISTICS A COURSE BOOKDefine the following terms:1. design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2. function: the use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions inclucle informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually, but not necessarily, the present),as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e. laying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of humanlanguage, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of humanlanguage, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary. level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of humanlanguage, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication. 13. phatic communion: one function of humanlanguage, which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguisticsigns or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting studybetween language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc.16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).20. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic processin which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually avowel or a voiced consonant) by vibratingthe vocal cords.23. Broad and narrow transcription: the use ofa simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24. Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26. Allophone: any of the different forms ofa phoneme(e.g. <th>is an allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated <t>.Both <th> and <t> are allophones of the phoneme /t/.27. Vowel: are sound segments produced without such obstruction, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28. Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29. Place of articulation: in the production of consonants, place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air.30. Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e. a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31. Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32. IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by theInternational Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergoing a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources, such as Roman small letters, italics uprighted, obsolete letters, Greek letters, diacritics, etc.33. Suprasegmental: suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal supra-segmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. 34. Suprasegmental: aspects of speech thatinvolve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. 35. morpheme: the smallest unit of language interms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound only morphemic words whichconsist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snow-white, etc. 37. inflection: the manifestation ofgrammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type offormative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). 39. derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph: any of the different form of amorpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/in cats, as /z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42 Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme: A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of a word(e.g. “dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system. 56. back-formation: an abnormal type ofword-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix froma long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as aresult of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called. “contact”or “contiguous” assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a wordor phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.60. category: parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.61. concord: also known as agreement, is therequirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item andothers in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holdingbetween elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: theanalysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: oneconstruction whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. 66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such as the relation between, the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object. 68. surface structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities, or of the more general features, in these two government relations, is technically called constituent command, c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis, or the starting point, of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication. 72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. 73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles, which include the communication roles created by language itself; and also for getting things done, by means of the interaction between one person and another.74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which itis used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part ofmeaning, which contains logical, cognitive, or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast withdenotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to expressa propostion, meaning the properties of theentity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of language to expressa proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair incomplementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely, such as male, female, absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kindare gradable, such as long: short, big;small, fat; thin, etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind ofantonymy in that members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition, such as buy; sell, lend, borrow, above, below, etc.85. relational opposites: converse antonymyin reciprocal social roles, kinship relations, and temporal and spatial relations. There are always two entities involved. One presupposes the other. The shorter, better; words .etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words, inwhich the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym).87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e. the class name. A superordinate usuallyhas several hyponyms. Under animal, for example, there are cats, dogs, pigs, etc.88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g. <+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction: semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take, e.g. regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition; what is talk about in an utterance, that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus, which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound, word, syntax, etc.)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent “recognition element”. When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal, all elements matching it are fully activated, and, as more of the signal is received, the system tries to match it independently with each of them, Wherever it fails the element is deactivated; this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriatecontext for it.97. frequency effect: describes theadditional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawnfrom a set of proposition, from something someone has said, and so on. It includes things that, while not following logically, are implied, in an ordinary sense, e.g. ina specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader issupposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception: language awareness of things through the physical senses, esp. sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research, which studies the understanding of language. 102. language production: a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on. 103. language production: a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on. 104. lexical ambiguity: ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: e.g. that of I saw a bat, where a bat might refer to an animal or, among others, stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition: general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular: which a assumes that the mind is structured into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing: the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents, traditionally e.g. to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions: whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement. It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure. Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics (being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind, and experimental psycholinguistics (being concerned somehow whth empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar, etc. as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker. Often opposed, in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars, to criteria of simplicity, elegance, and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized. 113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing development.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules, conventions, etc. governing the skilled use of language in a society. Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence, in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is “gender difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism: many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society; one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics, which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false. 123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of thecooperative principle.128. entailment: relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other: e.g. “Mary is running”entails, among other things, “Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance, or a proposition that it communicates, must, in the nature of communication, necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale, i.e. Make your contribution necessary (Gradation, Quantity2, Manner); Say no more than you must (given Q). 133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked creatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarked a(simpler, less “effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed). 134. constraints on Horn scales: the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to. 135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s representation of speech acts:a minimalist kind of presentation in whicha part of passage can be seen as a summeryof a longer piece of discourse, and therefore even more backgrounded than indirect speech representation would be. 141. narrator’s representation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts. For example, she considered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. For example, she thought that he would be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features. 144. narrator’s representation of thought acts: a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g. He spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. For example, she thought that he would be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features. 147. narrator’s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speeche.g. He spent the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same asthose used to represent a speech, e.g. He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard, printer, screen, disk drives, programs, etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied linguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programmed instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress, to direct students into appropriate lessons, material, etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom, lab, or building. They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information. Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom. 157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word, sequence of words. or perhaps even a part of speech in a text. The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word, usually in a context, which is a further aid to the linguist. It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so thatinformation on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text, whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text, whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately, applied to the type of activity discussed in this volume. An information retrieval system does not inform (i.e. change the knowledge of) the user on the subject of his inquiry. It merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships, between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies. It covers specifically a logical organization of information, such as document representatives, for the purpose of information retrieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, and other areas such as translation, the compiling of dictionaries, etc.166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes, the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use. 167. syllabus: the planning of course of instruction. It is a description of the course content, teaching procedures and。
胡壮麟语言学名词解释+英语国家概况名词解释+胡壮麟语言学学习笔记
胡壮麟语言学名词解释+英语国家概况名词解释+胡壮麟语言学学习笔记1.语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。
语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the uniqueproperties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussurec. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟语言学教程第二章专业术语解释
胡壮麟语言学教程第二章专业术语解释1.Phonetics语言学：It studies how speech sounds areproduced,transmitted,and perceived.研究语音的发生、传递和感知 2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生3.Acoustic phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征4.Perceptual or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知5.Phonology音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet7.Diacritics变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化8.Consonant辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出排出，一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦，这样发生的音叫辅音10. Coarticulation协同发音: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation andperseverative coarticulation当涉及到同时或重合的发音时，这类过程称为协同发音，它分为先期协同发音和后滞协同发音11. Broad and narrow transcription宽式转写与严式转写: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to asnarrow transcription.用简单的符号进行语音转写称为宽式转写，用复杂的符号进行转写称为严式转写 12.Phoneme音位: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.明显的语音对立单位13.Allophone音位变体:any of the different forms of a phoneme音位的变化形式(eg.感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。
(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案名词解释
Define the following terms:1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22．Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26．Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27．Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29．Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class ofthe stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational fu nction: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitutea positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives t he beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight. 101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.114. communica tive competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a g rammar. 115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in soc iety.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true orfalse.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134. constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141. narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,sheconsidered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144. narrator’s representation of thought acts:a k ind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147. narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167. syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168. interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171. rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.172. hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both frequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting the target,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.。
(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟语言学名词解释汇总
胡壮麟语言学名词解释汇总————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结Define the following terms:1. design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2. function: the use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions include imformative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s dis tinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic w hich originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually, but not necessarily, the present),as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnograph, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21 Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22．Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. 26．Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27．Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29．Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions. IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources, such as Roman small letters, italics uprighted, obsolete letters, Greek letters, diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental: suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34．Suprasegmental: aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.35. morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats, as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme: A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.50.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51.loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised. By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite propositions and the connectionbetween them.92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96 context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered. nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.nguage production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternativegrammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.munic ative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of know ledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism: many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonologica l variations.122.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. 124.locution ary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the s peaker’s intention.126.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案Define the following terms:1.design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2.function: the use of language to communicate, to think, etc. Language functions inclucle informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alo ne.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20． Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22． Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones ofthe phoneme/t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28． Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30． Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.theunderlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experi ence of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitutea positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.。
胡壮麟语言学名词解释
胡壮麟语言学名词解释集团标准化小组：[VVOPPT-JOPP28-JPPTL98-LOPPNN]C h a p t e r1:I n t r o d u c t i o n1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say).5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04)7. diachronic study:It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. parole?:Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence?: The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence:universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. competence有什么区别？？11. performance?: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language?: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features?: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium?: The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range are speech sounds)2. phonetics?: The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)3. articulatory phonetics?: It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.或者It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transimitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation?: The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation?: The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel?: a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong?: the individual vowel.18. diphthong?: The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.20. phoneme?: An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)或者The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone?: the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in different phonetic enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)22. phonology?: The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds form patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast?: two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution?: allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they’re collectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.Chapter 3: Morphology1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words andrules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it constantly.(08C)3. closed class: A group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members,including conjunctions ,prepositions ,pronouns.etc.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes thepart of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others.E.g. –ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.（07F）10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.(but never change their syntactic category).(08F)12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical categories as numuber,tense or pluarity. (04)15.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories.(In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP, PP, AP.)8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads and attached to the top levelare said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction (such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.)15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization. (07C)16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.(08F/09C)17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation?: a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion?: the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Inflposition to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion?: In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work. 24. deep structure?: A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads’s subcategorization properties.(08F)25. surface structure?: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresult from appropriate transformations. (05)26. Wh question?: In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement?:The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. moveα: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.补充29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.第十一章30.structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms eg.morphemesin a language.31.IC analysis: how small components in sentences go together to form larger constituents.32.paradigmatic relation: the substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms can be substitued for each other in the same positon.33.syntagmatic relation: the relation between any linguisticelements which aresimultaneously present in a structure.34.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking upsentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.35.endocentric construction: (向心结构或内心结构) One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching? equivalence, to one of its constituents. Thetypical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases. （03）36.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentricconstruction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning ofa word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world,but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense?: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference?: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic worldof experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.(08C)7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy?: The same word has more than one meaning.(it can be understood as the growth and development of or change in the meaning of the words).(05/03)10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate;and the more specific words are called its hyponyms;hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.( e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.)19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.(07F)或者 Entailment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate。
[语言学]胡壮麟版《语言学教程》名词解释
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胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表第一章phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dong theory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal cry theory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatory assimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单位Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relative uninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words 可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数词morpheme词素morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonological conditioned音位的限制morphological conditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes)calque仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(ICanalysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command forshort)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(ICanalysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统=derivational procedure推导系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程empiricism经验主义（洛克，白板说）rationalism 理性主义（笛卡尔）mentalism心灵主义new empiricism新经验主义(Bloomfield)priori先天综合判断（康德Kant）Cartesian linguistics笛卡尔语言学派Syntactic structure (SS)早期转换句法时期Standard theory (ST)标准理论时期Extended Standard theory (EST)扩展的标准理论Revised Standard theory(REST)扩展的休正标准理论The theory of government and binding(GB theory)管辖和约束理论时期（管约论）Minimalist program (MP)最简方案时期Structural description结构描写式Performance system应用系统Modular theory模块理论Spell-out拼写Language faculty语言机制/官能Mental organ心智器官Knowledge of language 语言知识Meaning potential 意义潜势Context culture 文化语境Field语场Tenor语旨Mode语式pivot words轴心词mental construct心理构念theoretical cognitive psychology理论认知心理学psychological faculty心理官能autosyn/autogram/autoknow语法自主(arbitrariness任意性,systemacity系统性, self-containedness自足性)typological functionalism类型学功能主义extreme functionalism极端的功能主义external functionalism外部功能主义integrative functionalism一体化功能注主义exceptional case marking例外格标记specifier标定成分fall-category maximal projection全语类的最大投射two-segment category两节语类complement domain补足语区域minimal domain最小区域internal domain内部区域checking domain检验区域sisterhood姐妹关系minimizing chain link最小语链联结representational system表达系统strict cyclic principle严格的层级条件structure-preserving principle结构保存原则C-commanding condition成分统领条件articulatory-perceptual system发音-听音系统conceptual-intentional system概念-意旨系统interface conditions中介条件full-interpretation完全解释原则procrastination逻辑形式操作优先原则greed句法操作自利原则the shortest linkage principle最短联接原则the shortest movement principle最短移位原则primarycomplement/modifier(referential NP)一级补语位/修饰语位(定指名词短语)secondary complement(non- referentialNP) 二级补语位(非定指名词短语)empty category principle空范畴原则aspect checking特征验证aspect feature基本体貌特征ASPP is functional projection .ASPP是功能投射.crossing branch交叉分支across the board extraction抽取跨界移动principles-and-parameters framework原则与参数语法head parameter中心语参数logical form(LF)逻辑形式phonetic form(PF)语音形式spell-out拼读phonological component音韵部分overt component显性部分covert component隐性部分core computation核心运算asymmetric c-command不对称成分统制linear correspondence axiom线形对应定理adjunction加接determiner限定词concatenate联结linearization线性化functional parameterization hypothesis功能参数设定假设right-branching右向分支X’(V,N,A,P)词项X’’=XP=Xmax是X的二阶投射结构Y’’=指示语specifierZ’’=补述语complementIP=屈折短语inflection phraseXP=general phrase structureC HL人类语言的运算系统=computational system for humanlanguageLCA线性对应定理=linearcorrespondence axiomXmin=X0=最小投射。
(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结
胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结Define the following terms:1. design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2. function: the use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions include imformative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contras t with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually, but not necessarily, the present),as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnograph, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc16. competence: language us er’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21 Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22．Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. 26．Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27．Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29．Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions. IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources, such as Roman small letters, italics uprighted, obsolete letters, Greek letters, diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental: suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34．Suprasegmental: aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.35. morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats, as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e.g. the pl ural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme: A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.50.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51.loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised. By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite propositions and the connectionbetween them.92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all element s matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96 context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense, a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered. nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.nguage production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally pupils learning lat in grammar.108.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternativegrammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the res tricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, determines thought. 117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis, no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism: many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonologica l variations.122.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. 124.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the s peaker’s intention.126.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案Define the following terms:1.design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality,creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2.function: the use of language to communicate, to think, etc. Language functions inclucle informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20． Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverativecoarticulation.22． Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28． Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30． Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the i nner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.。
胡壮麟语言学名词解释
第一章介绍Applied linguistics运用语言学： findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of suchpractical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known asapplied linguistics.Descriptive描绘性的： if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive规定性的： if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“ correct and standard in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what the should not say, it is said to beprescriptive.Synchronic共时的： the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.synchronic study共时研究 : The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features ofthe English used in Shakespeare’ s time is a synchronic study.Diachronic历时的： the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Diachronic study历时研究 : The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study oflanguage is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’ s time is a diachronic study. Langue 语言： refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Langue is abstract.Parole 语言： refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Parole is concrete.Competence ： (N. Chomsky) defines as the ideal user’ s knowledge of the rules ofe. his languag Performance ： defines as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Design features?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. 设计特色是指界定性质的人类差别于其余动物的社交系统。
胡壮麟语言学第2章笔记
语音学发音~；声学~；听觉~[国际音标IPA]一套用来描写语言中的发音的符号系统●第一套IPA的主要准则如下，这些准则一直延用至今：每一个独立的音都有一个独立的字母相对应，相同的符号出现在任何的语言都表示相同的发音字母尽可能采用罗马字母，新字母和附加符号只有在绝对需要的时候才使用●IPA有一套附加符号来标注同音变体之间的细微变化●IPA被修正和修改了几次，现已广泛运用于世界各地的字典和课本中●现在的国际音标系统主要来自于英国语言学家Daniel Jones和他的同事在20世纪20年代创造的系统[严式标音]使用复杂的符号来精确表示语音，包括其中所有可能的细小变化[宽式标音]用一套简单的符号表示语音[标准发音RP]一种在英语教学中最常用的典范发音，很多人称之为BBC英语或牛津英语起源于英格兰的东南部，在整个英格兰，被中上层或上层阶级使用，同时又广泛应用于私立教育系统中大部分BBC的新闻广播员说这种英语[音段]在语言的语音系统中，任何可以从物理或听觉方面定义的最小的可分离单位above中有五个单词，但只有四个音段{辅音& 元音（区别）}●音段分为辅音和元音[辅音]发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻挡[元音] 发音时，气流在声道不受阻碍，没有气流的紊乱或停滞●[j]和[w]两音具有元音的发音特征，却承担辅音的功能，因此一般被称为半元音或半辅音[辅音]发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻挡，由此产生辅音●分类标准：发音方法——塞音、擦音、通音、边音、颤音、触音等发音部位——双唇音、唇齿音、齿音、齿龈音、颚龈音、卷舌音、颚音、软腭音、小舌音、咽音、声门音●具有相同的发音部位和发音方法的两个辅音构成辅音对；成对的辅音以清浊区分●描写辅音时一般要用到三个特征：发音部位—清浊—发音方法[元音]发音时气流在声道内不受阻的音{描写基本要求}●舌头抬起的高度（高中低）●舌头最高部分的位置（前央后）●发音的长度或强度（紧、松或长、短）●唇的圆展（圆唇——闭、半闭、半开、开，非圆唇）[基本元音]一套被任意定义的固定而无变化的元音，为语言的实际元音的描写提供参照其中有8个主要基本元音，8个次要基本元音；它们成对出现，并且都是单元音[纯元音/ 单元音] 发音过程中性质恒定的元音[元音音渡] 发音过程中性质有听觉上的变化的元音；有双元音、三重元音两种[协同发音]实际话语过程中，语音持续受邻音影响，发生同时或重合发音的过程[逆化~] 语音的改变接近于后面的音lamb[重复性~] 发音显示出前面语音的影响map音系学{音位分析}{语音学& 音系学（区别）}语音研究被分为两种不同但又有联系的学科：语音学、音系学两者有相当的重合部分，要想在两者之间划出界限是困难的语音学——研究语音如何制造、传递、接受研究人类器官可能发出的所有语音关心发音或感知方面的东西，注重区别发音时的不同音系学——研究语言的语音系统涉及人类语言中语音的语言学模式，以发现语音的组成规则，并解释发生的变化研究说话人为表达意义而系统地选择语音的方法关心不同的语音模式和形成变体的规则[音位]通过“最小对立体”测试法区别出来的、具有区别对立功能的语音，是“外在的语音对立单位”[最小对立体]具有类似的语音序列，且只有一个对应位置上语音不同的一对或一组单词[“最小对立体”测试法]取一个词，用另外的一个音代替其中的一个音，看是否会产生不同的意义可用以区分某种语言中能够导致词义变化的语音替代[音位变体]在不同位置的音位的变体现象同一个音位的不同变异形式，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表{将不同的音判属同一音位的限制条件}语音相近、互补分布（从不出现在相同的环境中）[自由音位变体]可能来自方言、词曲差异、习惯、个人喜好，与分布规律无关[音素]从语音的自然属性角度划分出来的最小语音单位[p=，p h][音系过程]“目标”或说“受影响的音段”在特定的环境和语境中发生了结构上的变化包括三方面：1）有一套语音来产生音系过程2）有一套经历了音系过程的语音3）音系过程得以发生的条件[同化]一个音具有了邻音的一部分或全部特征这一过程鼻化、齿化、腭化常被当作协同发音的同义词使用[逆同化] 后面的音影响前面的音lamb[顺同化]反之map同化可以越过音节和词的界限发生pan cake you can keep them[区别特征]将一个语言单位和另一个语言单位区别开来的特征广泛运用于音位学，其中的“音位”便可以依据区别性特征来下定义[二分特征]按照两个相互排斥的可能性将语言单位进行分类的特征●可以归入两个范畴：一个有这个特征，另一个没有这个特征●有两个值或两种规格，分别记做“+”和“-”[音节][超音段特征]语音的这些方面涉及了比单个音段更多的东西，主要概念有：音节、重音、声调、语调[结构]一般由三个部分组成：节首、核心、韵尾；其中核心是必须部分[开音节] 没有韵尾的音节[闭音节] 有韵尾的音节●音节划分要遵守[最大节首原则]●当选择如何划归辅音时，应将辅音归入节首，而不是韵尾[重音]音节发音时所用的力度●是个相对的概念：它和非重音之间的一个基本区别是：它在响度、长度、音高上是提升的，比后者更为突出显著●在词一级，只适用于至少有两个音节的词；在句一级，一个单音节的词也可以说相对于句子中的其他词是加重的●原则上，重音可以放在任何音节处，它们随历史发展而变化，也表现出地区或方言性差异●有时重音会因一个词的不同语法功能而被放在不同音节上。
(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
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2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生
phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征
or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知
音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems
of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统
6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet
变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化
辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法
9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出
排出，一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦，这样发生的音叫辅音
10. Coarticulation协同发音: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are
involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation
当涉及到同时或重合的发音时，这类过程称为协同发音，它分为先期
协同发音和后滞协同发音
11. Broad and narrow transcription宽式转写与严式转写: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is
referred to as narrow transcription.用简单的符号进行语音转写
称为宽式转写，用复杂的符号进行转写称为严式转写
音位: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.明显的语音对立单位
音位变体:any of the different forms of a phoneme音位的变化形式(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of
the phoneme/t/.
of articulation发音方式： in the production of
consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.完成发音过程的方法
of articulation发音部位: in the production of
consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal
tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.辅音的发音部位
features区别特征: a term of phonology, property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.用来区分音位的音系学术语
distribution互补分布: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.两个音位变体不出现在相同环境中，它们处于互补分布状态
features超音段特征:suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound principal supra-segmental features
aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.语言问题中涉及超出单音音段以上的方面，主要有音节、重音、声调和语调。