Chapter 2语言学第二章

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

2.1 Speech production and perception

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:

1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds

2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in

speech

3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech sounds

Most phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.

2.2 Speech organs

Speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.

2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription

2.3.1 Segments and divergences

As there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.

2.3.2 Phonetic transcription

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International

Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are

taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.

2.4 Consonants

2.4.1 Consonants and vowels

A consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some

places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.

A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the

air can be perceived.

2.4.2 Consonants

The categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:

1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the

air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);

2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction

of the air (place of articulation).

2.4.3 Manners of articulation

1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream

from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,

[☐ ♌ ♦ ♎  ♑] are stops and [❍ ⏹ ☠]

are nasal stops.

2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from

the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the two

articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not

closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,

[♐   ❆ ♦  ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.

3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to

another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a

turbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes

[♦ ❑ ].

4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially

blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it

escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.

Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.

2.4.4 Places of articulation

1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.

2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper

front teeth.

3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the

upper front teeth.

4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the

alveolar ridge.

5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back

of the alveolar ridge.

6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled

back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the

back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.

7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the

hard palate.

8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft

palate.

9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the

uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of

the velum.

10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the

walls of the pharynx.

11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds

pushed towards each other.

2.4.5 The consonants of English